View source for Hindi literature

{{Short description|Literature in the Hindi language}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Hindu literature]], the specific literature of the Hindu religious tradition}}
{{distinguish|Sindhi literature}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More footnotes needed|date=July 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2020}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{History of literature5}}
{{Hindustani_language}}

'''Hindi literature''' ({{Langx|hi|हिंदी साहित्य|hindī sāhitya}}) includes literature in the various [[Central Indo-Aryan languages]], also known as Hindi, some of which have different [[writing system]]s. Earliest forms of Hindi literature are attested in poetry of [[Apabhraṃśa]] such as [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]. Hindi literature is composed in three broad styles- prose ({{Langx|hi|गद्य|gadya||label=none}}), poetry ({{Langx|hi|पद्य|padya|label=none}}), and [[prosimetrum]] ({{Langx|hi|चंपू|campū|label=none}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayan Ram Acharya |url=http://archive.org/details/SubhashitaRatnaBhandagara |title=Subhashita Ratna Bhandagara |others=sanskritebooks.org/ |language=Sanskrit}}</ref> Inspired by [[Bengali literature]], [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]] started the modern Hindi literary practices.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-09-09 |title=Bharatendu Harishchandra, the polyglot genius who shaped modern Hindi literature |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/bharatendu-harishchandra-polyglot-genius-father-of-modern-hindi-literature-2596638-2024-09-09 |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Rai |first=Alok |date=2014 |title=Cultural Translations: Bengal in the Making of Modern Hindi |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24480218 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=49 |issue=18 |pages=25–28 |jstor=24480218 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Chattopadhyay |first=Sudhakar |date=1955 |title=The influence of Bengali on modern Hindi literature part I |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/165357 |journal=University|hdl=10603/165357 }}</ref> In terms of historical development, it is broadly classified into five prominent forms (genres) based on the date of production.{{Cn|date=December 2024}} They are:
* Ādi Kāl /Vīr-Gāthā Kāl ({{Langx|hi|आदि काल/वीरगाथा काल|label=none}}), prior to & including 14th century CE
* [[Bhakti]] Kāl ({{Langx|hi|भक्ति काल|label=none}}), 14th–18th century CE
* Rīti Kāl /Śṛṅgār Kāl (रीति काल/ शृंगार काल), 18th–20th century CE
* Ādhunik Kāl ({{Langx|hi|आधुनिक काल|4=modern literature|label=none}}), from 1850 CE onwards
* Navyottar Kāl ({{Langx|hi|नव्योत्तर काल|4=post-modern literature}}), from 1980 CE onwards   

The literature was produced in languages and dialects such as [[Khariboli dialect|Khariboli]], [[Braj Bhasha|Braj]], [[Bundeli language|Bundeli]], Awadhi, [[Kannauji language|Kannauji]], as well as [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://languages.iloveindia.com/hindi.html|title=Hindi Language, Hindi Language Of India, Hindi Official Language Of India, Hindi Boli, Devnagri, Mother Tongue Of India, History Of Hindi Literature.|website=languages.iloveindia.com}}</ref> From the 20th century, works produced in [[Modern Standard Hindi]], a [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] written in the [[Devanagari script]], are sometimes regarded as the only basis of modern literature in Hindi (excluding [[Urdu literature]] of Hindustani language).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abhivyakti-hindi.org/snibandh/hindi_diwas/samvidhan_me_hindi.htm|title=संविधान में हिंदी- डॉ लक्ष्मीमल्ल सिंघवी का आलेख|website=www.abhivyakti-hindi.org}}</ref>

== History ==
{{History of literature by region or country}}

=== Adi Kal or Vir-Gatha kal (c. 1050 to 1375) ===
Literature of ''Adi kal'' ({{Circa|before the 15th century CE}}) was developed in the regions of [[Kannauj]], [[Delhi]], and [[Ajmer]] stretching up to central India.<ref>[http://charm.cs.uiuc.edu/~bhatele/hindi/hindi_intro.htm Introduction to Hindi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601014029/http://charm.cs.uiuc.edu/~bhatele/hindi/hindi_intro.htm |date=1 June 2012}} [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]]</ref> ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'', an epic poem written by [[Chand Bardai]] (1149 – {{Circa|1200}}), is considered one of the first works in the Bhraj Bhasha literature. Chand Bardai was a court poet of [[Prithviraj Chauhan]], the famous ruler of [[Delhi]] and [[Ajmer]] during the invasion of [[Muhammad of Ghor]].

