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{{History of Benin}}

The '''History of Benin''' since the 16th century, for the geographical area included in 1960 in what was then called the [[Republic of Dahomey]] before becoming the [[People's Republic of Benin]].

== Etymology ==
The Republic of Benin derives its name from one of the most powerful precolonial West African kingdoms, the [[Kingdom of Benin]], which was centered in present-day [[Benin City]], now located in [[Nigeria]]. According to some historians, the name ''Benin'' is a Portuguese rendering of the Itsekiri word ''oubinou'', meaning "seat of royalty", which referred to the kingdom's capital. The term ''oubinou'' may itself stem from a combination of the Yoruba word [[Oba (king)|oba]] ("king") and ''bini'', the self-designation of the Edo people. Other sources suggest ''Benin'' originated from the Yoruba phrase ''ile-ibinu'', meaning "land of disputes", possibly alluding to internal conflicts within the kingdom. A further hypothesis posits that ''bini'' may derive from the Arabic ''bani'', meaning "sons of".<ref>{{cite book |last=Breyo |first=Alexandre |title=L'Histoire vraie du Bénin: Des premiers habitants à nos jours |publisher=Independently published |date=2021 |location=Paris |page=5 |language=fr |isbn=979-8-5989-7800-9}}</ref>

Before 1975, the country was known as ''Dahomey'', a name referencing one of the major historical kingdoms in the region. According to the political authorities at the time, this name was considered inappropriate for a multiethnic state, as it referred primarily to one of the country's major ethnic groups.<ref>{{harvsp|Breyo|2021|page=6}}</ref>

== Early inhabitants ==
The area now known as Benin has been inhabited since ancient times by very old African populations, as is the case across much of the continent. It is now widely accepted that the earliest known inhabitants of the territory were small-statured people commonly referred to as [[pygmies]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patin |first1=Etienne |last2=Lopez |first2=Marie |last3=Grollemund |first3=Rebecca |last4=Verdu |first4=Paul |last5=Harmant |first5=Christine |last6=Quach |first6=Hélène |last7=Laval |first7=Guillaume |last8=Perry |first8=George H. |last9=Barreiro |first9=Luis B. |last10=Froment |first10=Alain |last11=Heyer |first11=Evelyne |last12=Quintana-Murci |first12=Lluis |title=Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa |journal=Science |volume=356 |issue=6337 |pages=543–546 |date=2017-05-05 |doi=10.1126/science.aal1988 |pmid=28473590 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aal1988|hdl=10216/109265 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Migration history of Bantu-speaking people: Genomics reveals benefits of admixture and sheds new light |url=https://www.pasteur.fr/en/home/research-journal/press-documents/migration-history-bantu-speaking-people-genomics-reveals-benefits-admixture-and-sheds-new-light |website=Institut Pasteur |date=2017-05-05 |access-date=2025-05-09}}</ref>{{efn|The scientists then explored the admixture of Bantu speakers with the local populations they came into contact with. Their research demonstrates that over the past millennium, the Bantus admixed with pygmy populations from West-Central Africa.}} remnants of whom are still found in parts of Central Africa. These early populations lived in scattered clans and eventually disappeared from West Africa through gradual assimilation with larger-statured groups migrating from neighboring regions, particularly from the vast Sahara, which at the time was experiencing prolonged droughts that contributed to its desertification.<ref>{{harvsp|Breyo|2021|page=8}}</ref>

The migrants from the ancient [[Sahara]] are believed to be the ancestors of various ethnically mixed peoples who later settled and cohabited in what became Benin. These include the [[Fon people|Fon]], [[:fr:Ayizo|Aizo]], Holi, [[:fr:Tofinu (peuple)|Toffin]], [[Aja people|Aja]], [[Waci language|Waci]], Guin, Hueda, Houla, Goun, [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], Batombu, [[Dendi people|Dendi]], Fulbe, [[Bariba people|Bariba]], [[:fr:Waama (peuple)|Waba]], and Yowa, among others. Long before the Common Era, major West African kingdoms such as the Dahomey and Bariba kingdoms began to emerge in this wider Sahelian context.<ref>{{harvsp|Breyo|2021|page=9}}</ref>

=== Genetic studies ===
A 2015 study by [[Maarten Larmuseau]] et al. investigated the paternal genetic landscape of populations along the [[Bight of Benin]], focusing on four groups from present-day Benin: the [[Fon people|Fon]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], [[Bariba people|Bariba]], and [[Dendi people|Dendi]]. Using Y-chromosomal markers, the research revealed significant genetic diversity among these populations, reflecting complex historical migrations and interactions.

