View source for Hindu texts

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{{Hindu scriptures}}
{{Hinduism}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
'''Hindu texts''' or '''Hindu scriptures''' are [[manuscripts]] and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within [[Hinduism]]. Some of the major [[Hindus|Hindu]] texts include the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and the [[Itihasa]]. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of Hinduism,<ref name=goodallix>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20778-3}}, p. ix–xliii</ref><ref name=klausscrip/> but many list the [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] as Hindu scriptures,<ref name=goodallix/><ref name=klausscrip>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, pp. 46–52, 76–77</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, {{ISBN|978-0-679-41078-2}}, pages 1–11 and Preface</ref> and Dominic Goodall includes [[Bhagavata Purana]] and [[Yajnavalkya Smriti]] in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.<ref name=goodallix/>

==History==
There are two historic classifications of [[Hindu]] texts: ''[[Śruti|Shruti]]'' ([[Sanskrit]]: श्रुति, {{IAST3|Śruti}}) – that which is heard,<ref name=jamessruti/> and ''[[Smriti]]'' ([[Sanskrit]]: स्मृति, [[IAST]]: ''Smṛti'') – that which is remembered.<ref name=jamesmriti/> The ''Shruti'' texts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancient [[religious text]]s, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (''[[rishis]]''). These comprise the central canon of [[Hinduism]].<ref name=jamessruti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 645</ref><ref name="Lamb2002p183">{{cite book|author=Ramdas Lamb|title=Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv1nxyOTgN0C&pg=PA183|year=2002|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5386-5|pages=183–185}}</ref> It includes the four [[Vedas]] including its four types of embedded texts – the [[Samhita]]s, the [[Brahmana]]s, the [[Aranyaka]]s and the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=wendydof>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-1867-6}}, pp. 2–3</ref> Of the ''Shrutis'', the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=3}}<ref name=wendydonigerupan>Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-61847-0}}, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref>

The ''Smriti'' texts are a specific body of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] texts attributed to an author,<ref name="wendydof"/> as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Shruti'' in Hinduism.<ref name=jamesmriti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, pp. 656–657</ref> The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to [[Vedanga|Vedāngas]], the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), the [[Dharmasutras|Sutras and Shastras]], the texts of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophies]], the [[Puranas]], the Kāvya or poetical literature, the ''Bhasyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti>Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130</ref><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18">Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-2085-5}}, pp. 16–18</ref>

Many ancient Hindu texts were composed in [[Sanskrit]] and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] and some in non-Indian languages.<ref name=goodallix/> Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.<ref name=michaelwitzel68>[[Michael Witzel]], "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., {{ISBN|1-4051-3251-5}}, pp. 68–71</ref><ref name=graham67/> This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.<ref name=michaelwitzel68/><ref name=graham67>William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44820-8}}, pp. 67–77</ref>

== Shruti ==
The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.<ref name=":1">Roger R. Keller, "Hinduism," ''Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions'' (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39.</ref> The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.<ref name=":1" /> The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts: [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], [[Samaveda|Sama Veda]], [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]], and [[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Hindu Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/#SH2a |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> Each Veda is subcategorized into [[Samhita]]s, [[Brahmana]]s, [[Aranyaka]]s, and [[Upanishads]].<ref name=":2" />

=== Vedas ===
{{Main|Vedas}}
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The four Vedas ([[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], [[Samaveda|Sama Veda]], [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]], and [[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]) are a large body of Hindu texts originating from the [[Vedic period]] in northern India, the [[Rig Veda]] being composed {{Circa|1200 BCE}}, and its [[Samhita]] and [[Brahmana]]s complete before about 800 BCE.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Gavin D. Flood |url=https://archive.org/details/anintroductiontohinduismgavinfloodd.oupseeotherbooks_355_z |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anintroductiontohinduismgavinfloodd.oupseeotherbooks_355_z/page/35/mode/2up 35]–39 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[Music of India#History|hymn]]s, the texts constitute the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit literature]] and the oldest scriptures of [[Hinduism]].<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in ''Philip's Encyclopedia''. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}}", in: {{Harvnb|Flood|2003|p=68}};  {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>Sanujit Ghose (2011). "[https://www.worldhistory.org/article/230/ Religious Developments in Ancient India]" in ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''.</ref> Hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation,<ref name=":0" /> ''[[apauruṣeya]]'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"<ref>Vaman Shivaram Apte, [http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/ ''The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary''], see apauruSeya</ref> and "impersonal, authorless".<ref>D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, pp. 196–197</ref><ref>Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-538496-3}}, page 290</ref><ref>Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, {{ISBN|978-1-4094-6681-9}}, p. 128</ref> The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.<ref name="Lamb2002p183"/>