[[Jayachandra]], the last ruler of Kannauj gave more patronage to [[Sanskrit]] rather than local dialects. Harsha, the author of ''Naishdhiya Charitra'', was his court poet. Jagnayak (sometimes Jagnik), the royal poet in [[Mahoba]], and Nalha, the royal poet in [[Ajmer]], were the other prominent literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat in the [[Second Battle of Tarain]], most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed by the army of [[Muhammad of Ghor]]. Very few scriptures and manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.

Some [[Siddha]] and Nathpanthi poetical works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is doubted. The Siddhas belonged to the [[Vajrayana]], a later [[Buddhist|Buddhist sect]]. Some scholars argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not an earlier form of Hindi, but [[Magadhi]] [[Prakrit]]. Nathpanthis were [[yoga|yogis]] who practised the [[Hatha yoga]]. Some [[Jainism|Jain]] and ''Rasau'' (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.

In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region in South India, [[Dakkhini]] or Hindvi was used. It flourished under the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later under the [[Nizam]]s of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. It was written in the [[Persian language|Persian]] script. Nevertheless, the Hindvi literature can be considered proto-Hindi literature. Many Dakkhini experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word ''Hindvi'' to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Dakkhini. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Dakkhini author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works – Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote ''Nishatul Ishq''. The first Dakkhini poet was Nizami.

During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint poets like [[Ramanand]] and [[Gorakhnath]] became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of [[Vidyapati]]'s [[Maithili language#Literature|Maithili]] works.

=== Bhakti kaal (c. 1375 to 1700) ===
The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of [[Bhakti]] movement and composition of long and epic poems.

Awadhi and Braj Bhasha were two of the language in which literature was developed. The main works in Awadhi are [[Malik Muhammad Jayasi]]'s ''[[Padmavat]]'' and [[Tulsidas]]'s ''[[Ramacharitamanas]]''. The major works in Braj dialect are [[Tulsidas]]'s ''[[Vinaya Patrika]]'' and [[Surdas]]'s ''Sur Sagar''. [[Sadhukaddi]] was also a language commonly used, especially by [[Kabir]] in his poetry and dohas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crl.edu/focus/Spr05litGems.asp?issID=3|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925005457/http://www.crl.edu/focus/Spr05litGems.asp?issID=3|url-status=dead|title=Mystic poet Kabir|archivedate=25 September 2006}}</ref>

The Bhakti period also marked a great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry. These included Verse Patterns like ''Sortha'', ''Chaupaya'' (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterised under the various [[Rasa (aesthetics)|Rasas]]. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterised by an overdose of Poetry in the ''Vir Rasa'' (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of [[rasas]] from ''Shringara rasa'' (love), ''Vir Rasa'' (Heroism).

Bhakti poetry had two schools – the ''Nirguna'' school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the ''Saguna'' school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations). [[Kabir]] and [[Guru Nanak]] belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosophy of [[Adi Sankaracharya]]. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Brahma or the Shapeless Formless One. The [[Saguna brahman|Saguna]] school was represented by mainly [[Vaishnava]] poets like [[Surdas]], [[Tulsidas]] and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly [[Vaishnava]] in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like ''[[Ramacharitamanas]]'', ''Sur Saravali'', ''Sur Sagar'' extolling [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]].

This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements in the arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets such as [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana]], a minister to the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]] and also a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its proponents, including [[Kabir]] and [[Guru Nanak]], had a large number of followers, irrespective of caste or religion.

=== Ritikavya kal (c. 1700 to 1900) ===
In the ''Ritikavya'' or ''Ritismagra Kavya'' period, the erotic element became predominant in the [[Hindi]] literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional aspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwardly related to [[Krishna]] [[Bhakti]], their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the
[[Shringar]] or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in [[Braj]], and the description of the physical beauty of [[Krishna]] and [[Radha]],(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of [[Bihari (poet)|Bihari]], and [[Ghananand]] fit this bill. The best known book from this age is the [[Satasai|''Satsai'']] of [[Bihari Lal]], a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with ''[[Bhakti]]'' (devotion), ''Neeti'' (Moral policies) and ''Shringar'' (love).