The study found that the Beninese Yoruba exhibit notable genetic differentiation not only from neighboring groups but also from the Yoruba in Nigeria, suggesting distinct paternal lineages and historical developments. This diversity underscores the intricate demographic history of the region, shaped by various migration events and cultural exchanges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larmuseau |first1=Maarten H. D. |last2=Vessi |first2=Andrea |last3=Jobling |first3=Mark A. |last4=Van Geystelen |first4=Anneleen |last5=Primativo |first5=Giuseppina |last6=Biondi |first6=Gianfranco |last7=Martínez-Labarga |first7=Cristina |last8=Ottoni |first8=Claudio |last9=Decorte |first9=Ronny |last10=Rickards |first10=Olga |title=The Paternal Landscape along the Bight of Benin – Testing Regional Representativeness of West-African Population Samples Using Y-Chromosomal Markers |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=11 |article-number=e0141510 |year=2015 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141510 |doi-access=free |pmid=26544036 |pmc=4636292 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041510L }}</ref>

== Precontact period ==
=== The Gbe cultural sphere ===
The [[Gbe languages|Gbe-speaking]] peoples, ancestors of nearly eight million present-day speakers of the [[Aja people|Aja]]-[[Ewe people|Ewe]] language continuum, occupy a central place in the cultural history of the [[Slave Coast of West Africa]]. Gbe belongs to the [[Kwah language|Kwa]] branch of the Niger-Congo language family and is subdivided into five primary clusters: Aja, Ewe, Fon, Gen, and Phla-Phera.<ref name = "Monroe32">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=32}}</ref> These languages are spoken from eastern Ghana to southern Benin, with Phla-Phera speakers dispersed along the coasts of Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria. Oral traditions trace many Gbe-speaking polities back to dynastic dispersals from the town of Tado, believed to have been founded by migrants from Oyo or Ketu in the thirteenth century.<ref name = "Monroe32"/>

Dynastic claims to descent from Tado appear across kingdoms such as Notsé, Great Popo, Hueda, and Allada, and extend to Dahomey and Porto-Novo. These oral traditions suggest that regional rulers established new polities through conquest and alliance, rather than reflecting mass population movements. Linguistic evidence, including glottochronological studies, indicates that the differentiation of Gbe languages likely occurred well before the thirteenth century—possibly as early as 3,000 BC—undermining theories of recent, large-scale dispersal.<ref name = "Monroe34">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=34}}</ref>

Rather than reflecting concrete genealogical links, dynastic narratives may have served as ideological tools to legitimize emerging elites by referencing prestigious origins.<ref name = "Monroe35">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=35}}</ref> Thus, communities on the Slave Coast were better understood as part of a shared interaction sphere, characterized by common political myths and cultural practices. Akinjogbin identified at least fifteen small kingdoms on the eve of European contact that were ideologically linked by a kinship-based political order, the "Ebi social theory," which presented monarchs as father figures within federations of autonomous lineages.<ref name = "Monroe35"/>

=== Archaeological perspectives: Sodohomé and early settlement ===
Archaeological research on the Abomey Plateau has revealed a long and dynamic settlement history predating Dahomey. Investigations by the Projet Bénino-Danois d'Archéologie (BDArch), particularly at the Sodohomé channel, uncovered cultural remains from the mid-seventh century BC to AD 1200.<ref name = "Monroe36">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=36}}</ref> Scatters of lithics at the southeastern end of the channel may indicate transient Middle Stone Age camps.