Vedas are also called ''[[Śruti|shruti]]'' ("what is heard") literature,<ref>{{Harvnb|Apte|1965|p=887}}</ref> distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ''{{IAST|[[smṛti]]}}'' ("what is remembered"). The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the [[Deity]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} In the Hindu Epic the [[Mahabharata]], the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation, [[Brahma]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8XO3Im3OMi8C&dq=brahma+created+vedas&pg=PA86 Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata] Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86</ref>

Each of the four Vedas<ref name=gflood/><ref>Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977</ref> have been subclassified into four major text types:

# the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), 
# the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), 
# the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and 
# the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<ref name="gflood">Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-43878-0}}, pages 35–39</ref><ref name="A Bhattacharya 2006 pages 8-14">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, {{ISBN|978-0-595-38455-6}}, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-533261-2}}, page 285</ref><ref name="Jan Gonda 1975">Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}</ref>

=== Upanishads ===
{{Main|Upanishads}}
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation. {{harvtxt|Olivelle|1998}}}} The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name="wendydonigerupan" /><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1080-6}}, p. 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-1-59257-846-7}}, pp. 208–210</ref>

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the [[Vedas|Veda]]" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju/> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-88706-139-4}}, pp. 35–36</ref> The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=3}}<ref name=wendydonigerupan/>{{Refn|Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.|group=note}}

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the ''[[mukhya]]'' (main) or [[principal Upanishads]].<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-14485-8}}, Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, {{ISBN|978-1-58638-021-2}}, pp. 298–299</ref> The ten mukhya Upanishads are: [[Isha Upanishad|Isha]], [[Kena Upanishad|Kena]], [[Katha Upanishad|Katha]], [[Prashna Upanishad|Prashna]], [[Mundaka Upanishad|Mundaka]], [[Mandukya Upanishad|Mandukya]], [[Taittiriya Upanishad|Taittiriya]], [[Aitareya Upanishad|Aitareya]], [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya]], and [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brihadaranyaka.]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Piparaiya |first=Ram K. |title=Ten Upanishads of Four Vedas. |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2003}}</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[oral tradition|verbally]]. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),{{Sfn|Olivelle|1998a|p=12-14}} down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the [[Muktika]] canon, composed from about the start of common era through [[History of Hinduism|medieval Hinduism]]. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}}{{sfn|Varghese|2008|p=101}}

==Smriti==
{{Main|Smriti}}

Smriti is the classification of literature which includes various scriptures and ''Itihasa''s (epics like the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]), [[Harivamsa]] [[Puranas]], [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agama]]s and [[Darshana]]s. This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]: [[Samkhya]], Yoga, [[Nyaya]], Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and [[Vedanta]].<ref>Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-14987-7}}, pp. 2–5</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0779-2}}</ref>

The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. The [[Dharmashastra|Dharma-shastra]]s (law books), derivatives of the [[Dharmasutras|Dharma-sutras]]. Other examples were ''bhautikashastra'' "physics", ''[[rasayana]]shastra'' "chemistry", ''jīvashastra'' "biology", ''[[Vastu shastra|vastushastra]]'' "architectural science", ''[[Shilpa Shastras|shilpashastra]]'' "science of sculpture", ''arthashastra'' "economics" and ''nītishastra'' "political science".<ref>Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02676-5}}</ref> It also includes [[Tantra]]s and [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agama]] literature.<ref>Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02091-6}}, pp. 7–14</ref>

