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{{History of Egypt}}
{{Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar}}

[[Egypt]], one of the world's oldest civilizations, was unified around 3150 BC by King Narmer. It later came under Persian, Greek, Roman, and Islamic rule before joining the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1517. Controlled by Britain in the late 19th century, it became a republic in 1953. After several political transitions, [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] currently leads the country.

== Predynastic Egypt (pre-3150 BC) ==
{{Main|Prehistoric Egypt|Population history of Egypt}}
[[File:Predynastic collage (new version).jpg|thumb|Artifacts of Egypt from the prehistoric period, from 4400 to 3100 BC. First row from top left: a [[Badari culture|Badarian]] ivory figurine, a [[Naqada culture|Naqada II]] jar, a [[Bat (goddess)|Bat]] figurine. Second row: a [[diorite]] vase, a [[Gebel el-Arak Knife|flint knife]], a [[cosmetic palette]].]]
There is evidence of [[petroglyphs]] along the [[Nile]] terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of [[hunter-gatherer]]s and [[fishing|fishermen]] was replaced by a [[cereal|grain]]-grinding culture. [[African humid period|Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt]], forming the [[Sahara]]. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralized society.<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>

By about 6000 BC, a [[Neolithic]] culture had taken root in the Nile Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |title=The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BC Neolithic |publisher=The British Museum |year=2005 |access-date=21 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214084636/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |archive-date=14 February 2009 }}</ref> During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. The [[Badari culture]] and the successor [[Naqada culture|Naqada]] series are generally regarded as precursors to [[Ancient Egypt|dynastic Egypt]]. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, [[Merimde culture|Merimde]], predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyphic]] inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.<ref>[[Kathryn A. Bard|Bard, Kathryn A.]], Ian Shaw, ed. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.</ref>

In [[Upper Egypt]], the predynastic [[Badari culture]] was followed by the [[Naqada culture]] (Amratian),<ref>Brace, 1993. Clines and clusters</ref> being closely related to the Lower Nubian;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zakrzewski |first1=Sonia R. |title=Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=April 2007 |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=501–509 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20569 |pmid=17295300 |bibcode=2007AJPA..132..501Z |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.20569 |language=en |quote=When Mahalanobis D2 was used, the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita,1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Tracy L. Prowse, Nancy C. Lovell. [https://archive.today/20121217220119/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/57896/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 "Concordance of cranial and dental morphological traits and evidence for endogamy in ancient Egypt"], ''[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]]'', Vol. 101, Issue 2, October 1996, pp. 237-246</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Godde |first1=Kane |title=A biological perspective of the relationship between Egypt, Nubia, and the Near East during the Predynastic period (2020) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337001806 |access-date=16 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Mokhtar |editor-first=Gamal |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |date=1981 |publisher=UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa; Heinemann Educational Books; University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-03913-1 |pages=20–21, 148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC |language=en |quote=The difference in behaviour between two populations of similar ethnic composition throws significant light on an apparently abnormal fact: one of them adopted and perhaps even invented, a system of writing, while the other, which was aware of that writing, disdained it}}</ref> other [[northeast Africa]]n populations,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |pages=84–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |language=en}}</ref> with some affinities with other coastal communities from the [[Maghreb]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |title=Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=September 1990 |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=35–48 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330830105 |pmid=2221029 |bibcode=1990AJPA...83...35K |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330830105 |language=en |issn=0002-9483|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strohaul |first1=Eugene |title=Anthropology of the Egyptian Nubian Men - Strouhal - 2007 - ANTHROPOLOGIE |url=http://puvodni.mzm.cz/Anthropologie/downloads/articles/2007/Strouhal_2007_p105-245.pdf |journal=Puvodni.MZM.cz |page=115}}</ref> some [[Afrotropical realm|tropical]] African groups,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |title=Early Nile Valley Farmers From El-Badari: Aboriginals or 'European' AgroNostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered with Other Data |journal=Journal of Black Studies |date=November 2005 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=191–208 |doi=10.1177/0021934704265912 |s2cid=144482802 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934704265912 |language=en |issn=0021-9347|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and possibly inhabitants of the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Keita |first1=Shomarka |title=Analysis of Naqada Predynastic Crania: a brief report (1996) |url=https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/180/180-30-76280-1-10-20161130.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205163430/https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/180/180-30-76280-1-10-20161130.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-05 |access-date=2022-02-22}}</ref> Upper Egypt is considered to have formed the pre-dominant basis for the cultural development of Pharaonic Egypt and the Proto-dynastic kings emerged from the Naqada region.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Africa |date=1975–1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-22215-0 |pages=500–509}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford history of ancient Egypt |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-280458-8 |pages=479 |edition=New}}</ref>

Historical scholarship has generally regarded the peopling of the Egyptian Nile Valley from archaeological and biological data, to be the result of interaction between coastal [[north Africa|northern Africans]], "neolithic" [[African humid period|Saharans]], [[Nilotic people|Nilotic hunters]], and riverine proto-[[Nubians]] with some influence and migration from the [[Levant]] (Hassan, 1988).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hassan |first=Fekri A. |date=1988-06-01 |title=The Predynastic of Egypt |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=135–185 |doi=10.1007/BF00975416 |issn=1573-7802}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |title=Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=1990 |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=35–48 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330830105 |pmid=2221029 |bibcode=1990AJPA...83...35K |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330830105 |language=en |issn=1096-8644|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

