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{{History of Guinea-Bissau}}

The region now known as Guinea-Bissau, in [[West Africa]], has been inhabited by humans for thousands of years. During the 13th century CE, it was a province of the [[Mali Empire]] which later became independent as the empire of [[Kaabu]]. The [[Portuguese Empire]] claimed the region during the 1450s, but its control was limited to several forts along the coast during most of this period; it gained control of the mainland after a series of "[[Portuguese Guinea#Later colonial period|pacification campaigns]]" from 1912 to 1915, which used military forces to violently crush local resistance. The offshore [[Bissagos Islands|Bijagos Islands]] were not colonized until 1936.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowman |first=Joye L. |date=1986 |title=Abdul Njai: Ally and Enemy of the Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau, 1895–1919 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=463–479 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700023276 |s2cid=162344466}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Corbin|first1=Amy|last2=Tindall|first2=Ashley|title=Bijagós Archipelago|url=https://sacredland.org/bijagos-archipelago-guinea-bissau/|access-date=2 November 2022|website=Sacred Land Film Project}}</ref> Guinea-Bissau gained [[Guinea-Bissau War of Independence|independence from Portugal in 1974]]. The introduction of multi-party politics in 1991 led to the first multi-party elections in 1994. A [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War|civil war]] broke out in 1998, which lasted until the following year.

==Peoples==
Although the region's history has not yet been extensively documented with archaeological records, it had a population of [[hunter-gatherer]]s by 1000 CE. Agriculturists using iron tools soon followed.<ref name = Brit>{{cite web  | title=Early history | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Guinea-Bissau/History| newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica | access-date=20 August 2023 }}</ref>

The oldest inhabitants were the [[Jola people|Jola]], [[Papel people|Papel]], [[Manjak people|Manjak]], [[Balanta people|Balanta]], and [[Biafada people|Biafada]] peoples. The [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] and [[Fula people|Fulani]] later migrated into the region, pushing the earlier inhabitants towards the coast.<ref name = Brit/><ref name="Rodney-1966">{{cite web |last=Rodney |first=Walter Anthony |date=May 1966 |title=A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/31255/1/Rodney_History_Upper_Guinea_Coast.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307115621/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/31255/1/Rodney_History_Upper_Guinea_Coast.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-07 |url-status=live |access-date=24 November 2022 |website=Eprints}}</ref>{{rp|20}} A small number of Mandinka had been present in the region as early as the 11th century,<ref name="Wright-1987">{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=Donald R |date=1987 |title=The Epic of Kalefa Saane as a guide to the Nature of Precolonial Senegambian Society-and Vice Versa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3171842.pdf |journal=  History in Africa|volume=14 |pages=287–309 |doi=10.2307/3171842 |jstor=3171842 |s2cid=162851641 }}</ref>{{rp|6}} but they migrated ''en masse'' in the 13th century as [[Senegambia]] was incorporated into the [[Mali Empire]] by [[Kaabu]] founder [[Tiramakhan Traore]].<ref name="Archives-1980">{{cite web |date=1980 |title=Kaabu Oral History Project Proposal |url=https://archives.au.int/bitstream/handle/123456789/6326/Kaabu%20oral%20history%20project%20proposal_E.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=24 November 2022 |website=Archives}}</ref> A process of "Mandinkization" followed.<ref name="Wright-1987"/>{{rp|6}} The Fulani arrived as early as the 12th century as semi-nomadic herders, but were not a large presence until the 15th century.<ref name = Brit/>

The Balanta and Jola had weak (or non-existent) institutions of kingship, with an emphasis on heads of villages and families.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|64}} The Mandinka, Fula, Papel, Manjak, and Biafada chiefs were [[vassal]]s of kings with a variety of customs, rites, and ceremonies. Nobles commanded all major positions, however, which included the judicial system.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|66, 67, 73, 227}} [[Social stratification]] was apparent in clothing and accessories, housing materials, and transportation options.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|77–8}}

Commerce was widespread among the ethnic groups. Items traded included pepper and [[kola nut]]s from the southern forests, iron from the [[savanna]]h-forest zone, salt and dried fish from the coast, and Mandinka cotton cloth.<ref name="Old Men" />{{rp|4}} Products were commonly sold at markets and fairs, held every seven or eight days and sometimes attended by several thousand buyers and sellers from up to {{convert|60|mi|abbr=off}} away. Weapons were prohibited in the marketplace, and soldiers were positioned around the area to maintain order throughout the day. Market sections were allocated for specific products except for wine, which could be sold anywhere.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|69–70}}