Later remains include ceramic sherds, iron slag, burials, refuse pits, and Dahomean-period subterranean structures. BDArch identified five archaeological phases and three cultural periods prior to Dahomey's rise, with settlement expansion and nucleation occurring from the Yellow Pottery Period (670–540 BC) through the Sodohomé Period (AD 870–1200). While some gaps in occupation are evident, the material suggests shifting settlements tied to agricultural, political, and economic pressures.<ref name = "Monroe39">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=39}}</ref>

By AD 1000, clear evidence of small-scale iron smelting appears, expanding by AD 1400 to industrial-scale production. More than thirty sites have been documented across southern Benin, with induced-draft furnaces and extensive slag heaps indicating massive output—estimated at over four million kilograms of iron between AD 1400 and 1600. This surge likely responded to regional and possibly long-distance demand from Sahelian states.<ref name = "Monroe40">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=40}}</ref>

=== Precontact economic foundations ===
The precontact economy of the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]] was marked by market-oriented production. Oral and archaeological data suggest that many communities produced goods—including salt, iron, textiles, pottery, and fish—for sale and exchange. Markets at [[Savi]], Apa, and [[Godomey|Jakin]] attracted thousands, and smaller local markets served daily needs.<ref name = "Monroe39"/> The scale and organization of production, particularly of iron, suggests the emergence of a commodity economy before European arrival.<ref name = "Monroe40"/>

The archaeological and historical record underscores that by the sixteenth century, the region's polities were deeply integrated into interregional exchange networks and already exhibited significant political centralization. With the onset of Atlantic trade and the introduction of new crops and goods, these foundations enabled rapid demographic growth and increased state formation.<ref name = "Monroe42"/>

== Mythic era - 16th and 17th centuries ==
The origins of most [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] polities are poorly understood, but historical sources indicate that throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, these polities vied for dominance over Atlantic commercial routes.<ref name = "Monroe42">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=42}}</ref> This resulted in significant political and economic expansion. Colin Renfrew proposed the concept of "peer polity interaction" to describe how sociopolitical complexity can emerge not solely from internal developments but also through interaction between neighboring independent polities. This interaction encompassed emulation, competition, warfare, and trade. On the Slave Coast, this dynamic contributed to the rise of two dominant kingdoms: Allada and Hueda.<ref name = "Monroe42"/>
[[File:Seventeenth-century polities in southern Bénin, West Africa.png|thumb|right|upright=2|Seventeenth-century polities in southern Bénin, West Africa]]

=== The Kingdom of Allada ===
{{main|Kingdom of Allada}}
Founded in the sixteenth century, [[Kingdom of Ardra|Kingdom of Allada]] rose as the dominant coastal polity in present-day southern Benin, leveraging early access to long-distance trade. Although little is known of its pre-European trade role, by the mid-sixteenth century Portuguese merchants were trading at its capital, Grand Ardra, now identified with the archaeological site of Togudo-Awute near modern Allada. From the 1560s, African captives labeled "Aradas" were recorded in Peru, and the city appeared on Portuguese charts after 1570.<ref>{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=42}}</ref>

By the seventeenth century, Allada had grown significantly. Grand Ardra was home to approximately 30,000 inhabitants,<ref name = "Monroe43">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=43}}</ref> and the kingdom's military strength suggests a total population exceeding 200,000.<ref name = "Monroe43"/> The Dutch West India Company acquired around 800 slaves annually from Allada between 1636 and 1647, and by the 1680s, the Slave Coast exported roughly 5,000 captives per year, increasing to 10,000 by the 1710s. Textiles and cowries comprised up to 81% of goods exchanged for captives.<ref name = "Monroe44">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=44}}</ref>

Allada's governance involved officials such as the Grand Captain (or Caminga), the Captain of the Whites (overseeing European trade), and the Captain of Horses. Royal authority was reinforced through rituals, although descriptions of religious institutions remain sparse and often dismissive. The king's crocodile deity, Tokpodun, may have functioned as a state cult.<ref name = "Monroe45">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=45}}</ref> Grand Customs, involving ritual wealth distribution and limited human sacrifice, were held upon a king's death, paralleling later practices in Dahomey.