As of 2025, the earliest full-genome analysis of an ancient Egyptian is that of [[Old Kingdom individual (NUE001)]] (2855–2570 BCE), with implications for the genetic makeup of Early Dynastic Egyptians in general: the study shows that the genetic profile of this individual was most closely represented by a two-source model, in which 77.6% ± 3.8% of the ancestry corresponded to genomes from the Middle Neolithic Moroccan site of Skhirat-Rouazi (SKH, dated to 4780–4230 BCE), itself consisting of predominantly Levant Neolithic ancestry (76.4 ± 4.0%) and minor [[Iberomaurusian]] ancestry (22.4 ± 3.8%), with the remaining (22.4% ± 3.8%) most closely related to known genomes from [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic|Neolithic Mesopotamia]] (dated to 9000-8000 BCE).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morez Jacobs |first1=Adeline |last2=Irish |first2=Joel D. |last3=Cooke |first3=Ashley |last4=Anastasiadou |first4=Kyriaki |last5=Barrington |first5=Christopher |last6=Gilardet |first6=Alexandre |last7=Kelly |first7=Monica |last8=Silva |first8=Marina |last9=Speidel |first9=Leo |last10=Tait |first10=Frankie |last11=Williams |first11=Mia |last12=Brucato |first12=Nicolas |last13=Ricaut |first13=Francois-Xavier |last14=Wilkinson |first14=Caroline |last15=Madgwick |first15=Richard |last16=Holt |first16=Emily |last17=Nederbragt |first17=Alexandra J. |last18=Inglis |first18=Edward |last19=Hajdinjak |first19=Mateja |last20=Skoglund |first20=Pontus |last21=Girdland-Flink |first21=Linus |title=Whole-genome ancestry of an Old Kingdom Egyptian |journal=Nature |date=2 July 2025 |volume=644 |issue=8077 |pages=714–721 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-09195-5 |pmid=40604286 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |pmc=12367555 |bibcode=2025Natur.644..714M }} </ref>

== Dynastic Egypt (3150–332 BC) ==
{{Main|Ancient Egypt|History of ancient Egypt}}

=== Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom ===
{{Main|Early dynastic period of Egypt|Old Kingdom of Egypt}}
[[File:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]] and the [[Giza pyramid complex|Pyramids of Giza]], built during the [[Old Kingdom]].]]
A unified kingdom was formed in 3150 BC by King [[Menes]], leading to a [[List of Egyptian dynasties|series of dynasties]] that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. [[Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]] flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its [[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]], [[Art of Ancient Egypt|arts]], [[Egyptian language|language]] and customs.

The [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|first two ruling dynasties]] of a unified Egypt set the stage for the [[Old Kingdom]] period (c. 2700–2200 BC), which constructed many [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], most notably the [[pyramid of Djoser]], constructed during the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|Third Dynasty]] and the [[Giza pyramid complex|Giza Pyramids]], constructed in the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]].

=== First Intermediate Period, the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period ===
{{Main|First Intermediate Period of Egypt|Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period of Egypt}}
The [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]] ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.<ref name = scinews/> Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh [[Amenemhat III]]. A [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|second period of disunity]] heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Semitic-speaking]] [[Hyksos]]. The Hyksos migrants<ref name = scinews>{{cite web|url = http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/immigrant-hyksos-dynasty-08646.html |title = Rulers of Ancient Egypt's Enigmatic Hyksos Dynasty Were Immigrants, Not Invaders|work = Sci-News.com|date = 16 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0235414 | doi-access=free | title=Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt | year=2020 | last1=Stantis | first1=Chris | last2=Kharobi | first2=Arwa | last3=Maaranen | first3=Nina | last4=Nowell | first4=Geoff M. | last5=Bietak | first5=Manfred | last6=Prell | first6=Silvia | last7=Schutkowski | first7=Holger | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=15 | issue=7 | article-number=e0235414 | pmid=32667937 | pmc=7363063 | bibcode=2020PLoSO..1535414S }}</ref> took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at [[Avaris]]. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by [[Ahmose I]], who founded the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] and relocated the capital from [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]].

=== New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period and Late Period ===
{{Main|New Kingdom of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Late Period of ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Starożytny_Bliski_Wschód_w_XV_wieku_p.n.e._(Ancient_Near_East_1450_B.C.).jpg|thumb|New Kingdom in the 15th century BC]]

The [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (c. 1550–1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an [[Power in international relations|international power]] that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire from [[Syria]] to [[Upper Nubia]]. This period is noted for some of the most well known [[Pharaoh]]s, including [[Hatshepsut]], [[Thutmose III]], [[Akhenaten]] and his wife [[Nefertiti]], [[Tutankhamun]] and [[Ramesses II]]. The first historically attested expression of [[monotheism]] came during this period as [[Atenism]], although some{{who|date=April 2019}} consider [[Atenism]] to be a form of [[monolatry]] rather than of [[monotheism]]. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later ruled and invaded by [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]], [[Kingdom of Kush|Nubians]] and [[Assyria]]ns, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105190447/http://ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm | archive-date=5 January 2009 | title=The Kushite Conquest of Egypt | publisher=Ancientsudan.org | url-status=usurped | access-date=25 August 2010}}</ref>

=== Achaemenid rule ===
[[File:Xerxes I tomb Egyptian soldier circa 470 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Egyptian soldier of the Achaemenid army, {{Circa|470 BCE}}. [[Xerxes I]] tomb relief.]]