==Pre-colonial kingdoms==

=== Kaabu ===
{{Main|Kaabu}}

==== Origins ====
Kaabu, established in the 13th century, was a province of [[Mali]] through the conquest of [[Senegambia]] by [[Tiramakhan Traore]] (a general of Mali Empire founder [[Sundiata Keita]].<ref name="Global Security">{{cite web |title=Kaabu Empire (aka N'Gabu/Gabu) |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/africa/kaabu.htm |website=GlobalSecurity.org|access-date=3 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124062349/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/africa/kaabu.htm|archive-date=24 November 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> According to oral tradition, Tiramakhan Traore invaded the region to punish the [[Wolof people|Wolof]] king for insulting Sundiata and went south of the [[Gambia River]] into the [[Casamance]].{{sfn|Niane|1989|pp=19}} This began a migration of [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] into the region. By the 14th century, much of Guinea-Bissau was administered by Mali and ruled by a ''farim kaabu'' (commander of Kaabu).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shoup |first=John A. |title=Ethnic groups of Africa and the Middle East: an encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-362-0 |series=Ethnic groups of the world |location=Santa Barbara, Calif}}</ref>

The Empire of Mali began to decline during the 14th century. Formerly-secure possessions in present-day [[Senegal]], [[the Gambia]], and Guinea-Bissau were cut off by the expanding power of [[Koli Tenguella]] in the early 16th century.{{sfn|Barry|1998|pp=21}} Kaabu became an independent federation of kingdoms, the era's most powerful western Mandinka state.<ref name="Wright-1987" />{{rp|13}}<ref name=EAHC3>{{cite book |last1=Page |first1=Willie F. |editor1-last=Davis |editor1-first=R. Hunt |title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture |date=2005 |volume=III|publisher=Facts On File |page=92 |edition=Illustrated, revised}}</ref>

==== Society ====
Kaabu's ruling classes were composed of elite [[warrior]]s known as the [[Kaabu#The Nyancho|Nyancho]], who traced their patrilineal lineage to Tiramakhan Traore.<ref name="Archives-1980"/>{{rp|2}} The Nyancho were reportedly good cavalrymen and raiders.<ref name="Wright-1987"/>{{rp|6}} The Kaabu ''Mansaba'' was seated in Kansala (present-day [[Gabu (town)|Gabu]]) in the eastern [[Gabú region|Gebú]] region.<ref name="Old Men">{{Cite journal |last=Schoenmakers |first=Hans |date=1987 |title=Old Men and New State Structures in Guinea-Bissau |journal=The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law |language=en |volume=19 |issue=25–26 |pages=99–138 |doi=10.1080/07329113.1987.10756396}}</ref>{{rp|4}} Malian imperial history was central to Kaabu culture, maintaining its significant institutions and the [[lingua franca]] of Mandinka.<ref name="Wright-1987" />{{rp|11}} Individuals from other ethnic backgrounds were assimilated into this dominant culture, and frequent inter-ethnic marriages assisted the process.<ref name="Wright-1987" />{{rp|12}}

The slave trade dominated the economy, enriching the warrior classes with imported cloth, beads, metalware, and firearms.<ref name="Wright-1987" />{{rp|8}} Trade networks to North Africa were dominant until the 14th century, with coastal trade with the Europeans beginning to increase during the 15th century.<ref name="Old Men" />{{rp|3}} An estimated 700 enslaved people left the region annually in the 17th and 18th centuries, many from Kaabu.<ref name="Old Men" />{{rp|5}}

==== Decline ====
In the late 18th century, the rise of the [[Imamate of Futa Jallon]] in the east was a powerful challenge to the [[Animism|animist]] Kaabu. During the first half of the 19th century, civil war erupted as local [[Fula people]] sought independence.<ref name="Old Men" />{{rp|5–6}} This long-running conflict led to the 1867 [[Battle of Kansala]]. A Fula army led by {{ill|Alpha Molo Balde|fr}} laid siege to the earthen walls of Kansala for 11 days. The Mandinka kept the Fulani from climbing the walls for a time, but were eventually overwhelmed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sonko-Godwin, Patience |authorlink=Patience Sonko-Godwin|title=Ethnic Groups of the Senegambia: A Brief History |publisher=Sunrise Publishers |location=Banjul, Gambia |year=1988 |isbn=9983-86-000-7}}</ref>{{rp|14}} The ''Mansaba'' Dianke Walli, sensing defeat, ordered his troops to set the city's gunpowder on fire; this killed the Mandinka defenders and most of the invading army.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=276}} Although the loss of Kansala marked the end of the Kaabu empire and the rise of the [[Fuladu]] kingdom, smaller Mandinka kingdoms survived until they were absorbed by the Portuguese.