The first Hindi books, using the [[Devanagari|Devanagari script]] or [[Nāgarī script]] were [[Heera Lal]]'s treatise on [[Ain-i-Akbari]], called Ain e Akbari ki Bhasha Vachanika, and Rewa Maharaja's treatise on Kabir. Both books were published in 1795.{{Cn|date=December 2024}} Munshi [[Lallu Lal]]'s Hindi translation of Sanskrit [[Hitopadesha]] was published in 1809. Lala Srinivas Das published a novel, ''[[Pariksha Guru]]'', in the [[Nāgarī script]] in 1882.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/756753/your-article-on-hindi-chauvinism-had-factual-inaccuracies|title='Your article on Hindi chauvinism had factual inaccuracies'|website=Scroll.in|date=25 September 2015 }}</ref> Shardha Ram Phillauri wrote a Hindi novel ''[[Bhagyawati]]'' which was published in 1888.<ref name="The Tribune, Chandigarh, India 2005">{{cite web |date=17 March 2005 |title=Hindi novel's first cradle |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050317/aplus.htm#1 |access-date=20 July 2018 |website=The Tribune}}</ref>

[[Chandrakanta (novel)|Chandrakanta]], written by [[Devaki Nandan Khatri]] in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/756105/stop-outraging-over-marathi-hindi-and-english-chauvinism-is-much-worse-in-india|title=Stop outraging over Marathi – Hindi and English chauvinism is much worse in India|first=Shoaib|last=Daniyal|website=Scroll.in|date=18 September 2015 }}</ref> The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was [[Munshi Premchand]], who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement.

=== Adhunik kal (c. 1900 onwards) ===
In 1800, the [[British East India Company]] established [[Fort William College]] at [[Calcutta]]. The college president, [[John Gilchrist (linguist)|John Gilchrist]], hired professors to write books in Hindustani. Some of these books were ''Prem Sagar'' by [[Lallu Lal]], ''Naasiketopaakhyan'' by Sadal Mishra, ''Sukhsagar'' by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and ''Rani Ketaki Ki Kahani'' by Munshi Inshallah Khan.{{Cn|date=December 2024}}

[[File:Surya chariot.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A depiction of [[Surya]] in an 1884 book, ''Indrajalakala'' (The Art of Magic); Jwala Prakash Press, [[Meerut]] ]]

Modern [[Hindi]] literature has been heavily influenced by [[Bengali literature]] and the [[Bengal Renaissance]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was [[Premchand]], who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.

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====Bhartendu Yug====
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====Dwivedi Yug====
The ''Dwivedi Yug'' ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after [[Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi]], who played a major role in establishing the modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of the Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.<ref name=lmnph>Lucy (aka "Ludmila") Rosenstein, editor, translator, author of the [https://books.google.com/books?id=yt2ROIhYfC4C "Introduction"], ''New Poetry in Hindi: Nayi Kavita: An Introduction'', Anthem Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1-84331-125-6}}</ref>

Dwivedi became the editor of ''[[Saraswati (magazine)|Saraswati]]'' in 1903, the first Hindi monthly magazine of India, which was established in 1900.<ref name=pib>{{cite web | title = Education will lay the foundation of India's future, says President | url = http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=102161 |work=[[Press Information Bureau]], President's Secretariat |date=25 December 2013|access-date = 2014-09-19}}</ref> He used it to crusade for reforms in the Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was [[Maithili Sharan Gupt]]'s ''Bharat-bharati'', which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's ''Bharatgit'' is another renowned poem of the period.<ref name=lmnph/>

Some scholars have labelled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnestly concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations to the modern Hindi poetry and that it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time. However, she also adds that the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi.<ref name=lmnph/>

Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.<ref name=lmnph/>

====Chhayavaadi Yug====
In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as [[Chhayavad]], a type of neo-Romanticism, and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chhayavadi. [[Jaishankar Prasad]], [[Suryakant Tripathi|Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala']], [[Mahadevi Varma]], and [[Sumitranandan Pant]], are the four major Chhayavadi poets. Poet [[Ramdhari Singh Dinkar]] was another great poet with some Chhayavadi element in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well.{{Cn|date=December 2024}}

This period of [[Neo-romanticism]], represents the adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all the literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades.