In the sixth century BC, the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered Egypt.<ref name="EGYPT i">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/egypt-i |title=EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref> The entire [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt]], from 525 BC to 402 BC, save for [[Petubastis III]] and possibly [[Psammetichus IV]], was an entirely [[Persian people|Persian]]-ruled period, with the Achaemenid kings being granted the title of [[pharaoh]].<ref name="EGYPT i"/> [[Amyrtaeus]]' successful rebellion ended the first Achaemenid rule and inaugurated Egypt's last significant phase of independence under native rulers. The [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth Dynasty]] was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch.<ref name="EGYPT i"/> It [[Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt|fell to the Persians again]] in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King [[Nectanebo II]], was defeated in battle.<ref name="EGYPT i"/>

=== Second Achaemenid conquest ===
The [[Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt]], also known as the Second Egyptian [[Satrap]]y, was effectively a short-living province of the Achaemenid Empire between 343 BC to 332 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crystalinks.com/dynasty31.html|title=Thirty First Dynasty of Egypt |website=CrystaLink |access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref> After an interval of independence, during which three indigenous dynasties reigned (the [[Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt|28th]], [[Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt|29th]] and [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt|30th dynasty]]), [[Artaxerxes III]] (358–338 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for a brief second period (343–332 BC), which is called the Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, thus starting another period of pharaohs of Persian origin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crystalinks.com/Late_Period_Egypt.html|title=Late Period of Ancient Egypt |website=CrystaLink |access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref>

A team led by [[Johannes Krause]] managed the first reliable sequencing of the genomes of 90 mummified individuals in 2017. Whilst not conclusive, because of the non-exhaustive time frame and restricted location that the mummies represent, their study nevertheless showed that these Ancient Egyptians "closely resembled ancient and modern Near Eastern populations, especially those in the Levant, and had almost no DNA from sub-Saharan Africa. What's more, the genetics of the mummies remained remarkably consistent even as different powers—including Nubians, Greeks, and Romans—conquered the empire".<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Wade | first=L. | year=2017 | title=Egyptian mummy DNA, at last | url= https://www.science.org/content/article/scientists-thought-ancient-egyptian-mummies-didn-t-have-any-dna-left-they-were-wrong | journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=356 | issue=6341 |page = 894 | doi=10.1126/science.356.6341.894 | pmid=28572344 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Greek rule ==

===Ptolemaic Kingdom===
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom}}
[[File:Denderah3 Cleopatra Cesarion.jpg|thumb|211x211px|The [[Greeks|Greek]] Ptolemaic queen [[Cleopatra]] and her son by [[Julius Caesar]], [[Caesarion]], at the [[Dendera Temple complex]].]]
[[File:Ptolemaic Kingdom III-II century BC - en.svg|thumb|left|Ptolemaic Egypt {{Circa|235&nbsp;BC}}. The green areas were lost to the [[Seleucid Empire]] thirty five years later.]]
The [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] was a powerful [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic state]] extending from southern [[Syria]] in the east, to [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. [[Alexandria]] became the capital city and a center of [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.<ref>{{cite book | last=Bowman | first = Alan K | title= Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 | publisher=[[University of California Press]] | location=Berkeley | year=1996 | edition=2nd | pages=25–26 | isbn=978-0-520-20531-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Stanwick | first = Paul Edmond | title= Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs | publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] | location=Austin | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-292-77772-9}}</ref>

The last ruler from the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] was [[Cleopatra]], who committed suicide following the burial of her lover [[Mark Antony]], who had died in her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound) after [[Augustus]] had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled.

The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians, often caused by an unwanted regime, and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, [[Hellenistic culture]] continued to thrive in Egypt well after the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest]]. The native Egyptian/Coptic culture continued to exist as well (the Coptic language itself was Egypt's most widely spoken language until at least the 10th century).

== Roman Egypt ==

===Roman province of Egypt===
{{Main|Roman Egypt}}
Egypt quickly became the Empire's [[breadbasket]] supplying the greater portion of the Empire's grain in addition to flax, papyrus, glass and many other finished goods. The city of Alexandria became a key trading outpost for the Roman Empire (by some accounts, the most important for a time). Shipping from Egypt regularly reached India and Ethiopia among other international destinations.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt | editor=Riggs, Christina | year=2012 | publisher=Oxford University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOLuaRusoCgC | isbn=978-0-19-957145-1 | page=107}}</ref> It was also a leading (perhaps ''the'' leading) scientific and technological center of the Empire. Scholars such as [[Ptolemy]], [[Hypatia]], and [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron]] broke new ground in astronomy, mathematics, and other disciplines. Culturally, the city of Alexandria at times rivaled Rome in its importance.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform | author=Olson, Roger E. | year=2014 | publisher=InterVarsity Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zexBAwAAQBAJ | page=201| isbn=978-0-8308-7736-2 }}</ref>

=== Diocese of Egypt ===
{{Main|Diocese of Egypt}}

[[File:Cairo, Old Cairo, Hanging Church, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Hanging Church]] of Cairo, first built in the 3rd or 4th century, is one of the most famous [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]] churches in Egypt.]]
Christianity reached Egypt relatively early in the evangelist period of the first century (traditionally credited to [[Mark the Evangelist]]).<ref name="georgetown1">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |archive-date=20 December 2011 }} See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"</ref> Alexandria, Egypt and Antioch, Syria quickly became the leading centers of Christianity.<ref>{{cite book | title= Christianity: the One, the Many: What Christianity Might Have Been |volume=1 | author=Nash, John F. | year=2008 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5JZjZU-OdoC | page= 91|publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=978-1-4628-2571-4 }}</ref> [[Diocletian]]'s reign marked the transition from the classical Roman to the Late antique/Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The [[New Testament]] had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in AD 451, a distinct [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Egyptian Coptic Church]] was firmly established.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kamil|first = Jill|title = Coptic Egypt: History and Guide|location = Cairo|publisher = American University in Cairo|date = 1997|page = 39|isbn = 978-977-424-242-7}}</ref>