=== Biafada kingdoms ===
The [[Biafada people]] inhabited the area around the [[Rio Grande de Buba]] in three kingdoms: Biguba, [[Guinala]], and Bissege.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|65}} The former two were important ports with significant ''[[lançado]]'' communities,{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=63, 211}} subjects of the Mandinka ''[[Mansa (title)|mansa]]'' of Kaabu.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=211}}

=== Kingdom of Bissau ===
According to oral tradition, the kingdom of [[Bissau]] was founded by the son of the king of Quinara (Guinala), who moved to the region with his pregnant sister, his six wives, and the subjects of his father's kingdom.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Nanque |first=Neemias Antonio |title=Revoltas e resistências dos Papéis da Guiné-Bissau contra o Colonialismo Português – 1886–1915 |date=2016 |type=Trabalho de conclusão de curso |publisher=Universidade da Integração Internacional da Lusofonia Afro-Brasileira |url=https://repositorio.unilab.edu.br/jspui/bitstream/123456789/778/3/2016_mono_nnanque.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920143123/https://repositorio.unilab.edu.br/jspui/bitstream/123456789/778/3/2016_mono_nnanque.pdf |archive-date=2022-09-20 |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref> Relations between the kingdom and the Portuguese were initially warm, but deteriorated over time.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=55}}

The kingdom defended its sovereignty against the Portuguese "pacification campaigns," defeating them in 1891, 1894, and 1904. The Portuguese, under commanded by [[João Teixeira Pinto|Teixeira Pinto]] and warlord [[Abdul Injai]], absorbed Bissau in 1915.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bowman |first1=Joye L. |date=22 January 2009 |title=Abdul Njai: Ally and Enemy of the Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau, 1895–1919 |journal=  The Journal of African History|volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=463–479 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700023276 |s2cid=162344466}}</ref>

=== Bijagos ===
The [[Bijagos Islands]] were inhabited by people with different ethnic origins, leading to cultural diversity in the archipelago.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|24}}{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=52}} Bijago society was warlike.  Men were dedicated to building boats and raiding the mainland, attacking the coastal peoples and other islands. Women cultivated land, constructed houses, and gathered food. They could choose their husbands, generally warriors with the best reputation. Successful warriors could have many wives and boats, and were entitled to one-third of a boat's [[Looting|spoils]] from any expedition.<ref name="Rodney-1966"/>{{rp|204–205}}

Bijago night raids on coastal settlements had a significant impact. Portuguese traders on the mainland tried to stop the raids because they hurt the local economy. The islanders sold a considerable number of slaves to the Europeans, however, who frequently pushed for more captives.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|205}} The Bijagos, out of the reach of mainland slave traders, were largely safe from enslavement. Portuguese sources say that the children made good slaves but not the adults, who were likely to commit suicide, lead rebellions on slave ships, or escape when they reached the [[New World]].<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|218–219}}

==European contact==
{{main|British Guinea|Portuguese Guinea}}
=== 15th–16th centuries ===
[[File:Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese Guinea.svg|thumb|alt=A coat of arms with three fields|Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese Guinea-Bissau]]
The first Europeans to reach Guinea-Bissau were the Venetian explorer [[Alvise Cadamosto]] in 1455, Portuguese explorer [[Diogo Gomes]] in 1456, Portuguese explorer [[Duarte Pacheco Pereira|Duarte Pacheco Pareira]] in the 1480s, and Flemish explorer [[Eustache de la Fosse]] in 1479–1480.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hair |first=P. E. H. |date=1994 |title=The Early Sources on Guinea |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3171882.pdf |journal=History in Africa |volume=21 |pages=87–126 |doi=10.2307/3171882 |jstor=3171882 |s2cid=161811816 |via=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>{{rp|7, 12, 13, 16}} The region was known to the Portuguese as the Guinea of Cape Verde, and [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]] was the administrative capital and the source of most of its white settlers.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|138=9}}