[[File:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg|thumb|A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu text [[Bhagavad Gita]]]]

=== Puranas ===
{{Main|Puranas}}
The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last= |title=Puranas |url=https://southasia.ucla.edu/religions/texts/puranas/#:~:text=The%20special%20subject%20of%20the,and%20renovation%3B%20(3)%20The |website=UCLA Social Sciences}}</ref> The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.<ref name="oliverleaman437">Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, pp. 437–439</ref> Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,<ref name="johncort185">John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1382-1}}, pp. 185–204</ref><ref name="gregorybailey">Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|978-1-57003-449-7}}, pp. 139</ref> several of these texts are named after major [[Hindu]] deities such as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], and [[Mahadevi|Devi]].<ref name="ludorocher">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02522-5}}, pp. 1–5, 12–21</ref><ref name="Nair 2008 266">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekehXVP3W8wC&pg=PA266|title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice|last=Nair|first=Shantha N.|publisher=Hindology Books|year=2008|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7|page=266}}</ref>

The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,<ref name=merriam>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, {{ISBN|0-877790426}}, page 915</ref> and it includes diverse topics such as [[cosmogony]], [[cosmology]], genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name=gregorybailey/><ref name=ludorocher/> The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.<ref name=johncort185/>

There are 18 ''Maha Puranas'' (Great Puranas): [[Agni Purana]], [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Bhavishya Purana]], [[Brahmanda Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana|Brahmavaivarta Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], [[Kurma Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Naradiya Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], [[Vamana Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]], [[Vayu Purana]], and [[Vishnu Purana]]<ref name=":3" /> and 18 ''Upa Puranas'' (Minor Puranas),<ref name="corneliadimmitt4">Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3972-4}}, pp. xii, 4</ref> with over 400,000 verses.<ref name="oliverleaman437" /> The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,<ref name="corneliadimmitt4" /> but are considered a [[Smriti]].<ref>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, p. 503</ref> These Hindu texts have been influential in the [[Hindu culture]], inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02522-5}}, pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20778-3}}, page xli</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year=2007|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref> The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes bhakti (devotion) towards Krishna. The Bhagavata Purana is a key text in Krishna bhakti literature.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Hindu Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/#SSH2b.iii |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

=== Mahabharata ===
{{main|Mahabharata}}

The ''Mahābhārata'', which translates to "''The Great Indian Tale''", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Austin |first1=Christopher R. |title=Pradyumna: Lover, Magician, and Son of the Avatara |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-005411-3 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jCoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |language=en |access-date=11 January 2020 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907124231/https://books.google.com/books?id=4jCoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BrockingtonA">Brockington (1998, p. 26)</ref> The text probably reached its final form by the early [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]] ({{Circa|4th century CE}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/905466/how-did-the-ramayana-and-mahabharata-come-to-be-and-what-has-dharma-got-to-do-with-it|title=How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?|first=Devdutt|last=Pattanaik|website=Scroll.in|date=13 December 2018|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814160417/https://scroll.in/article/905466/how-did-the-ramayana-and-mahabharata-come-to-be-and-what-has-dharma-got-to-do-with-it/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Van Buitenen; ''The Mahabharata'' – 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date)</ref> The composition is traditionally attributed to [[Vedavyasa]] and is made up of over 100,000 [[shloka]]s.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=Mahabharata |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mahabharata |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=5 February 2024 }}</ref>

The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (the [[Pandava]]s and the [[Kaurava]]s) and the aftermath of the [[Kurukshetra War]].<ref name=":4" /> The Mahabharata also teaches about [[dharma]] (duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name=":2" />

The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion between [[Krishna]] and [[Arjuna]] on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God, [[moksha]], and dharma.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bhagavad Gītā |url=https://iep.utm.edu/bhagavad-gita/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

=== Ramayana ===
{{Main|Ramayana}}

The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sage [[Valmiki]] and contains over 24,000 verses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Basu |first=Anindita |date=30 August 2016 |title=Ramayana |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Ramayana/#:~:text=Definition&text=The%20Ramayana%20is%20an%20ancient,the%20twins%20Lava%20and%20Kush. |website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref>