=== Sassanid Conquest of Egypt ===
[[Sasanian Egypt]] (known in [[Middle Persian]] sources as ''Agiptus'') refers to the brief rule of Egypt and parts of [[Libya]] by the [[Sasanian Empire]], which lasted from 619 to 629,<ref name="EGYPT IV">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/egypt-iv |title=EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref> until the Sasanian rebel [[Shahrbaraz]] made an alliance with the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]] and had control over Egypt returned to him.<ref name="EGYPT IV"/>

== Early Islamic Egypt ==
{{Main|History of Muslim Egypt|Tulunids|Ikhshidid dynasty}}

[[File:Tulunids 893.svg|thumb|left|220x220px|Extent of the Tulunid domains under Khumarawayh, in 893]]The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief [[Aegyptus (Roman province)#Persian and Arab conquests|Persian]] invasion early in the 7th century, until 639–642, when Egypt was invaded and [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|conquered by the Arab Islamic Empire]]. The final loss of Egypt was of incalculable significance to the Byzantine Empire, which had relied on Egypt for many agricultural and manufactured goods.

When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought [[Sunni Islam]] to the country. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with their Christian traditions as well as other indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders that have flourished to this day.<ref name="georgetown1" /> These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.<ref>El-Daly, Okasha. ''Egyptology: The Missing Millennium''. London: UCL Press</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2024}}

== Late Medieval Egypt ==
{{Main|Fatimid Caliphate|Ayyubid dynasty|Mamluk Sultanate}}[[File:Al-Azhar (inside) 2006.jpg|thumb|The [[Al-Azhar Mosque]], of medieval Fatimid [[Cairo]].|227x227px]]Muslim rulers nominated by the [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphate]] remained in [[History of Arab Egypt|control of Egypt]] for the next six centuries, with [[Cairo]] as the seat of the Caliphate under the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]].{{dubious|date=May 2024}} With the end of the [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] [[Ayyubid dynasty]], the [[Mamluk]]s, a [[Turkic people|Turco]]-[[Circassians|Circassian]] military caste, took control about AD 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.<ref name="Abu-Lughod">{{cite book|last=Abu-Lughod|first=Janet L.|author-link=Janet Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|orig-date=1989|pages=[https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243 243–244]|isbn=978-0-19-506774-3|chapter=The Mideast Heartland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244|url=https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243}}</ref> The Greek and Coptic languages and cultures went into a steep decline in favor of Arabic culture (though Coptic managed to last as a spoken language until the 17th century and remains a liturgical language today).

The Mamluks continued to govern the country until the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)|conquest of Egypt]] by the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1517, after which it became a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The mid-14th-century [[Black Death in Egypt|Black Death]] killed about 40% of the population of Egypt.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm Egypt – Major Cities], ''U.S. Library of Congress''</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Fatimid Caliphate.PNG|Evolution of the Fatimid Caliphate
|File:Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg|Ayyubid [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultanate of Egypt]] (in pink) at the death of [[Saladin]] in 1193
|File:Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo 1317 AD.jpg|Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan [[an-Nasir Muhammad]]
}}

== Ottoman Egypt ==
{{Main|History of Ottoman Egypt}}

[[File:Yavuz Sultan I. Selim Han.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Selim I]] (1470–1520), conquered Egypt]]After the 15th century, the Ottoman invasion pushed the Egyptian system into decline. The defensive militarization damaged its civil society and economic institutions.<ref name="Abu-Lughod" /> The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of the plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.<ref name="Abu-Lughod" /> Egypt suffered six famines between 1687 and 1731.<ref>{{cite book|author=Donald Quataert|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|url=https://archive.org/details/ottomanempire00quat_522|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-521-83910-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/ottomanempire00quat_522/page/n138 115]}}</ref> The 1784 [[famine]] cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.<ref>"[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows]". ''ScienceDaily''. 22 November 2006</ref>

The brief [[French invasion of Egypt (1798)|French invasion of Egypt]] led by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] began in 1798. The campaign eventually led to the discovery of the [[Rosetta Stone]], creating the field of [[Egyptology]]. Despite early victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, Napoleon and his [[Armée d'Orient (1798)|Armée d'Orient]] were eventually defeated and forced to withdraw, especially after suffering the defeat of the supporting French fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]].

== Muhammad Ali Dynasty ==
{{Main | Muhammad Ali dynasty }}
[[File:Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png|thumb|Map of Egypt under [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]]]

The expulsion of the French in 1801 by [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman]], [[Mamluk]], and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and [[Albanians]] — who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans – wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] ([[Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha]]) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the [[Sultan]] in [[Istanbul]] as his [[viceroy]] in Egypt; <!--[[Muhammad Ali's seizure of power]] -->the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a [[dynasty]] that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. After 1882 the dynasty became a British puppet.<ref>M. Abir, "Modernisation, Reaction and Muhammad Ali's 'Empire'" ''Middle Eastern Studies'' 13#3 (1977), pp. 295–313 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4282660 online]</ref>