The influx of European and Asian goods strengthened royal prestige and authority. These goods were showcased and distributed during public rituals, bolstering elite status and political cohesion. The king monopolized high-quality imports and required that foreign traders first purchase goods from the crown before dealing elsewhere.<ref name = "Monroe46">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=46}}</ref> Yet by the late seventeenth century, challenges mounted. Increased slave demand empowered secondary elites and rival ports like Whydah. Inland polities such as Dahomey began supplying captives directly. By 1670, only 17% of captives were sourced by the king himself.<ref name = "Monroe47">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=47}}</ref> The remainder came from caboceers and inland traders.

Allada's failure to centralize control over trade led to political fragmentation. Succession disputes, including Hussar's attempted usurpation of King Soso (1717–24), and revolts in key towns like Offra, destabilized the kingdom.<ref name = "Monroe47"/> Consequently, European traders increasingly shifted their focus elsewhere by the century's end.<ref name = "Monroe47"/>

=== The Kingdom of Hueda (Whydah) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Whydah}}
The kingdom of Hueda was an early beneficiary of Allada's inability to monopolize coastal trade. Oral traditions claim that, like Allada, Hueda was the product of a dynastic dispersal from Tado. A minor kingdom and a client of Allada for much of the seventeenth century, Hueda entered the documentary record in 1671 with the establishment of a French trading lodge in Savi, its royal capital.<ref name = "Monroe46"/> The English Royal African Company relocated its base to Savi in 1682, leaving the Dutch as the sole European power at Offra.<ref name = "Monroe46"/> Allada made attempts to reclaim control over trade, including reducing duties and imposing an embargo on Hueda-bound commerce, but these measures were largely unsuccessful.<ref name = "Monroe46"/>

Although Allada remained an important supplier of captives traded through Hueda, its exclusive control over trade revenues was significantly undermined. Hueda, meanwhile, grew rapidly. Its territory measured roughly 50 km east–west by 35 km north–south,<ref name = "Monroe48">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=48}}</ref> and sources estimate its population exceeded 100,000, with a military potential of 20,000 to 40,000.<ref name = "Monroe48"/> Savi, the capital, was described as extremely populous, and its hinterland was densely settled with over two dozen provincial centers known as "Vice-roy's villages".<ref name = "Monroe48"/>

Savi functioned as both political capital and primary marketplace, drawing as many as 5,000 people on market days. Goods sold included locally produced salt, textiles, basketry, and pottery, as well as imported European merchandise.<ref name = "Monroe50">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=50}}</ref> Rural and urban areas were integrated economically, forming a continuous, cultivated landscape.

Trade shifted decisively to Hueda in the late seventeenth century. European lodges were established in Savi, 15 km inland from the port town of Whydah, making it a central node in Atlantic commerce. One early eighteenth-century account highlighted Hueda's wealth and power, stating that it could hire enough help to destroy any adversary.<ref name = "Monroe50"/> As Hueda gained economic strength, it asserted political independence from Allada. From the 1670s to the 1710s, tensions escalated in the form of trade disputes, military clashes, and proxy wars.<ref name = "Monroe50"/>

Hueda's monarchy resembled Allada's, with a hereditary king who wielded judicial authority and controlled taxation and labor. The royal ancestor cult played a legitimizing role but remained minor in scale. The dominant religious institution was the cult of [[Snake worship#Danh-gbi|Dangbe]], the python deity, led by an independent priesthood.<ref name = "Monroe50"/>

By the early eighteenth century, factionalism and the ambitions of autonomous officials eroded royal power. European merchants often supported competing elites, exacerbating internal divisions.<ref name = "Monroe52">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=52}}</ref> King [[Haffon]] (r. 1708–33) tried to centralize control by restricting access to trade wealth, provoking opposition. Dissatisfied elites warned of violent consequences should the king continue his "tyranny".<ref name = "Monroe52"/> These internal divisions ultimately enabled Dahomey to conquer Hueda in 1727.