Although Portuguese authorities initially discouraged European settlement on the mainland, the prohibition was ignored by ''[[lançados]]'' and ''tangomãos'' who assimilated its indigenous culture and customs.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|140}} They were mainly from impoverished backgrounds, traders from [[Cape Verde]] or people exiled from Portugal, often of [[Jewish]] or [[New Christian]] background.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|148–150}} They ignored Portuguese trade regulations which banned entering the region or trading without a royal licence, shipping from unauthorized ports, or assimilating into the native community.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|142}} In 1520, measures against the ''lançados'' were eased in 1520; trade and settlements increased on the mainland, which was populated by Portuguese and native traders and Spanish, [[Genoa|Genoese]], English, French, and Dutch.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|145, 150}}

With the region's rivers having no natural harbors, the ''lançados'' and native traders navigated river-ways and creeks in small boats purchased from European ships or manufactured locally by trained ''grumetes'' (native African sailors, enslaved and free). The main ports were [[Cacheu]], [[Bissau]], and [[Guinala]]; each river had trading centers such as [[Farim|Toubaboudougou]] at their furthest navigable point, which traded with the interior for resources such as [[gum arabic]], [[ivory]], hides, [[civet]], dyes, slaves, and gold.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|153–160}} A small number of European settlers established isolated farms along the rivers. Local African rulers generally refused to allow Europeans into the interior, to ensure their control of trade routes.<ref name="HISTORY OF GUINEA-BISSAU"/>

Europeans were not accepted in all communities, with the [[Jola people|Jolas]], [[Balanta people|Balantas]], and Bijagos initially hostile. The region's other groups harboured communities of ''lançados'' who were subject to taxation and the laws and customs of their community, including the local courts.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|164–5}} Disputes became increasingly frequent and serious during the late 1500s as foreign traders tried to influence the host societies to their benefit. Under pressure from hostile locals, the Portuguese abandoned the settlement of Buguendo near Cacheu in 1580 and Guinala in 1583 (where they retreated to a fort). In 1590 they built a fort at Cacheu, which the local Manjaks unsuccessfully stormed shortly after its construction.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=74}} The poorly-manned and provisioned forts were unable to free the ''lançados'' from their responsibilities to the native monarchs (their hosts), who could not expel the traders because their goods were in great demand by the upper class.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|180–184}}

The Portuguese monopoly was being increasingly challenged. The 1580 [[Iberian Union]] unified the crowns of Portugal and [[Spain]], leading to the attack of Portuguese possessions in Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde by Spain's enemies. French, Dutch, and English ships increasingly traded with the natives and the independent-minded ''lançados''.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|244–53}}

=== 17th–18th centuries ===
During the early 17th century, the government unsuccessfully tried to force all Guinean trade to go through [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]] and promote trade and settlement on the mainland while restricting weapons sales to the locals.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|243–4}} With the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, King [[John IV of Portugal|João IV]] attempted to restrict the Spanish trade in Guinea which had flourished for the previous 60 years. The Afro-Portuguese in Bissau, [[Guinala]], [[Geba, Guinea-Bissau|Geba]], and [[Cacheu]] swore allegiance to the Portuguese king, but were not in a position to deny the free trade that the African kings (who now saw European products as necessities) demanded. In Cacheu, famine had wiped out the slave troops in charge of defending the fort, the water supply remained in Manjak hands and the ''lançados'', their Africanized descendants and the locals were losing customers; Captain-Major Luis de Magalhães lifted the embargo.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|261–3}}

[[File:Flag of the Casa da Guiné.svg|thumb|left|alt=A stylized green cross on a white background|Flag of the Portuguese [[Company of Guinea]]]]
In 1641, the {{ill|Conselho Ultramarino|pt}} replaced de Magalhães with Gonçalo de Gamboa de Ayala. He had some success winning over local leaders and stopping Spanish ships at Cacheu. In Bissau, however, two Spanish ships were protected by the King of Bissau. Ayala threatened violent repercussions and resettled Geba's Afro-European community to [[Farim]], northeast of Cacheu.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|266–71}} The Portuguese could not impose their monopolistic vision on the local and Afro-European traders, since the economic interests of the native leaders and Afro-European merchants never fully aligned with theirs. During this period, the power of the [[Mali Empire]] in the region was dissipating and the ''[[farim]]'' of [[Kaabu]], the king of [[Kasa kingdom|Kassa]] and other local rulers began to assert their independence.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|488}}