Muhammad Ali's primary focus was military: he annexed [[Northern Sudan]] (1820–1824), [[Syria]] (1833), and parts of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Anatolia]]; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. He kept the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A more lasting result of his military ambition is that it required him to modernize the country. Eager to adopt the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great powers, he sent students to the West and invited training missions to Egypt. He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2">Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', published c. 1973, p 2.</ref>

The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyptian variety of which became notable, transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop [[monoculture]] before the end of the century. The social effects of this were enormous: land ownership became concentrated and many foreigners arrived, shifting production towards international markets.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2" />

== British Protectorate (1882–1952) ==
{{Main|History of Egypt under the British|History of modern Egypt}}
[[File:Cairo-Demonstrations1919.jpg|thumb|upright|Nationalists demonstrating in [[Cairo]], 1919]]

British indirect rule lasted from 1882, when the British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at [[Battle of Tel el-Kebir|Tel el-Kebir]] in September and took control of the country, to the [[1952 Egyptian revolution]] which made Egypt a republic and when British advisers were expelled.

Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim]] (in September 1848), then by a grandson [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]] (in November 1848), then by [[Said of Egypt|Said]] (in 1854), and [[Isma'il Pasha|Isma'il]] (in 1863).
<!--In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the Government. Members of the Assembly were elected from across Egypt and came to have an important influence on Government decisions.<ref> Jankowski, James. ''Egypt: A Short History.'' Oxford: One world Publications, 2000. p. 83</ref> That's hogwash, the assembly had almost no power and rarely met-->
Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were ambitious developers, but they spent beyond their means. The [[Suez Canal]], built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. The cost of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875, Ismail sold Egypt's 44% share in the canal to the British Government.
Ismail also tried to conquer the [[Ethiopian Empire]] and was defeated twice at Gundet in 1875 and again at the [[Battle of Gura]] in 1876.

Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French [[History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty#Dual control|controllers]] who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', p 2.</ref>

Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with [[Ahmad Urabi]] a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a reduction of their control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the [[battle of Tel el-Kebir]].<ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981'' (London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin), p. 11</ref> They reinstalled Ismail's son [[Tewfik Pasha|Tewfik]] as the figurehead of a ''de facto'' British protectorate.<ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt'' (Scarecrow, 1984), p. 17</ref><ref>R.C. Mowat, "From Liberalism to Imperialism: The Case of Egypt 1875-1887." ''Historical Journal'' 16#1 (1973): 109-24. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637918 online].</ref>
In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the Ottoman Empire no longer had a role. The title for the head of state, which in 1867 had changed from ''pasha'' to ''[[Khedivate of Egypt|khedive]]'', was changed again to ''[[Sultanate of Egypt|sultan]]''. [[Abbas II of Egypt|Abbas II]] was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]], as sultan.<ref>James Jankowski, ''Egypt, A Short History'', p. 111</ref>

In 1906, the [[Dinshaway Incident]] prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the First World War, [[Saad Zaghlul]] and the [[Wafd Party]] led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to [[Malta]] on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its [[Egyptian revolution of 1919|first modern revolution]]. The revolt led the [[United Kingdom coalition government (1916–1922)|UK government]] to issue a [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence]] on 22 February 1922.<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 112</ref>

The [[Kingdom of Egypt|new government]] drafted and implemented a [[1923 Constitution of Egypt|constitution]] in 1923 based on a [[parliamentary system]]. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as [[Prime Minister of Egypt]] in 1924. In 1936, the [[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty]] was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military ''coup d'état'' known as the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]]. The [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]] forced King [[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]] to abdicate in support of his son [[Fuad II of Egypt|Fuad]].

British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.<ref name=factbook-history>{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|work=CIA- The World Factbook|access-date=2 February 2011|quote= Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-backed monarchy in 1952.}}</ref>

== Republican Egypt (since 1953) ==
{{Main|History of republican Egypt|History of modern Egypt}}On 18 June 1953, the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Egyptian Republic]] was declared, with General [[Muhammad Naguib]] as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]{{spaced ndash}}the real architect of the 1952 movement{{spaced ndash}}and was later put under [[house arrest]].

=== Nasser era ===
{{Main|History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser}}
[[File:Nasser in 1969.jpg|thumb|Gamal Abdel Nasser|228x228px]]
Nasser assumed power as president in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He [[nationalization|nationalized]] the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]].

In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the [[United Arab Republic]]. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when [[Syria]] seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose [[confederation]] with North Yemen (the [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen]]) known as the [[United Arab States]].

In the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Israel invaded and occupied Egypt's [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Gaza Strip]], which Egypt had occupied since the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. Three years later (1970), President Nasser died and was succeeded by [[Anwar Sadat]].

=== Sadat era ===
{{Main|History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat}}[[File:Sadat 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|[[Anwar El Sadat|Anwar Al Sadat]]]]

Sadat switched Egypt's [[Cold War]] allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the [[Infitah]] economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition.

In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the [[Yom Kippur War|October War]], a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the [[Golan Heights]]. It was an attempt to regain part of the Sinai territory that Israel had captured six years earlier. Sadat hoped to seize some territory through military force, and then regain the rest of the peninsula by diplomacy. The conflict sparked an international crisis between the US and the USSR, both of whom intervened. The second UN-mandated ceasefire halted military action. While the war ended with a military stalemate, it presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return for peace with Israel.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|peace treaty]] in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the [[Arab world]] and led to Egypt's expulsion from the [[Arab League]], but it was supported by most Egyptians.{{sfnp|Vatikiotis|1991|p=443}} On 6 October 1981, [[Assassination of Anwar El Sadat|Sadat and six diplomats were assassinated]] while observing a military parade commemorating the eighth anniversary of the October 1973 War. He was succeeded by [[Hosni Mubarak]].