The epic covers the life journey of [[Rama]], an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wife [[Sita]], and brother [[Lakshmana]]. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted by [[Ravana]] of [[Lanka]]. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana, [[Hanuman]] (a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return to [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]], where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.<ref name=":2" />

==Other Hindu texts==
Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Field !! Reviewer !! Reference
|-
|Agriculture and food || Gyula Wojtilla || <ref>Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-05306-8}}</ref>
|-
|Architecture	|| P Acharya,<br>[[Bruno Dagens|B Dagens]]	||<ref>PK Acharya (1946), [https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture], Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6</ref><ref>[[Bruno Dagens]] (1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3525-2}}</ref>
|-
|Devotionalism	|| Karen Pechelis	||<ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-535190-3}}</ref>
|-
|Drama, dance and performance arts	|| AB Keith,<br>Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,<br>Mohan Khokar	|| <ref>[https://archive.org/details/SanskritDrama-KeithA.Berriedale The Sanskrit Drama], Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0772-3}}</ref><ref>Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers, {{ISBN|978-0-7206-0574-7}}</ref>
|-
|Education, school system || Hartmut Scharfe ||<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12556-8}}</ref>
|-
|Epics || John Brockington || <ref>John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10260-6}}</ref>
|-
|Gnomic and didactic literature	||	Ludwik Sternbach	||<ref>Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01546-2}}</ref>
|-
|Grammar	||	Hartmut Scharfe	||	<ref>Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01722-8}}</ref>
|-
|Law and jurisprudence	||	J Duncan M Derrett	||<ref>J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01519-5}}</ref>	
|-
|Lexicography	||	Claus Vogel	||	<ref>Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01722-8}}</ref>
|-
|Mathematics and exact sciences	|| Kim Plofker<br>David Pingree	||<ref>Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-12067-6}}</ref><ref>David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society, {{ISBN|978-0-87169-213-9}}</ref>
|-
|Medicine	||	MS Valiathan,<br>Kenneth Zysk	||<ref>MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan, {{ISBN|978-81-250-2505-4}}</ref><ref>Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1401-1}}</ref>
|-
|Music	||	Emmie te Nijenhuis,<br>Lewis Rowell	||	<ref>Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01831-9}}</ref><ref>Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|0-226-73033-6}}</ref>
|-
|Mythology	||	Ludo Rocher	||	<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02522-5}}</ref>
|-
|Philosophy	||	Karl Potter	||<ref>Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0309-4}}</ref>
|-
|Poetics	||	Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard	||<ref>Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01722-8}}</ref>
|-
|Gender and Sex	||	Johann Jakob Meyer	||<ref>JJ Meyer, ''Sexual Life in Ancient India'', Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-1-4826-1588-3}}</ref>
|-
|State craft, politics	||	Patrick Olivelle	||	<ref>Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-989182-5}}</ref>
|-
|Tantrism, Agamas	||	Teun Goudriaan	||<ref>Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-02091-1}}</ref>
|-
|Temples, Sculpture	||	Stella Kramrisch	||<ref>Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}</ref>	
|-
|Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) ||	Jan Gonda	||<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01603-5}}</ref>
|}

