View source for Hauberk

{{Short description|Thigh-length sleeved mail shirt}}
[[File:Italian - Mail - Walters 51575.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Italian hauberk from the late 15th century]]
A '''hauberk''' or '''byrnie''' is a [[Chain mail|mail]] shirt. The term is usually used to describe a shirt reaching at least to mid-thigh and including sleeves.<ref name="DeVries 2012">{{Cite book |last=DeVries |first=Kelly |author-link=Kelly DeVries |title=Medieval Military Technology |date=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |others=Kay Douglas Smith |isbn=978-1-4426-0497-1 |edition=2nd |location=North York, Ontario |page=64 |oclc=782101074}}</ref> A '''haubergeon''' ("little hauberk") refers to a smaller mail shirt,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hewitt |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYEPAAAAYAAJ |title=Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe from the Iron Period of the Northern Nations to the End of the Thirteenth Century |date=1855 |publisher=John Henry and James Parker |pages=239 |language=en}}</ref> that was sometimes sleeveless,<ref name="Strutt 1842" /> but the terms are occasionally used interchangeably.<ref name="Strutt 1842">{{Cite book |last=Strutt |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Strutt (engraver and antiquary) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dn4xAQAAMAAJ |title=A Complete View of the Dress and Habits of the People of England: From the Establishment of the Saxons in Britain to the Present Time |date=1842 |publisher=Henry G. Bohn, York Street, Covent Garden |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref> Mail armor, likely invented by the [[Celts]], became widely adopted for its flexibility and spread throughout Europe and Asia, becoming a staple in [[Roman legion|Roman legions]] and [[medieval warfare]]. By the 11th century, the hauberk evolved into a knee-length, sleeved mail shirt, as depicted in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] and it remained in use in Europe until the [[Renaissance]] despite the rise of [[Plate armour|plate armor]].

== Etymology ==
The word ''hauberk'' ({{Circa|1300}}) comes from the [[Old French]] word ''[[wiktionary:hauberc|hauberc]]'', meaning "coat of mail", which originally derived from the earlier [[Frankish language|Frankish]] or similar [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] word ''[[wiktionary:halsberg|halsberg]]'', literally translating to "neck protector". This word breaks down into two parts: ''[[wiktionary:Hals|hals]]'', meaning "neck", which has counterparts in various languages like [[Old English]], [[Old Norse]], and [[Old High German]], and ''[[wiktionary:bergan|bergan]]'', meaning "to cover or protect". The root of ''bergan'' comes from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) root ''bhergh-'' meaning "to hide or protect". Meanwhile, the word ''hals'' traces its origin to the PIE root ''kwel-'', meaning "to revolve or move around".<ref>{{cite web |title=hauberk |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=hauberk&searchmode=none |access-date=2021-01-15 |website=[[Etymonline]]}}</ref>

The term ''byrnie'' comes from the Old English word ''[[wiktionary:byrne|byrne]]'', which is connected to the Old Norse ''[[wiktionary:brynja|brynja]]'' and the [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''[[wiktionary:𐌱𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌾𐍉|brunjō]]'', all referring to a coat of mail. Similarly, in Old High German, the word ''brunnia'' carries the same meaning. It is also related to the [[Old Irish]] word ''[[wiktionary:bruinne|bruinne]]'', meaning "breast".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of 'byrnie' |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/byrnie |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=[[Collins English Dictionary|Collins Online Dictionary]]}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Biblical references ===
[[File:Morgan Bible 28r detail.jpg|thumb|[[David]] removing a hauberk, from the 13th-century [[Morgan Bible]]]]In the [[Hebrew Bible]] the shiryon, translated "habergeon" or a "coat of mail," is mentioned as part of the armor of [[Nehemiah]]'s workers,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Nehemiah|4:16|KJV}}</ref> and one of the pieces of armor supplied by [[Uzziah|King Uzziah]] to his soldiers.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Chronicles|26:14|KJV}}</ref> [[Goliath]] was also armed with a "coat of mail", weighing five thousand shekels ({{convert|55|kg|abbr=on}}),<ref>Tenney, Merril ed., ''The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible'', vol. 5, "Weights and Measures," Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1976.</ref> as he confronted [[David]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Samuel|17:5|KJV}}</ref>