=== Terrorist insurgency ===
{{Main|Terrorism in Egypt}}
In 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target [[Copts]] and foreign tourists as well as government officials.<ref name="Murphy.p.4">Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p.4</ref> Some scholars and authors have credited Islamist writer [[Sayyid Qutb]], who was executed in 1967, as the inspiration for the new wave of attacks.<ref name="Murphy.p.57">Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p.57</ref><ref>Kepel, Gilles, ''Muslim Extremism in Egypt'' by Gilles Kepel, English translation published by University of California Press, 1986, p. 74</ref>

The 1990s saw an [[Islamism|Islamist group]], [[al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]], engage in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism<ref>"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm ... concerns over tourism's future] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924131816/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |date=24 September 2013 }}. Retrieved 27 September 2007.</ref>—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.<ref>[[Gilles Kepel]], ''Jihad'', 2002</ref>

Victims of the campaign against the Egyptian state from 1992 to 1997 exceeded 1,200<ref>[[Lawrence Wright]], ''[[The Looming Tower]]'' (2006), p.258</ref> and included the head of the counter-terrorism police (Major General Raouf Khayrat), a speaker of parliament ([[Rifaat el-Mahgoub]]), dozens of European tourists and Egyptian bystanders, and over 100 Egyptian police.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gemsofislamism.tripod.com/timeline_egypt.html |title=Timeline of modern Egypt |publisher=Gemsofislamism.tripod.com |access-date=2011-02-12}}</ref> At times, travel by foreigners in parts of [[Upper Egypt]] was severely restricted and dangerous.<ref>As described by [[William Dalrymple (historian)|William Dalrymple]] in his book ''From the Holy Mountain'' (1996, {{ISBN|0 00 654774 5}}) pp. 434–54, where he describes his trip to the area of [[Asyut]] in 1994.</ref> On 17 November 1997, [[Luxor massacre|62 people, mostly tourists, were killed]] near [[Luxor]]. The assailants trapped the people in the [[Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut]]. During this period, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya was given support by the governments of Iran and Sudan, as well as [[al-Qaeda]].<ref name="ucdp.uu.se">[[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]], ''Conflict Encyclopedia'', "The al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya insurgency," viewed 2013-05-03, http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=50&regionSelect=10-Middle_East# {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911063455/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=50&regionSelect=10-Middle_East |date=11 September 2015 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2020}} The Egyptian government received support during that time from the United States.<ref name="ucdp.uu.se" />

=== Civil unrest (2011–14) ===
{{Main|Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)}}

==== Revolution ====
{{Main|Egyptian revolution of 2011}}
In 2003, the ''[[Kefaya]]'' ("Egyptian Movement for Change"), was launched to oppose the Mubarak regime and to establish democratic reforms and greater [[civil liberties]].

[[File:Tahrir Square on February11.png|thumb|Celebrations in [[Tahrir Square]] after [[Omar Suleiman (politician)|Omar Suleiman]]'s statement announcing [[Hosni Mubarak]]'s resignation]]
On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government. The objective of the protest was the removal of Mubarak from power. These took the form of an intensive campaign of [[civil resistance]] supported by a very large number of people and mainly consisting of continuous mass demonstrations. By 29 January, it was becoming clear that Mubarak's government had lost control when a curfew order was ignored, and the army took a semi-neutral stance on enforcing the curfew decree.

On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Vice President [[Omar Suleiman (politician)|Omar Suleiman]] announced that Mubarak had stepped down and that the [[Egyptian military]] would assume control of the nation's affairs in the short term.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=2022-01-02 |url-access=limited |url-status=live | title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military | work=The New York Times | date=11 February 2010 | access-date=11 February 2011 | first=David D. | last=Kirkpatrick}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 | title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader | publisher=BBC | date=11 February 2010 | access-date=11 February 2011}}</ref> Jubilant celebrations broke out in [[Tahrir Square]] at the news.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control] ''Huffington Post''/AP, 11 February 2011</ref> Mubarak may have left Cairo for [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] the previous night, before or shortly after the airing of a taped speech in which Mubarak vowed he would not step down or leave.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Mubarak Flees Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mubarak-flees-cairo-for-sharm-el-sheikh/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629172135/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/02/11/501364/main20031477.shtml |archive-date=2012-06-29 |date=11 February 2011|work=CBS News|url-status=live|access-date=15 May 2012}}</ref>

On 13 February 2011, the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved. The parliamentary election was to be held in September.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|title=Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended|publisher=BBC|date=13 February 2011|access-date=13 February 2011}}</ref>

A [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2011|constitutional referendum]] was held on 19 March 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Commonwealth Parliament, Parliament House Canberra |title=The Egyptian constitutional referendum of March 2011 a new beginning |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |website=www.aph.gov.au |language=en-AU}}</ref> On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its [[2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election|first parliamentary election]] since the Mubarak regime fell. Turnout was high and there were no reports of violence, although members of some parties broke the ban on campaigning at polling places by handing out pamphlets and banners.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections]. [[NPR]]. 28 November 2011. Last Retrieved 29 November 2011.</ref> There were, however, complaints of irregularities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Don't Ignore Electoral Fraud in Egypt |url=http://www.danielpipes.org/10548/egypt-electoral-fraud |work=Daniel Pipes Middle East Forum |author=[[Daniel Pipes]] and Cynthia Farahat |date=24 January 2012}}</ref>