==Historical significance==
The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such as [[Music of India#History|music]], [[Dance in India#Origin of Dance in India|dance]], [[Sculpture in South Asia|sculptures]], [[Architecture of India#600 BCE—250 CE|architecture]], [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Vedanga|science]], [[Vedic Mathematics|mathematics]], [[Ayurveda|medicine]] and [[Yoga#Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)|wellness]]. [[Valmiki]]'s [[Ramayana]] (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by [[Gandharva]]s, dance by [[Apsara]]s such as [[Urvashi]], [[Rambha (apsara)|Rambha]], [[Menaka]], [[Tilottama]] [[Panchāpsaras]], and by [[Ravana]]'s wives who excelling in ''nrityageeta'' or "singing and dancing" and ''nritavaditra'' or "playing musical instruments").<ref name=rama1>Ananda W. P. Guruge, 1991, [https://archive.org/details/trent_0116402264364/page/180 <!-- quote=ramayana mentions musical instruments. --> The Society of the Ramayana], Page 180-200.</ref> The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in ''Natasutras'', which are mentioned in the text of [[Pāṇini|Panini]], the sage who wrote the classic on [[Vyakarana|Sanskrit grammar]], and who is dated to about 500 BCE.<ref name="Lidova1994p111">{{cite book|author=Natalia Lidova |title=Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TKarwqJJP0C |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1234-5 |pages=111–113}}</ref>{{Sfn|Richmond|Swann|Zarrilli|1993|p=30}} This performance arts related [[Sutra]] text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin ([[IAST]]: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.<ref name="Lidova1994p111"/>{{Sfn|Tarla Mehta|1995|pp=xxiv, xxxi–xxxii, 17}} Richmond et al. estimate the ''Natasutras'' to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.<ref name="Lidova1994p111"/>{{Sfn|Richmond|Swann|Zarrilli|1993|p=30}}

==See also==
* [[Hindu cosmology]] and [[Hindu eschatology|eschatology]]
* [[Hindu tantric literature]]
* [[Indian epic poetry]]
* [[List of Hindu texts]]
** ''[[Atharvaveda]]''
** ''[[Rigveda]]''
** ''[[Samaveda]]''
** ''[[Yajurveda]]''
* [[List of historic Indian texts]]
* [[Prasthanatrayi]]
* [[Sanskrit literature]]
* [[List of Sanskrit-related topics|Sanskrit-related topics]]
* [[Timeline of Hindu texts]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Flood |editor-first1=Gavin |title=The Blackwell companion to Hinduism |date=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publ |location=Oxford |isbn=1-4051-3251-5}}
*{{citation|first1=Richard|last1= King|year= 1995|last2= Ācārya|first2= Gauḍapāda|title= Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā|publisher= SUNY Press|isbn= 978-0-7914-2513-8}}
* {{Citation|title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T. M. P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd}}
*{{cite book|first=Arthur Anthony |last= MacDonell|year= 2004|title= A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 978-81-208-2000-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Tarla Mehta |title=Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7naMj1UxIkC |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1057-0}}
*{{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Olivelle |year=1998a |title=The Early Upanisads |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512435-4}}
* {{Citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title=Upaniṣads|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-283576-5}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Radhakrishnan | first1 = S. | author-link = Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan | last2 = Moore | first2 = C. A. | year = 1957 | title = A Source Book in Indian Philosophy | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-691-01958-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh }} 
* {{Citation|title=A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy|first=R. D.|last=Ranade|year=1926|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
*{{cite book |first1=Farley P. |last1=Richmond |first2=Darius L. |last2=Swann |first3=Phillip B. |last3=Zarrilli |title=Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OroCOEqkVg4C |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0981-9}}
* {{Citation|title=India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World|volume=1|first=Alexander P|last=Varghese|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2008|isbn=978-81-269-0903-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7GKwhuea9kC}}

==Further reading==
* R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, {{ISBN|978-0-679-41078-2}}
* Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20778-3}}
* Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1-4725-1151-5}}

==External links==
Manuscripts collections (incomplete)
*[https://archive.org/stream/b20456645M001#page/n3/mode/2up A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library], '''Volume 1''', Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.)
*[http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/documents/printed-catalogues/a-handlist-of-sanskrit-and-prakrit-manuscripts-volume-2.pdf A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library], '''Volume 2''', Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.; for complete 6 set collection see {{ISBN|0-85484-049-4}})
*[http://claysanskritlibrary.org Clay Sanskrit Library] publishes Sanskrit literature with downloadable materials.
*[https://templesblog.com/hindu-sacred-books/ The Sacred Books of the Hindus Information]
{{Commons category|Hindu texts}}
Online resources:
*[https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/themes/hinduism The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts - Hinduism]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm Sacred-Texts: Hinduism]
*[http://sanskritdocuments.org Sanskrit Documents Collection]: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
*[http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages], a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.

{{Hindu deities and texts}}
{{Hindudharma}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Texts}}
[[Category:Hindu texts| ]]