Other important genres of ''Adhunik Sahitya'' (Modernism) are: Prayogvad (Experimentalism) of [[Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya'|Ajneya]] and the ''[[Tar Saptak]]'' poets, also known as ''Nayi Kavita'' (New Poetry) and ''Nayi Kahani'' (New Story) of [[Nirmal Verma]] and others; followed by Pragativad (Progressivism) of [[Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh]] and other authors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://geocities.com/indian_poets/hindi.html|title=Indian Poets I Bio-Notes on Hindi Poets I|date=26 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026144551/http://geocities.com/indian_poets/hindi.html |archive-date=26 October 2009 }}</ref>

====Nakenwad====
Among the numerous schools of poetry which sprang up in the 1950s was ''Nakenwad'', a school deriving its nomenclature from the first letters of the names of its three pioneers – [[Nalin Vilochan Sharma]], Kesari Kumar, and [[Naresh Mehta]], all poets of note in their own right.<ref name="Lal 1992 820">{{cite book
| first = Mohan
| last = Lal
| title = Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature
| publisher = [[Sahitya Akademi]]
| year = 1992
| pages = 820
| isbn = 978-81-260-1221-3
}}</ref> Apart from being poets, Vilochan and Kumar were also brilliant critics, with a wide perspective on literary history.<ref name="Lal 1992 820"/> Their critical attitude is marked by a synthesis or coordination of various disciplines of human knowledge – philosophy, history, art and culture, all pressed into the service of literary appraisal and analysis.<ref name="Lal 1992 820"/>

==Genres of Hindi literature==

===Poetry===
Hindi has a rich legacy of poetry. There are several genres of poetry based on [[Rasa (aesthetics)|Ras]], [[Chhand]] and [[Alankāra|Alankar]] (e.g., Shringar, Karun, Veer, [[Hāsya]], etc.).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geeta-kavita.com/hindi_sahitya.asp?id=328|title=Mera Kharapan Shesh Hai|access-date=2 October 2016|archive-date=30 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930084121/http://www.geeta-kavita.com/hindi_sahitya.asp?id=328|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''Hasya Kavita'' is humorous comic poetry in Hindi. It is particularly famous due to Hindi [[Kavi sammelan]]s and TV shows.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-25 |title=SHORT ON LAUGHS |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_CREST&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TCRM/2011/12/03&ID=Ar00301 |access-date=2025-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125064925/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_CREST&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TCRM/2011/12/03&ID=Ar00301 |archive-date=25 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-09-15 |title=A grand revival of hasya-kavita |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/a-grand-revival-of-hasya-kavita/articleshow/16395232.cms |access-date=2025-01-23 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=kavisammelan |date=2024-05-07 |title=Modernization of Hasya Kavi Sammelans |url=https://kavisammelankavi.com/hasya-kavi-shambhu-shikhar/ |access-date=2025-01-23 |website=Kavi Sammelan- Hasya Kavi Sammelan Organizer, Kavi Sammelan Organizers in India |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Bal kavita]] is children's rhymes in Hindi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Baal Kavita Sankalan :: बाल कविताएँ |url=http://kavitakosh.org/sankalan/baalkavita/ |access-date=2025-01-23 |website=kavitakosh.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

Many attempts have been made to document Hindi poetry. Some of the most comprehensive online collections for Hindi poetry include ''Kavitakosh''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kavitakosh.org/kk/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0|title=Kavita Kosh|website=kavitakosh.org}}</ref> and ''Kavita''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geeta Kavita - Collection of Hindi Poems and Articles |url=https://www.geeta-kavita.com/ |access-date=2025-01-23 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The Hindi Kavita project, initiated by Manish Gupta in 2014, has contributed to the promotion and popularization of Hindi poetry through various platforms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pal |first=Sanchari |date=2016-09-14 |title=Meet the NRI Who Returned To India To Make Millions Fall in Love with Hindi Poetry |url=https://thebetterindia.com/68222/manish-gupta-youtube-hindi-poetry/ |access-date=2025-01-23 |website=The Better India |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Murthy |first=Neeraja |date=2017-08-07 |title=Manish Gupta on his YouTube channel Hindi Studio |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/manish-gupta-on-his-youtube-channel-hindi-studio/article19444656.ece |access-date=2025-01-23 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Hindi Kavita has also made significant contributions to Indian film music. Several famous musical masterpieces have been witnessed.