=== Invention and spread of mail armor ===
[[Mail armor]], consisting of interwoven metal rings, is credited by some, including [[Varro]], as having been invented by the [[Celts]]. Archaeological evidence supports this, with notable finds like the [[Ciumești]] Celtic grave, containing a mail hauberk made of butted rings. This type of body armor was widely adopted due to its flexibility and ease of movement compared to other armor types. The Celts are said to have used mail armor, though it was expensive and likely limited to the wealthier members of society, such as chieftains and officers. The armor spread throughout Europe and Asia, becoming a popular form of protection, particularly among the [[Roman legion|Roman legions]].<ref name="Plessis 2022">{{Cite book |last=Plessis |first=Jean Charl Du |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_1gEAAAQBAJ |title=The Seleucid Army of Antiochus the Great: Weapons, Armour and Tactics |date=2022-04-06 |publisher=Pen and Sword Military |isbn=978-1-3990-9180-0 |language=en |chapter=Celtic Armour}}</ref>

=== Development of the hauberk ===
The will of [[Eberhard of Friuli]], an important figure of the [[Carolingian Empire]], includes the term "helmum cum hasbergha", likely referring to a helmet with a neck protector. While "hasbergha" later came to mean a shirt of mail, in the 9th century it likely referred to a neck guard, as suggested by its etymology and historical finds like the [[Spangenhelm]] and [[Anglo-Saxon helmet|Anglo-Saxon helmets]] with [[Aventail|mail curtains]] for neck protection.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvarez |first=Sandra |title=Carolingian Arms and Armor in the Ninth Century |url=https://deremilitari.org/2014/02/carolingian-arms-and-armor-in-the-ninth-century/ |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=De Re Militari |language=en-US}}</ref> Initially made from leather to protect the neck and throat, it gradually evolved into more comprehensive armor, incorporating mail and extending to cover the head, neck, and shoulders.<ref name="Oman 1937" />

By the 10th century, the hauberk was common among well-armored warriors, often paired with a helmet. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the hauberk merged with the mail shirt, forming a single protective garment that reached the knees, offering better defense against weapons.<ref name="Oman 1937">{{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KQOAQAAIAAJ |title=A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century |date=1937 |publisher=[[E. P. Dutton]] |isbn=978-0-598-49757-4 |pages=126–128 |language=en}}</ref> Such armor was quite expensive due to the cost of materials, such as iron wire, and the time and skill required for its manufacture. As a result, common foot soldiers were rarely equipped with it. By the mid-12th century, hauberks had expanded to include longer sleeves and more protection for the legs.<ref name="Smith 1992">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Raymond |title=The Art of the Sword in the Middle Ages |publisher=Catholic University of America |year=1992 |pages=40, 42, 52}}</ref>

=== Depictions in the Bayeux Tapestry ===
[[File:Bayeux Tapestry Scene 52 (infantry and cavalry styles).png|thumb|Scene from [[Bayeux Tapestry]] showing infantry fighting horsemen, with both sides wearing hauberks.|250x250px]]

The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts [[Normans|Norman]] soldiers, both cavalry and infantry, wearing a knee-length version of the hauberk, with three-quarter length sleeves and a split from hem to crotch to allow for easier movement, especially while riding, which evolved from the Carolingian byrnie.<ref name="DeVries 2012" /> Hauberks were likely worn over heavy padded undergarments called a [[gambeson]], which helped prevent bruising from weapon blows.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hauberk: The Heavy-Duty Part of the Knight's Armor |url=https://www.medieval-spell.com/Hauberk-Armor.html |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Medieval Spell}}</ref> While some figures are shown with additional protection for their forearms and colored bands around the sleeves, most soldiers lack arm and leg armor, though leaders like [[William the Conqueror]] wore mail leggings called [[chausses]]. Several Norman horsemen, including William, are depicted with colored rectangles on the breast of their hauberks.<ref name="DeVries 2012" />