In the early 1700s, the Portuguese abandoned [[Bissau]] and retreated to Cacheu after the captain-major was captured and killed by the local king. They did not return until the 1750s, and the [[Cacheu and Cape Verde Company]] shut down in 1706.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=xliii}} For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a foothold on [[Bolama Island|Bolama]].<ref>{{cite web |title=British Library – Endangered Archive Programme (EAP) |url=http://www.inep-bissau.org/Arquivos/Projectos/BritishLibraryEndangeredArchivesProgram/tabid/274/Default.aspx |date=18 March 1921 |website=inep-bissau.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105514/http://www.inep-bissau.org/Arquivos/Projectos/BritishLibraryEndangeredArchivesProgram/tabid/274/Default.aspx |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=22 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Slave trade ===
Guinea-Bissau was among the first regions touched by the [[Atlantic slave trade]] and, while it did not produce the same number of enslaved people as other regions, the impact was still significant.<ref>Gale Group. (2017). Guinea-Bissau. In M. S. Hill (Ed.), ''Worldmark encyclopedia of the nations'' (14th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 379–392). Gale.</ref><ref name="HISTORY OF GUINEA-BISSAU">{{cite web |title=HISTORY OF GUINEA-BISSAU |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=oxa#:~:text=HISTORY%20OF%20GUINEA%2DBISSAU&text=From%20the%20viewpoint%20of%20European,region%20is%20the%20Slave%20Coast. |website=www.historyworld.net |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> They were primarily sent to [[Cape Verde]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] at first, with the [[Madeira]] and the [[Canary Islands]] seeing smaller influxes.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|186–7}} Enslaved people were instrumental in developing the [[plantation]] economy (particularly in Cape Verde), growing [[indigo]] and [[cotton]] and weaving ''panos'' cloth which became a standard West African currency.<ref name = Brit/>

Many slaves from Guinea-Bissau were destined for the [[Spanish West Indies]] from 1580 to 1640, with an average of 3,000 per year from [[Guinala]] alone.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|278}} The 17th and 18th centuries saw thousands of people taken from the region every year by Portuguese, French, and British companies. The [[Fula jihads]] and wars between the [[Imamate of Futa Jallon]] and [[Kaabu]] provided many of them.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=377}}

People were enslaved in four primary ways: as punishment for law-breaking, selling themselves (or relatives) during famines, kidnapped by native marauders or European raiders, or as prisoners of war. Most slaves were bought by Europeans from local rulers or traders.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|198–200}} Every ethnicity in the region except for the Balantas and Jolas participated in the trade.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|208, 217}} Most wars were waged to capture slaves for sale to the Europeans in exchange for imported goods, resembling man-hunts more than conflicts over territory or political power.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|204, 209}} The nobles and kings benefited, and the common people bore the brunt of the raiding and insecurity. If a noble was captured, they were likely to be released; the captors would generally accept a ransom in exchange.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|229}} The relationship between kings and European traders was a partnership, with the two making deals about how the trade would be conducted, who would be enslaved, and the prices of slaves. Contemporary chroniclers Fernão Guerreiro and Mateo de Anguiano questioned a number of kings on their part in the slave trade, noting that they recognized the trade as evil but participated because the Europeans would not buy other goods from them.<ref name="Rodney-1966" />{{rp|230–4}}

During the late 18th century, European countries gradually began slowing or abolishing the slave trade. The [[British navy]] and, to a half-hearted extent, the [[U.S. Navy]] attempted to intercept slavers off the coast of Guinea in the first half of the 19th century. The restriction of supply only increased prices and intensified illegal slave-trading activity. Portugal abandoned slavery in 1869 and [[Brazil]] in 1888, replacing it with a system of [[contract labor]] which was only marginally better for the workers.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=377}}

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Side-by-side, colour-coded maps of Africa|Africa in 1880 and 1913]]
Until the late 1800s, Portuguese control of their colony outside the forts and trading posts was illusory. African rulers held power in the countryside, and frequent attacks on, and assassinations of, the Portuguese marked the middle decades of the century.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=300}} Guinea-Bissau began experiencing increased European colonial competition during the 1860s. The dispute over the status of [[Bolama (town)|Bolama]] was resolved in Portugal's favor with mediation by U.S. President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] in 1870, but French encroachment on Portuguese claims continued. In 1886, the [[Casamance]] region of present-day [[Senegal]] was ceded to France.<ref name = Brit/>\