=== The emergence of the kingdom of Dahomey ===
{{main|History of the Kingdom of Dahomey}}
Farther north on the [[Abomey]] Plateau, a third polity began to take shape during the seventeenth century: the Fon kingdom of Dahomey.<ref name="Monroe62">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=62}}</ref> Its origins remain obscure. Oral traditions recount that the ruling dynasty originated from a succession dispute between two princes of Allada, [[:fr:Tè-Agbanlin|Teagbanlin]] and [[Do-Aklin|Dogbari]]. Teagbanlin allegedly founded [[Porto-Novo]], while Dogbari's son Dakodonu migrated north and secured land at Abomey through interactions with the Guedevi chiefdoms.

The famous founding legend recounts how Dakodonu killed Chief Dan, building his palace over Dan's body—hence the name Dahomey, meaning "in the belly of Dan". However, modern scholarship casts doubt on this narrative, suggesting it was an eighteenth-century invention aimed at legitimizing the Fon dynasty's authority. Dahomey may have originated as a militarized band, and the link to Allada was likely retroactively constructed.<ref name="Monroe63">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=63}}</ref>

It is also possible that the dynasty emerged during the collapse of the iron economy on the plateau around 1600, creating opportunities for new elites to redirect trade toward the coast. Despite the contested nature of its origins, the Fon monarchy developed ritual and political structures similar to neighboring polities. Kings established legitimacy through [[West African Vodún|vodùn]] worship and [[Veneration of the dead|ancestor veneration]], relocating local deities to palace precincts to reinforce royal authority.<ref name="Monroe64">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=64}}</ref>

The "[[Annual Customs of Dahomey|Grand Customs]]," involving public displays of wealth and sacrifice, served as major political tools. Unlike Allada, Dahomean rulers performed these rites publicly, distributing goods and fostering loyalty among chiefs and subjects. King Wegbaja (ca. 1650–80) used feasting and redistribution to build alliances with local elites.<ref name="Monroe65">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=65}}</ref>

By the late seventeenth century, Dahomey expanded rapidly. Oral sources describe the kingdom's control extending across the entire Abomey Plateau by the early eighteenth century. Like Allada and Hueda, Dahomey relied on local elites to administer rural areas but demanded regular tribute flows to the capital.<ref name="Monroe65"/>

Economic competition played a key role in this expansion. Control of trade routes—both within the plateau and toward the coast—was a major motivation for military campaigns. Conquests were justified by conflicts over trade access and slave raiding. Kings such as Akaba (ca. 1680–1716) intervened against rivals who restricted commerce or conducted raids against Dahomean dependents.<ref name="Monroe66">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=66}}</ref>

This early phase of Dahomean expansion, driven by trade competition and reinforced through ritualized redistribution, laid the foundations for the kingdom's emergence as a dominant regional power in the eighteenth century.<ref name="Monroe67">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|pages=67}}</ref>

Dahomey's access to coastal commerce was strengthened by its control over intra-plateau trade, providing captives to coastal elites at Allada and Whydah.<ref name="Monroe68">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=68}}</ref> While some captives came from expansionist wars, others were likely acquired from or taxed on northern traders. By the 1690s, European observers noted that inland states like Dahomey were supplying increasing numbers of captives for sale at the coast.<ref name="Monroe68"/>

Administration under early Dahomean rulers such as [[Houegbadja|Wegbaja]] and [[Akaba of Dahomey|Akaba]] was unevenly centralized. Wegbaja is credited with establishing a centralized legal code, and Akaba reportedly delegated authority in conquered areas to loyal officials from Abomey. However, royal control remained weak. Chiefs often retained autonomy, and the king's influence depended on tactical support of lesser local elites.<ref name="Monroe68"/> Like Allada and Hueda, Dahomey in the seventeenth century functioned as a tributary polity relying on dispersed rural power bases.