==== Morsi's presidency ====
{{Main|Timeline of the Egyptian Crisis under Mohamed Morsi}}

[[Egyptian presidential election, 2012|The first round of a presidential election was held in Egypt on 23 and 24 May 2012]]. [[Mohamed Morsi]] won 25% of the vote and [[Ahmed Shafik]], the last prime minister under deposed leader Hosni Mubarak, 24%. A second round was held on 16 and 17 June. On 24 June 2012, the election commission announced that Mohamed Morsi had won the election, making him the first democratically elected president of Egypt. According to official results, Morsi took 51.7 percent of the vote while Shafik received 48.3 percent.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weaver |first1=Matthew |title=Muslim Brotherhood's Mohammed Morsi wins Egypt's presidential race |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/middle-east-live/2012/jun/24/egypt-election-results-live |work=the Guardian |date=24 June 2012 |language=en}}</ref> On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's new president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

On 8 July 2012, Egypt's new president [[Mohamed Morsi]] announced he was overriding the military [[edict]] that dissolved the country's elected parliament and called lawmakers back into session.<ref name="Fahmy">{{cite news|last=Fahmy|first=Mohamed|title=Egypt's president calls back dissolved parliament|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/08/world/meast/egypt-politics/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=8 July 2012|date=9 July 2012}}</ref>

On 10 July 2012, the [[Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt]] negated the decision by Morsi to call the nation's parliament back into session.<ref>{{cite news|last=Watson|first=Ivan|title=Court overrules Egypt's president on parliament|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/10/world/meast/egypt-politics/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=10 July 2012|date=10 July 2012}}</ref> On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet, including 28 newcomers, of whom four came from the influential [[Muslim Brotherhood]] while six and the former interim military ruler [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]] as the Defence Minister came from the previous Government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post |date=3 August 2012}}</ref>

On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |title=Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012}}</ref> The declaration also requires a retrial of those accused in the Mubarak-era killings of protesters, who had been acquitted, and extends the mandate of the constituent assembly by two months. Additionally, the declaration authorizes Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution. Liberal and secular groups previously walked out of the constitutional constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while [[Muslim Brotherhood]] backers threw their support behind Morsi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/M/ML_EGYPT?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2012-11-22-11-27-48 |title=Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers |agency=Associated Press |date=23 November 2012|access-date=23 November 2012}}</ref>

The move was criticized by [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], the leader of Egypt's Constitution Party, who stated "Morsi today usurped all state powers & appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh" on his Twitter feed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's President Morsi takes sweeping new powers |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypts-president-morsi-takes-sweeping-new-powers/2012/11/22/8d87d716-34cb-11e2-92f0-496af208bf23_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Michael |last=Birnbaum}}</ref> The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.<ref name="violencebreaks">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|first=Richard|last=Spencer|date=23 November 2012|access-date=23 November 2012|title=Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 5 December 2012, Tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of Egypt's president clashed, hurling rocks and Molotov cocktails and brawling in Cairo's streets, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |title = Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution |newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=6 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2012}}</ref> Six senior advisors and three other officials resigned from the government and the country's leading Islamic institution called on Morsi to stem his powers. Protesters also clamored from coastal cities to desert towns.<ref name="LaTimes">{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|title=Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman}}</ref>

Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel a 15 December vote on a draft constitution written by an Islamist-dominated assembly that has ignited two weeks of political unrest.<ref name="LaTimes" />

[[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2012|A constitutional referendum]] was held in two rounds on 15 and 22 December 2012, with 64% support, and 33% against.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egyptian voters back new constitution in referendum |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-20842487 |work=BBC News |date=25 December 2012}}</ref> It was signed into law by a presidential decree issued by Morsi on 26 December 2012.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mohamed Morsi signs Egypt's new constitution into law |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/26/mohamed-morsi-egypt-constitution-law |work=the Guardian |date=26 December 2012 |language=en}}</ref> On 3 July 2013, the constitution was suspended by order of the [[Egyptian Army|Egyptian army]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt army commander suspends constitution |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-protests-suspension-idUSBRE96215020130703 |work=Reuters |date=3 July 2013 |language=en}}</ref>

On 30 June 2013, on the first anniversary of the election of Morsi, millions of protesters across Egypt took to the streets and demanded the immediate resignation of the president. On 1 July, the [[Egyptian Armed Forces]] issued a 48-hour ultimatum that gave the country's political parties until 3 July to meet the demands of the Egyptian people. The presidency rejected the Egyptian Army's 48-hour ultimatum, vowing that the president would pursue his own plans for national reconciliation to resolve the political crisis. On 3 July, General [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, announced that he had removed Morsi from power, suspended the constitution and would be calling new presidential and Shura Council elections and named [[Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt|Supreme Constitutional Court]]'s leader, [[Adly Mansour]] as acting president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's Morsi overthrown |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2013/7/4/president-morsi-overthrown-in-egypt |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> Mansour was sworn in on 4 July 2013.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Holpuch |first1=Amanda |last2=Siddique |first2=Haroon |last3=Weaver |first3=Matthew |title=Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |work=The Guardian |date=4 July 2013}}</ref>