Attempting to shore up domestic finances and strengthen the grip on the colony, Minister of Marine and Colonies [[António José Enes]] reformed tax laws and granted [[International zone|concession]]s in Guinea (mainly to foreign companies) to increase exports in 1891.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|1975|pp=82-3, 85}} The modest increase in government income, however, did not defray the cost of troops used to collect the taxes. Resistance continued throughout the area, but the reforms laid the groundwork for future military expansion.<ref>R Pélissier, (1989). ''História da Guiné: portugueses e africanos na senegambia 1841–1936'' Volume II, Lisbon, Imprensa Universitária pp 25–6, 62–4.</ref><ref>R E Galli & J Jones (1987). ''Guinea-Bissau: Politics, economics, and society'', London, Pinter pp. 28–9.</ref>

To meet the [[Congress of Berlin]] standard for "effective occupation", the Portuguese colonial government began a series of largely-unsuccessful "pacification campaigns" until the arrival of Captain [[João Teixeira Pinto]] in 1912. Supported by a large [[mercenary]] army commanded by [[Senegal]]ese fugitive [[Abdul Injai]], he quickly and brutally crushed local resistance on the mainland. Three more bloody campaigns in 1917, 1925, and 1936 were required to "pacify" the [[Bissagos Islands]].{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=300}} [[Portuguese Guinea]] remained a neglected backwater, with administrative expenses exceeding revenue.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|1975|pp=114-7}} In 1951, responding to anti-colonial criticism in the [[United Nations]], the Portuguese government rebranded their colonies (including [[Portuguese Guinea]]) as overseas provinces (''Províncias Ultramarines'').<ref>G. J. Bender (1978), ''Angola Under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality'', Berkeley, University of California Press p.xx. {{ISBN|0-520-03221-7}}</ref>

=== Struggle for independence ===
[[File:LG&CD - Guine Barro Jagudis 11.jpg|thumb|alt=Troops in the field|The [[Portuguese Colonial War|colonial war]] in [[Portuguese Guinea]], 1968]]
The [[African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) was founded in 1956 and led by [[Amílcar Cabral]]. Initially committed to peaceful methods, the 1959 [[Pidjiguiti massacre]] pushed the party towards more militarism and relied on the political mobilization of the peasantry. After years of planning and preparing from their base in [[Conakry]], the PAIGC began the [[Guinea-Bissau War of Independence]] on 23 January 1963.{{sfn|Lobban|Mendy|2013|pp=289}}

Unlike guerrilla movements in other [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonies]], the PAIGC rapidly extended control of large areas. Aided by the jungle terrain, it had easy access to borders with neighbouring allies and large quantities of arms from [[Cuba]], [[China]], the [[Soviet Union]], and left-leaning African countries. Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors, and technicians.<ref name="Cuba! Africa! Revolution!">{{cite video |people = El Tahri, Jihan|year = 2007 |title = Cuba! Africa! Revolution! |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0074tpz |access-date = 2 May 2007|publisher = BBC Television |time = 50:00–60:0 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161210154942/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0074tpz |archive-date = 10 December 2016|url-status = live |df= dmy-all}}</ref> The PAIGC developed significant anti-aircraft capability to defend against aerial attack. It controlled many parts of Guinea by 1973, although the movement experienced a setback in January of that year when Cabral was assassinated.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/jan/17/lumumba-50th-anniversary-african-leaders-assassinations | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Victoria | last=Brittain | title=Africa: a continent drenched in the blood of revolutionary heroes | date=17 January 2011 | access-date=14 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117225438/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/jan/17/lumumba-50th-anniversary-african-leaders-assassinations | archive-date=17 January 2017 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

[[File:Portugal Colonial War 1970.jpg|thumb|alt=Two maps: one of Guinea-Bissau and the other of most of Africa|Portuguese-held (green), disputed (yellow), and rebel-held areas (red) in Portuguese Guinea, Angola and Mozambique (1970)]]
After Cabral's death the party was led by [[Aristides Pereira]], who later became the first president of the Republic of [[Cape Verde]]. The PAIGC National Assembly met at [[Boe, Guinea-Bissau|Boe]], in the southeast, and declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on 24 September 1973. This was recognized by a 93–7 UN General Assembly vote in November.<ref name="UN_ARES3061XXVIII">{{UN document |docid=A-RES-3061(XXVIII) |type=Resolution |body=General Assembly |session=-1 |resolution_number=3061 |accessdate=2008-07-01|date=2 November 1973|title=Illegal occupation by Portuguese military forces of certain sectors of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau and acts of aggression committed by them against the people of the Republic}}</ref>