===Vyangya (Hindi satire)===
The rhetoric of satire is called [[Vyangya]] in Hindi. Vyangya writings includes the essence of sarcasm and humour. Some of the better known writers in this genre are, [[Harishankar Parsai]] (Hindi: हरिशंकर परसाई) (22 August 1924 – 1995) was a Hindi writer. He was a noted satirist and humorist of modern Hindi literature and is known for his simple and direct style., [[Sri Lal Sukla]], [[Suryakumar Pandey]] etc.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.amarujala.com/news/samachar/reflections/vyang/satire-on-election/|title = चुनावी चौपाल पर 'पाल' चिंतन}}</ref>

===Hindi travel literature===
[[Rahul Sankrityayan]], [[Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan]], [[Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya']] and [[Baba Nagarjun]] were some of the great Indian writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the Hindi [[Travel Literature]] (''Yatra Vritanta''). [[Rahul Sankrityayan]] was one of the greatest travelled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the (''"Father of Hindi [[Travel literature]]"''). [[Baba Nagarjun]] was a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as ("''Janakavi- the People's Poet''").

===Hindi playwriting===
The pioneer of [[Hindi theatre]] as well as playwrighting, [[Bhartendu Harishchandra]] wrote ''Satya Harishchandra'' (1875), ''Bharat Durdasha'' (1876) and ''Andher Nagari'' (1878), in the late 19th century, [[Jaishankar Prasad]] became the next big figure in Hindi playwriting with plays like ''Skanda Gupta'' (1928), ''Chandragupta'' (1931) and ''Dhruvswamini'' (1933).<ref>[[#Dm|Dimitrova, p. 15]]</ref><ref>[[#Da|Datta, p. 1075]]</ref>

As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for political messages, a trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political, though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era, like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre of [[Habib Tanvir]] did in the 1950s–90s, [[Jana Natya Manch]] of [[Safdar Hashmi]] did in the 1970s–80s. Post-independence the emerging republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it was not as prolific as in case with Hindi poetry or fiction.<ref>[[#Na|Nagendra, p. 661]]</ref> Yet we have playwrights like [[Jagdish Chandra Mathur]] (''Konark'') and [[Upendranath Ashk]] (''Anjo Didi''), who displayed a steadily evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwrighting, [[Mohan Rakesh]], who started with ''[[Ashadh Ka Ek Din]]'' (1958), ''Adhe Adhure'' and ''Lehron Ke Rajhans'', [[Dharamvir Bharati]], who wrote ''[[Andha Yug]]'', and other playwrights like [[Surendra Verma]], and [[Bhisham Sahni]].

===Hindi essay-writing===
[[Kuber Nath Rai]] is one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form of essay-writing.<ref name="Datta 1988 914">{{cite book
| first = Amaresh Dattal
| last = Datta
| title = Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 2
| publisher = [[Sahitya Akademi]]
| year = 1988
| page = 914
| isbn = 978-81-260-1194-0
}}</ref> His collections of essays ''Gandha Madan'', ''Priya neel-kanti'', ''Ras Aakhetak'', ''Vishad Yog'', ''Nishad Bansuri'', ''Parna mukut'' have enormously enriched the form of essay.<ref name="Datta 1988 914"/>
A scholar of [[Indian culture]] and [[western literature]], he was proud of Indian heritage.<ref name="Datta 1988 914"/> His love for natural beauty and Indian [[Oral tradition|folk literatures]] and preference for agricultural society over the age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very high among contemporary essayists in [[Hindi]].<ref name="Datta 1988 914"/>