==== After Morsi ====
{{Main|Post-coup unrest in Egypt (2013–2014)}}

During the months after the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|coup d'état]], a [[Constitution of Egypt|new constitution]] was prepared, which took effect on 18 January 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |work=the Guardian |date=18 January 2014 |language=en}}</ref> After that, [[Egyptian presidential election, 2014|presidential]] and [[Egyptian parliamentary election, 2015|parliamentary]] elections have to be held in June 2014. On 24 March 2014, 529 Morsi's supporters were [[death sentence|sentenced to death]], while the [[Mohamed Morsi#Trial|trial of Morsi]] himself was still ongoing.<ref>{{cite web|url =http://zpravy.ihned.cz/svet/c1-61906190-egypt-muslimske-bratrstvo-tribunal-odsoudil-529-egyptanu-k-smrti|title=Soud s islamisty v Egyptě: Na popraviště půjde více než 500 Mursího stoupenců|author=Czech News Agency|publisher=IHNED.cz|date=2014-03-24|access-date=2014-03-24}}</ref> Having delivered a final judgement, 492 sentences were commuted to life imprisonment with 37 death sentences being upheld. On 28 April, another mass trial took place with 683 Morsi supporters sentenced to death for killing 1 police officer.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissidents |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=28 April 2015}}</ref> In 2015, Egypt participated in the [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]].<ref>"[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security-idUSKBN0N50TF20150414 Egypt and Saudi Arabia discuss maneuvers as Yemen battles rage]". Reuters. 14 April 2015.</ref>

=== El-Sisi Presidency ===
{{Main|Abdel Fattah el-Sisi}}

[[File:Abdel Fattah el-Sisi (2) - 2023.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]]]

In the [[2014 Egyptian presidential election|elections]] of June 2014 El-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%.<ref>{{cite web |title=El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91% |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx |website=English.Ahram.org |publisher=Ahram Online |access-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's Sisi sworn in as president |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/08/egypt-sisi-sworn-in-president |work=the Guardian |date=8 June 2014 |language=en}}</ref> Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai.<ref>{{cite web |title=Egypt's War against the Gaza Tunnels |url=https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/node/32925 |website=Israel Defense |language=en |date=4 February 2018}}</ref>

In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by landslide in [[2018 Egyptian presidential election|election]] with no real opposition.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's Sisi wins 97 percent in election with no real opposition |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-election-result-idUSKCN1H916A |work=Reuters |date=2 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for third term in next election in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/egypt-parliament-extends-presidential-term-to-six-years/1454194 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref>

Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to [[authoritarianism]]. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mehmood |first1=Ashna |title=Egypt's Return to Authoritarianism |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/03/31/egypts-return-to-authoritarianism/ |work=Modern Diplomacy |date=31 March 2021}}</ref> The constitutional changes were accepted in a [[2019 Egyptian constitutional referendum|referendum]] in April 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/23/sisi-wins-snap-egyptian-referendum-amid-vote-buying-claims |work=the Guardian |date=23 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary [[2020 Egyptian parliamentary election|election]] confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Want ([[Nation's Future Party|Nation's Future]]) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/egypt-election-int-idUSKBN28O2T0 |work=Reuters |date=14 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

During the 2020–2021 [[Tigray War]], Egypt was also involved. On 19 December 2020, an [[EEPA]] report stated, based on testimonials of three Egyptian officials and one European diplomat, that the UAE used its base in [[Assab]] (Eritrea) to launch drones strikes against Tigray. The investigative platform [[Bellingcat]] confirmed the presence of Chinese-produced drones at the UAE's military base in Assab, Eritrea. [[Egypt]]ian officials were concerned about strengthening ties between the UAE and Israel. They fear that both countries will collaborate in the construction of an alternative to the [[Suez Canal]], starting from [[Haifa]] in Israel.<ref name="eepa31">[https://www.eepa.be//wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-31-20-December.docx.pdf Situation Report EEPA HORN No. 31 - 20 December] Europe External Programme with Africa</ref> On 19 December 2020, Egypt was reportedly encouraging Sudan to support the [[TPLF]] in Tigray. It wants to strengthen a joint position in relation to negotiations on the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam|GERD]] Dam, which impacts both countries downstream.<ref name="eepa31" />

==See also==
* [[Cairo#History|History of Cairo]]
* [[History of Alexandria]]
* [[List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries]]
* [[Population history of Egypt]]
* [[Timeline of Alexandria]]
* [[Timeline of Cairo]]

== References ==
<references />

==Further reading==
* Botman, Selma. ''Egypt from Independence to Revolution, 1919-1952'' (Syracuse UP, 1991).
* Daly, M.W. ''The Cambridge History of Egypt Volume 2 Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century''  (1998) pp 217–84 on 1879–1923. [https://archive.org/download/iB_CE/02.pdf online]
* Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt'' (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999).
* Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt'' (Scarecrow Press, 1994).
* Petry, Carl F. ed. ''The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517 '' (1999) [https://archive.org/details/iB_CE online]
* Shaw, Ian. ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'' (2003)
* Tignor, Robert L. ''Modernization and British colonial rule in Egypt, 1882-1914'' (Princeton UP, 2015).
* Tucker, Judith E. ''Women in nineteenth-century Egypt'' (Cambridge UP, 1985).
*{{cite book
|last=Vatikiotis
|first=P.J.
|title=The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak
|year=1991
|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson
|location=London
|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5
|edition=4
}}
* [[Henry Smith Williams|Williams, Henry Smith (Ed.)]] 1904, [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51514 The historians' history of the world in twenty-five volumes, volume 01: Prolegomena; Egypt, Mesopotamia], Press of J. J. Little & Co. New York, U.S.A. 
{{Egypt topics}}
{{British overseas territories}}
{{History of Africa}}
{{Middle East topic| History of }}
{{History of Asia}}

[[Category:History of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:History of Egypt by period]]