In the 11th century, [[men-at-arms]] likely did not wear full mail trousers, but the hauberk appears to have incorporated cloth or leather inserts that offered comparable protection. Additionally, it included a mail hood that covered the head, neck, and throat, leaving an opening for the face similar to a modern [[Balaclava (clothing)|balaclava]]. Beneath this hood, padding made from cloth or leather was used for extra comfort and protection, while a pointed iron helmet with a nose-guarding bar, called a nasal, was worn over it. A Norman knight's defensive gear included a large, kite-shaped shield that stood almost two-thirds as tall as its bearer. Its considerable size reflected the partial protection provided by the hauberk.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-15 |title=Military technology - Personal Armour, Protection, Combat |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/military-technology/Personal-armour#ref521953 |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=[[Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Surviving examples and later use ===
A hauberk stored in the [[Prague Cathedral]] and dating from the 12th century is one of the earliest surviving examples from Central Europe, and was supposedly owned by [[Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia|Saint Wenceslaus]]. In Europe, use of mail hauberks continued up through the 14th century, when [[Plate armour|plate armor]] began to supplant it. Some knights continued to wear chain hauberks, however, underneath plate armor.<ref name="Smith 1992" /> It remained in usage until the [[Renaissance]].<ref name="Plessis 2022" /> In parts of Central Asia, it continued to be used for a longer time.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

== Construction ==
[[File:Chainmail hauberk detail G PO 2749 Invalides 1.jpg|thumb|Detail of hauberk made in [[Nuremberg]], Germany, {{Circa|1350}}]]
Hauberks were typically constructed from interlocking metal loops forming a mail shirt.<ref name="DeVries 2012" /> The rings were riveted together piece by piece, forming a complete tissue of iron, and were called ''grains d'orge'' due to their resemblance to barley grains.<ref name="Demmin 1894" /> The sleeves sometimes only went to the elbow, but often were full arm length, with some covering the hands with a supple glove leather face on the palm of the hand, or even full mail gloves. It was usually thigh or knee length, with a split in the front and back to the groin so the wearer could ride a horse. It sometimes incorporated a hood, or [[Mail Coif|coif]]. Per historian [[Kelly DeVries]] "the hauberk was probably worn over, but not attached to, a heavy, quilted undergarment, the haubergeon."<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeVries |first=Kelly |author-link=Kelly DeVries |title=Medieval Military Technology |date=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |others=Kay Douglas Smith |isbn=978-1-4426-0497-1 |edition=2nd |location=North York, Ontario |page=64 |oclc=782101074}}</ref>

Early versions of the hauberk existed in various forms, such as the ringed hauberk where metal rings were sewn onto leather or padded material. Other types included the "rustred" hauberk with overlapping rings, the "macled" coat made of metal plates, and the trellised coat reinforced with nail-heads. A larger, more complex version, the [[jazerant]] or "korazin", featured overlapping metal plates in an imbricated fashion. Eventually, mail hauberks, made entirely of interlocking iron rings, became common. These hauberks were crafted in either single or double mail, where each ring connected to four others.<ref name="Demmin 1894">{{Cite book |last=Demmin |first=Auguste |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ |title=An Illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time |date=1894 |publisher=[[George Bell (publisher)|George Bell]] |pages=309–310 |language=en}}</ref>

While lighter than plate armor, a hauberk could be quite heavy. [[William of Poitiers]], the author of the ''[[Gesta Guillelmi|Gesta Guillemi]]'', praises [[William the Conqueror]]'s strength by describing that "he carried on his own shoulders both his own hauberk and that of one of his own followers, [[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford|William FitzOsbern]], renowned for his bodily strength and courage, whom he had relieved of this iron burden."<ref>{{cite book |last=DeVries |first=Kelly |author-link=Kelly DeVries |title=Medieval Warfare: A Reader |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |others=[[Michael Livingston]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4426-3670-5 |pages=154 |oclc=1090427215}}</ref>

== In literature ==
[[File:King Arthur, frontispiece from Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[King Arthur]] wearing a hauberk; frontispiece from ''[[Idylls of the King]]'' by [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]].]]

In the Old English epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'', the poet draws attention to the protective armour worn by both [[Wiglaf]] and [[Beowulf (hero)|Beowulf]] at key moments. When Wiglaf enters [[The dragon (Beowulf)|the dragon]]'s lair, the description centres on his byrnie. Similarly, when Beowulf sinks into [[Grendel]]'s lair, the poet again notes his coat of mail, presenting armour as a central feature of their heroic encounters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=George |date=1965 |title=Beowulf's Armor |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2872250 |journal=ELH |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=409–441 |doi=10.2307/2872250 |jstor=2872250 |issn=0013-8304|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This French epic poem the ''[[Song of Roland]]'' describes the [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]] and includes detailed descriptions of knights' armaments. The hauberk is frequently mentioned as part of the warriors' gear: "For with my own eyes I saw four hundred thousand armed men, clad in their hauberks and many of them with closed helmets, girded with swords whose pommels were of chased gold, who accompanied him as far as the sea."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crosland |first=Jessie Raven |url=https://archive.org/details/thesongofrolandjessiecrosland |title=The Song of Roland: Newly Translated Into English by Jessie Crosland |date=1924 |publisher=Chatto and Windus |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/thesongofrolandjessiecrosland/page/25/mode/1up 25]}}</ref>