==Prominent figures==
{{Main|List of Hindi authors}}
{{Main|List of Hindi language poets}}
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* [[Chand Bardai]] (1148–1191), author of ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]''.
* [[Amir Khusro]] (1253–1325 AD), author of {{transliteration|hi|pahelis}} and {{transliteration|hi|mukris}} in the Hindavi dialect.
* [[Kabir]] (1398–1518), a major figure of the [[bhakti]] (devotional) movement.
* [[Surdas]] (1467–1583), author of ''Sahitya Lahari'', ''Sur Saravali'', ''Sur Sagar'' etc.
* [[Malik Muhammad Jayasi]] (1477–1542), author of the ''[[Padmavat]]'' (1540) etc.
* [[Mirabai]] (1504–1560), author of ''Mira Padavali'' etc.
* [[Tulsidas]] (1532–1623), author of ''[[Ramacharitamanas]]'', ''Vinay Patrika'' etc.
* [[Keshavdas]] (1555–1617), author of ''Rasikpriya'' etc.
* [[Raskhan]] (1548–1628), a major figure of the [[bhakti]] (devotional) movement.
* [[Banarasidas]] (1586–1643) who is known for his poetic autobiography - ''Ardhakathānaka'', (The Half Story).<ref>Ardhakathanaka: Half a Tale by Mukund Lath (Translator), Rupa & Co, 2005</ref>
* [[Bihari (poet)|Bihari]] (1595–1664) became famous by writing ''[[Satasai]]'' (Seven Hundred Verses).
* [[Kavi Bhushan|Bhushan]] (1612–1713), author of ''Shivabavani'', ''Chhatrasal Dashak''  etc.
* [[Vrind]] (1643–1723), author of ''Nitisatsai'', ''Vrind Satsai'' etc.
* [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (1669–1708), author of ''Bichitra Natak'' etc.
* [[Sūdan]] (1700–1753), author of ''Sujān Charitra'' etc.
* [[Lallu Lal]] (1763–1835), translator of ''[[Baital Pachisi]]'', ''[[Shakuntala (play)|Shakuntala]]'' etc., and author of ''Prem Sagar'', etc.
* [[Ganga Das]] (1823–1913), author of about fifty kavya-granthas and thousands of padas, he is known as Bhismpitama of the Hindi poetry.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.panchjanya.com/8-4-2001/18c.html |title=1-8-1999 |access-date=8 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107093120/http://www.panchjanya.com/8-4-2001/18c.html |archive-date=7 November 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]] (1850–1885), author of ''Andher Nagari'' etc.; his works are compiled in ''Bharatendu Granthavali''.
* [[Devaki Nandan Khatri]] (1861–1913), author of mystery novels like ''[[Chandrakanta (novel)|Chandrakanta]]'', ''Bhootnath'', etc.
* [[Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi]] (1864–1938), author of ''Kavya Manjusha'', ''Sugandh'', ''Sahitya Sandarbh'', ''Sahitya Vichar'', etc.
* [[Munshi Premchand]] (1880–1936), considered one of the greatest Hindi novelists of all time. His novels include ''[[Godaan]]'', ''[[Karmabhoomi]]'', ''[[Gaban (novel)|Gaban]]'', ''[[Mansarovar]]'', ''[[Idgah (short story)|Idgah]]'', etc.
* [[Maithili Sharan Gupt]] (1886–1964), author of ''Saket'', ''Yashodhara'', etc.
* [[Jaishankar Prasad]] (1889–1937), poet, novelist, playwright, stalwart of the literary ''[[Chhayavaad]]i'' movement. His greatest works are ''[[Kamayani]]'', ''Dhruvswamini'', ''Skandagupta'', etc.
* [[Makhanlal Chaturvedi]] (1889–1968), first recipient of [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in Hindi for his work ''Him Taringini'', works include ''Yug Charan'', ''Pushp Ki Abhilasha'', etc.
* [[Rahul Sankrityayan]] (1893–1962), the father of Indian travelled literature.
* [[Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala']] (1896–1961), one of the "four pillars" of the ''Chhayavaad'' movement.
* [[Sumitranandan Pant]], (1900–1977) eminent Hindi poet who wrote mainly on nature.
* [[Yashpal]] (1903–1976), author of ''[[Jhutha Sach (novel)|Jhutha Sach]]'', ''[[Meri Teri Uski Baat]]'', etc.
* [[Jainendra Kumar]] (1905–1988), An extremely influential figure in 20th-century Hindi literature.
* [[Hazariprasad Dwivedi]] (1907–1979), novelist, literary historian.
* [[Mahadevi Varma]] (1907–1987), one of the "four pillars" of the ''Chhayavaad'' movement.
* [[Ramdhari Singh Dinkar]] (1908–1974), hailed as a Rashtrakavi.
* [[Nagarjun]] (1911–1998), hailed as Janakavi (The People's Poet).
* [[Bhisham Sahni]] (1915–2003), novelist, playwright, author of ''[[Tamas (novel)|Tamas]]'', [[Madhavi (play)|Madhavi]], etc.
* [[Nalin Vilochan Sharma]] (1916–1961), one of the pioneers of ''Nakenwad'' movement.
* [[Phanishwar Nath 'Renu']] (1921–1977), novelist best known for ''[[Maila Anchal]]'', ''[[Juloos]]'', etc.
* [[Harishankar Parsai]] (1922–1995), known for satirical works.
* [[Naresh Mehta]] (1922–2000), poet, playwright, one of the pioneers of ''Nakenwad'' movement.
* [[Mohan Rakesh]] (1925–1972), novelist, playwright known for ''[[Ashadh Ka Ek Din]]'', ''Andhere Band Kamre'', ''Na Aane Wala Kal'', etc.
* [[Dharmavir Bharati]] (1926–1997), a renowned writer, author of ''[[Gunahon Ka Devta (novel)|Gunaho Ka Devta]]'', ''[[Suraj Ka Satvan Ghoda]]'', etc.
* [[Raghuvir Sahay]] (1929–1990) was a versatile Hindi poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist.
* [[Nirmal Verma]] (1929–2005), one of the founders of the ''Nai Kahani'' literary movement.
* [[Kamleshwar (writer)|Kamleshwar]] (1932–2007), author of ''[[Kitne Pakistan]]''.
* [[Dushyant Kumar]] (1933–1975), prominent Hindi poet and composer of ghazals.
* [[Kashinath Singh]] (1937–) author of ''Rehan Par Ragghu'', ''[[Kashi Ka Assi]]'', etc.
* [[Narendra Kohli]] (1940–2021), known for reinventing the ancient form of epic writing in modern prose.
* [[Geetanjali Shree]] (1957–), author of ''[[Tomb of Sand]]'' which won the International Booker Prize in 2022