==Independence==
After the April 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]], Portugal granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on 10 September 1974. [[Luís Cabral]], Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became president. The United States recognized Guinea-Bissau's independence that day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, Since 1776: Guinea-Bissau |url=https://history.state.gov/countries/guinea-bissau |access-date=14 February 2016 |website=[[Office of the Historian]] |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> In late 1980, the government was overthrown in a coup led by prime minister and former armed-forces commander [[João Bernardo Vieira]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=5 June 2015 |title=Guinea Bissau – Coup and After |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/1980/52/review-agriculture-uncategorised/guinea-bissau-coup-and-after.html |language=en |volume=15 |issue=52 |pages=7–8 |website=Economic and Political Weekly}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Obituary: Luís Cabral |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jun/08/luis-cabral-obituary |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=7 June 2009}}</ref>

==Democracy==
[[File:Presidential palace guinea bissau old12.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Exterior of a two-story, pink-and-white building|The presidential palace in [[Bissau]] (damaged during the 1998–99 civil war) in 2007]]
In 1994, 20 years after independence, Guinea-Bissau's first [[Multi-party system|multiparty]] legislative and presidential elections were held. An army uprising which triggered the [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]] in 1998 displaced hundreds of thousands of people, and the president was ousted by a military junta on 7 May 1999. An interim government turned over power in February 2000, when opposition leader [[Kumba Ialá]] took office after two rounds of transparent presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's return to democracy has been complicated by an [[Economy of Guinea-Bissau|economy]] devastated by civil war and military interference in government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jaló |first=Sumaila |date=2023-05-11 |title=Guinea-Bissau: 30 years of militarized democratization (1991–2021) |journal=Frontiers in Political Science |language=English |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fpos.2023.1078771 |doi-access=free |issn=2673-3145|hdl=10316/114737 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Presidency of Kumba Ialá ===
In January 2000, the second round of the [[1999–2000 Guinea-Bissau general election]] took place. The presidential election resulted in victory for opposition leader [[Kumba Ialá]] of the [[Party for Social Renewal]] (PRS), who defeated [[Malam Bacai Sanhá]] of the ruling PAIGC. The PRS were also victorious in the [[National People's Assembly (Guinea-Bissau)|National People's Assembly]] election, winning 38 of 102 seats.

=== 2003 coup ===
In September 2003, a [[2003 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état|military coup]] led by [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of the People (Guinea-Bissau)|Armed Forces]] Chief of Staff [[Veríssimo Correia Seabra|Verissimo Correia Seabra]] took place. Sitting president Kumba Ialá and Prime Minister [[Mário Pires]] were placed under [[house arrest]].<ref>Smith, Brian (27 September 2003) [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/sep2003/guin-s27.shtml "US and UN give tacit backing to Guinea Bissau coup"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027224550/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/sep2003/guin-s27.shtml |date=27 October 2012 }}, Wsws.org, September 2003. Retrieved 22 June 2013</ref> After several delays, a [[2004 Guinea-Bissau parliamentary election|legislative election]] was held in March 2004. A [[mutiny]] of military factions in October of that year resulted in Seabra's death, causing widespread unrest.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-10-30 |title=Guinea-Bissau Top General Killed in Unrest – 2004-10-06 |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-a-2004-10-06-30-guinea-bissau/304548.html |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref>