[[Chaucer]] refers to both hauberks and haubergeons in ''[[The Canterbury Tales]],<ref name="Harris" />'' in ''[[The Knight's Tale]]'' he describes: "Gold-hewen helmes, hauberkes, cote-armures".<ref name="Harris">{{Cite web |last=Harris |first=Karen |title=References to Clothing and Armor in The Canterbury Tales |url=http://www.larsdatter.com/chaucer.htm |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Medieval & Renaissance Material Culture |language=en}}</ref>

In this classic [[Arthurian]] text, ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur|Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' by [[Sir Thomas Malory]], knights wear hauberks when they go into battle: "Balyn hyt hym thorugh the sheld / and the hauberk perysshed".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malory |first=Thomas |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cme/MaloryWks2/1:4.5?rgn=div2;view=fulltext |title=Le Morte Darthur / by Syr Thomas Malory; the original edition of William Caxton now reprinted and edited with an introduction and glossary by H. Oskar Sommer; with an essay on Malory's prose style by Andrew Lang |date=1889 |pages=82}}</ref>

In [[William Morris]]' ''[[The House of the Wolfings]]'', Thiodolf, a formidable warrior with divine lineage, rises to defend his people against a Roman invasion. His [[valkyrie]] lover presents him with a dwarf-forged, enchanted hauberk for protection. However, Thiodolf soon learns that the armor weakens his leadership and causes him to falter in battle. Realizing its detrimental effect, he abandons the hauberk, choosing to sacrifice his life to save his people. In the end, his people rally to a crushing victory over the Roman forces, ensuring the preservation of their culture and way of life.<ref name="Massey 2007">{{Cite thesis |last=Massey |first=Kelvin Lee |title=The ''Roots'' of Middle-Earth: William Morris's Influence upon J. R. R. Tolkien |date=December 2007 |access-date=2024-09-11 |publisher=[[University of Tennessee, Knoxville]] |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1289&context=utk_graddiss}}</ref>{{Rp|page=114}} In Morris' ''[[The Roots of the Mountains]]'', a female warrior is linked to receiving a gift of armor. Here, it is Bow-may who requests a hauberk and helm crafted by Goldmane's father. Iron-face presents her with "a hauberk of ring-mail of his own fashioning", which fills her with immense joy as she can hardly stop marveling at the craftsmanship of the ring-mail.<ref name="Massey 2007" />{{Rp|page=|pages=143–144}}

[[Tolkien]], inspired by medieval literature and history, frequently references hauberks in his ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' trilogy. Most notably, [[Frodo Baggins]] is gifted a shirt made of [[mithril]] by [[Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo]].<ref name="Konrádová 2018">{{Cite thesis |last=Konrádová |first=Pavla |title=The Fellowship of the Ring as a Social Group |date=2018 |access-date=2024-09-11 |publisher=[[University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice]] |url=https://dspace.jcu.cz/bitstream/handle/20.500.14390/37849/Bakalarska_prace_-_Konradova.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref>{{Rp|page=37}} The [[Ringwraiths]] are also depicted as wearing hauberks.<ref name="Massey 2007" />{{Rp|page=224}}<ref name="Konrádová 2018" />{{Rp|page=55}}

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Shirt of Mail MET DP359868.jpg|German hauberk
File:Kolczuga Jana Kazimierza.JPG|Polish hauberk
File:Chain mail coat, Sudanese.jpg|Sudanese hauberk
File:Cotte de mailles.jpg|European hauberk
File:Kusari katabira 11.JPG|Japanese hauberk
</gallery>

== See also ==
*[[Mail and plate armour]] – a type of mail with embedded plates

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Elements of Medieval armor}}

[[Category:10th-century inventions]]
[[Category:Ancient Celtic warfare]]
[[Category:Medieval armour]]
[[Category:Body armor]]

[[de:Kettenhemd]]