==Colonial Benin (formerly, Republic of Dahomey)==
{{main|French Dahomey}}
Dahomey was a French colony of and a part of French West Africa from 1904 to 1959. Under the French, a port was constructed at [[Cotonou]], and railroads were built. School facilities were expanded by [[Roman Catholic]] missions. In 1946, Dahomey became an overseas territory with its own [[parliament]] and representation in the French national assembly.  On December 4, 1958, it became the [[Republic of Dahomey]].

==Post-colonial Benin==
{{see also|Republic of Dahomey|People's Republic of Benin}}

=== 20th century ===
Between 1960 and 1972, a succession of [[military coup]]s brought about many changes of government.<ref>{{cite book|last=Decalo|first=Samuel|title=Political Reform in Francophone Africa|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, CO|year=1997|editor=John F. Clark & David E. Gardinier|chapter=Benin: First of the new democracies|pages=43–61}}</ref> The last of these brought to power Major [[Mathieu Kérékou]] as the head of a regime professing strict [[Marxist-Leninist]] principles.<ref>Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders (2003), page 55.</ref> By 1975 the Republic of Dahomey changed its name to the People's Republic of Benin.<ref>Jamie Stokes.  Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z. Infobase Publishing, 2009. {{ISBN|0-8160-7158-6}}, p110.</ref> The [[People's Revolutionary Party of Benin]] (PRPB) remained in complete power until the beginning of the 1990s. Kérékou, encouraged by France and other democratic powers, convened a national conference that introduced a new democratic constitution and held presidential and legislative elections. Kérékou's principal opponent at the presidential poll, and the ultimate victor, was Prime Minister [[Nicéphore Soglo]]. Supporters of Soglo also secured a majority in the National Assembly.<ref name=bn>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm "Background Note: Benin"]. U.S. Department of State (June 2008). {{PD-notice}}</ref> Benin was thus the first African country to successfully complete the transition from a dictatorship to a pluralistic political system.<ref>Thomson Gale (Firm). Countries of the world and their leaders yearbook 2007, Volume 1. Thomson Gale, 2006. {{ISBN|0-7876-8104-0}}, p212</ref>

In the second round of National Assembly elections held in March 1995, Zoglo's political vehicle, the Parti de la Renaissance du Benin, was the largest single party but lacked an overall majority. The success of a party formed by supporters of ex-president Kérékou, who had officially retired from active politics, allowed him to stand successfully at both the 1996 and 2001 presidential elections.<ref name=bn/>

=== 2000s ===
During the 2001 elections, however, alleged irregularities and dubious practices led to a boycott of the run-off poll by the main opposition candidates. The four top-ranking contenders following the first round presidential elections were Mathieu Kérékou (incumbent) 45.4%, Nicephore Soglo (former president) 27.1%, [[Adrien Houngbédji]] (National Assembly Speaker) 12.6%, and [[Bruno Amoussou]] (Minister of State) 8.6%. The second round balloting, originally scheduled for March 18, 2001, was postponed for days because both Soglo and Houngbedji withdrew, alleging electoral fraud. This left Kérékou to run against his own Minister of State, Amoussou, in what was termed a "friendly match."<ref name=bn/>

In December 2002, Benin held its first municipal elections since before the institution of Marxism-Leninism. The process was smooth with the significant exception of the 12th district council for Cotonou, the contest that would ultimately determine who would be selected for the mayoralty of the capital city. That vote was marred by irregularities, and the electoral commission was forced to repeat that single election. Nicephore Soglo's [[Benin Rebirth Party|Renaissance du Benin]] (RB) party won the new vote, paving the way for the former president to be elected Mayor of Cotonou by the new city council in February 2002.<ref name=bn/>

National Assembly elections took place in March 2003 and were generally considered to be free and fair. Although there were some irregularities, these were not significant and did not greatly disrupt the proceedings or the results. These elections resulted in a loss of seats by RB—the primary opposition party. The other opposition parties, the [[Democratic Renewal Party (Benin)|Party for Democratic Renewal]] (PRD) led by the former Prime Minister Adrien Houngbedji and the Alliance Etoile (AE), joined the government coalition.<ref name=bn/>