=== Hindi journalists ===

* [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]]

* [[Madan Mohan Malaviya]] 
* [[Dharamvir Bharati]]

== See also ==
{{Portal|Literature}}
* [[Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya]], an [[Central University (India)|Indian central university]] with a literary focus
* [[Hindustani orthography]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title=Indian Literature|author=Dr. Nagendra |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|year=1988|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqGojPpe8DIC&q=%22Hindi+drama%22+-inpublisher%3Aicon&pg=PA661 |ref=Na}}
* {{cite book |title=Western tradition and naturalistic Hindi theatre|author=Diana Dimitrova |publisher=Peter Lang|year=2004|isbn=0-8204-6822-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FA9qAKpUtTIC&q=Hindi+theatre |ref=Dm }}
* {{cite book |title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti), Volume 2|author=Amaresh Datta|publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=2006|isbn=81-260-1194-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&q=%22Hindi+drama%22+-inpublisher%3Aicon&pg=PA1075 |ref=Da }}

==Further reading==
* ''Hindi Literature'', by Ram Awadh Dwivedi. Published by Hindi Pracharak Pustakalaya, 1953.
* ''A History of Hindi literature'', by K. B. Jindal. Published by Kitab Mahal, 1955.
* ''Hindi Literature from Its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century'', by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1984. {{ISBN|3-447-02413-5}}.
* ''Hindi Literature of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries'', by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1974. {{ISBN|3-447-01607-8}}.
* ''A New Voice for New Times: The Development of Modern Hindi Literature'', by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1981. {{ISBN|0-909879-13-3}}.
* ''An Encyclopaedia of World Hindi Literature'', by Ganga Ram Garg. Published by Concept Pub. Co., 1986.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Hindōstānī Literature}}
* [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/hindiint.html Hindi Language and Literature]

{{Hindi topics}}
{{Urdu topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindi]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Hindi-language literature]]
[[Category:Literature by language]]
[[Category:Indian literature by language]]