Former [[West African Development Bank]] Director [[Yayi Boni]] won the March 2006 [[2006 Beninese presidential election|election]] for the presidency in a field of 26 candidates.<ref>{{cite news |title=Boni wins Benin presidential election: official |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2006-03-23/boni-wins-benin-presidential-election-official/825650 |work=ABC News |date=22 March 2006 |language=en-AU}}</ref> International observers including the [[United Nations]], [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), and others called the election free, fair, and transparent. President Kérékou was barred from running under the 1990 constitution due to term and age limitations.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Mathieu Kerekou leaves after 29 years |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/fr/node/225956 |work=The New Humanitarian |date=7 April 2006 |language=fr}}</ref> President Yayi was inaugurated on April 6, 2006.<ref name=bn/><ref>{{cite news |title=Benin: Celebration As Boni Takes Over |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200604070127.html}}</ref>

Benin held legislative elections on March 31, 2007, for the 83 seats in the National Assembly. The Force Cowrie for an Emerging Benin (FCBE), a coalition of parties, closely linked to President Yayi, won a plurality of the seats in the National Assembly, providing the president with considerable influence over the legislative agenda.<ref name=bn/>

=== 2010s ===
In March 2011,  President Boni Yayi was re-elected with 53.13 percent of vote in the first-round of the [[2011 Beninese presidential election|election]]. His main rival rejected the results, claiming widespread irregularities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-benin-election-idAFJOE72L02120110322|title = Rival rejects poll win of Benin's Boni Yayi|newspaper = Reuters|date = 22 March 2011|last1 = Elijah|first1 = Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Benin's Boni Yayi wins second term - court |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/benin-election-idAFLDE72K0KE20110321 |work=Reuters |date=21 March 2011 |language=en}}</ref>

In October 2015, Benin's former President Mathieu Kerekou, who ruled the country a total of 28 years during his two spells as president (1972-1991 and 1996–2006), died at the age of 82.<ref>{{cite news |title=Benin's 'father of democracy' Mathieu Kerekou dies at 82 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34537057 |work=BBC News |date=15 October 2015}}</ref>

After President Boni Yayi had served maximum two five-year terms, businessman [[Patrice Talon]] succeeded him. Talon defeated prime minister [[Lionel Zinsou]], the candidate for Boni Yayi's [[Cowry Forces for an Emerging Benin]] (FCBE), in the March 2016 presidential [[2016 Beninese presidential election|election]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/Benin-presidential-elections-mark-victory-Talon|title=Businessman 'wins Benin's presidential election'|date=21 March 2016}}</ref>

=== 2020s ===
In April 2021,  incumbent Patrice Talon won re-election with 86 percent of the votes in the first round of the [[2021 Beninese presidential election|election]]. The change in election laws resulted in total control of parliament by president Talon's supporters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/13/benins-president-wins-re-election-with-86-official|title = Benin's President Patrice Talon wins re-election with 86%}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/11/vote-counting-in-benin-after-election-marked-by-violent-protests|title=Benin vote count begins after opposition groups boycott election}}</ref>

In April 2025, the government of Benin adopted a law, recognizing 16 kingdoms, 80 senior chiefs and 10 traditional chiefs through a new law, adopted in March 2025. The pre-colonial period, set at 1894 for the south and 1897 for the north of Benin, served as a historical reference for the bill to institutionalize chieftaincy in Benin. and to frame the rules on traditional territories.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.africarivista.it/il-benin-riconosce-i-capi-tradizionali/263599/|title=Il Benin riconosce i capi tradizionali}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[History of Africa]]
* [[History of West Africa]]
* [[List of heads of government of Benin]]
* [[List of heads of state of Benin]]
* [[Politics of Benin]]
* Cotonou [[Cotonou#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Cotonou|timeline]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{CIA World Factbook}}
* {{StateDept}}
* {{cite book |last=Monroe |first=J. Cameron |title=The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139628709 |isbn=978-1-107-04018-2 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#benin Rulers.org — Benin] – List of rulers for Benin

{{Years in Benin}}
{{Benin topics}}
{{History of Africa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Benin}}
[[Category:History of Benin| ]]
[[Category:French West Africa]]