=== Second presidency of João Bernardo Vieira ===
The [[2005 Guinea-Bissau presidential election]] was held in June for the first time since the 2003 coup. Deposed President Ialá returned as the PRS candidate, saying that he was the country's legitimate president. The election was won by former president [[João Bernardo Vieira]], who was deposed in the 1999 coup and defeated [[Malam Bacai Sanhá]] in a run-off election. Sanhá initially refused to concede, saying that [[electoral fraud]] occurred in two [[constituencies]] (including the capital, Bissau).<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/Report/55801/GUINEA-BISSAU-Vieira-officially-declared-president GUINEA-BISSAU: Vieira officially declared president] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825144305/http://www.irinnews.org/Report/55801/GUINEA-BISSAU-Vieira-officially-declared-president |date=25 August 2012 }}. irinnews.org (10 August 2005).</ref> Despite reports of arms entering the country before the election and "disturbances during campaigning", including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen, foreign [[Election monitoring|election monitors]] described the overall election as "calm and organized".<ref>{{cite news | title=Army man wins G Bissau election | work=BBC News | date=28 July 2005 | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4723627.stm | access-date=5 January 2010 | location=London | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060627000148/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4723627.stm | archive-date=27 June 2006 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The PAIGC won a strong parliamentary majority (67 of 100 seats) in the November 2008 [[2008 Guinea-Bissau parliamentary election|parliamentary election]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202001020/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hcxUy2rY8cESZ5tK12XKzJzkzLgw Guinea Bissau vote goes smooth amid hopes for stability]. AFP via Google.com (16 November 2008). Retrieved 22 June 2013.</ref> President Vieira's official residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard; Vieira was unharmed.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/coup-attempt-fails-in-guineabissau-1032371.html |title=Coup attempt fails in Guinea-Bissau |publisher=The Independent UK independent.co.uk |date=24 November 2008 |access-date=28 June 2010 |location=London |first=Assimo |last=Balde |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515093719/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/coup-attempt-fails-in-guineabissau-1032371.html |archive-date=15 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Vieira was assassinated on 2 March 2009 by (according to preliminary reports) a group of soldiers avenging the death of joint chiefs of staff head [[Batista Tagme Na Wai]], who had been killed in an explosion the day before.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,25128786-5012772,00.html |title=Soldiers kill fleeing President |access-date=2 March 2009 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308111020/http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,25128786-5012772,00.html |archive-date=8 March 2009}}. news.com.au (2 March 2009).</ref> Vieira's death did not trigger widespread violence, but the [[advocacy group]] [[Swisspeace]] noted signs of turmoil in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beforeproject.org/2009/05/on-the-radio-waves-in-guinea-bissau/ |title=On the Radio Waves in Guinea-Bissau |last=Elections, Guinea-Bissau |date=27 May 2009 |publisher=swisspeace |access-date=7 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208151404/http://beforeproject.org/2009/05/on-the-radio-waves-in-guinea-bissau/ |archive-date=8 December 2009 }}</ref> Military leaders in Guinea-Bissau pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession. National Assembly Speaker [[Raimundo Pereira]] was appointed interim president until the nationwide [[2009 Guinea-Bissau presidential election|election]] on 28 June 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bissaudigital.com/noticias.php?idnoticia=3609 |title=Já foi escolhida a data para a realização das eleições presidenciais entecipadas |publisher=Bissaudigital.com |date=1 April 2009 |access-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121130253/http://www.bissaudigital.com/noticias.php?idnoticia=3609 |archive-date=21 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It was won by [[Malam Bacai Sanhá]] of the PAIGC over PRS candidate [[Kumba Ialá]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dabo|first=Alberto|date=2009-07-29|title=Sanha wins Guinea-Bissau presidential election|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-41398320090729|access-date=2020-12-17}}</ref>

=== 2012 coup ===
On 9 January 2012, President Sanhá died of complications of diabetes and Pereira was again appointed interim president. On the evening of 12 April 2012, members of the country's military staged a [[2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état|coup d'état]] and arrested Pereira and a leading presidential candidate.<ref>{{cite news | title=Tiny Guinea-Bissau becomes latest West African nation hit by coup | date=12 April 2012 | url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/04/12/145057/tiny-guinea-bassau-becomes-latest.html | access-date=14 April 2012 | location=Bissau | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413175656/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/04/12/145057/tiny-guinea-bassau-becomes-latest.html | archive-date=13 April 2012 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Former vice chief of staff [[Mamadu Ture Kuruma]] took control of the country and began negotiations with opposition political parties.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gq-cyAdeGs3liZQlCd2mIxBvmQog?docId=CNG.a1b03f8f1a0eb41d95bf872bb307d7bf.681 |title=Fears grow for members of toppled G.Bissau government |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=14 April 2012 |access-date=2 May 2012 |author=Embalo, Allen Yero |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303160107/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gq-cyAdeGs3liZQlCd2mIxBvmQog?docId=CNG.a1b03f8f1a0eb41d95bf872bb307d7bf.681 |archive-date=3 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/guinea-bissau-opposition-vows-reach-deal-junta |title=Guinea-Bissau opposition vows to reach deal with junta &#124; Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |date=15 April 2012 |access-date=2 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012103639/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/guinea-bissau-opposition-vows-reach-deal-junta |archive-date=12 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Presidencies of José Mário Vaz and Umaro Sissoco Embaló ===
[[José Mário Vaz]] was president of Guinea-Bissau from 2014 to the [[2019 Guinea-Bissau presidential election|2019 presidential election]]. At the end of his term, Vaz was the first elected president to complete his five-year mandate. He lost the 2019 election to [[Umaro Sissoco Embaló]], who took office in February 2020. Embaló is the first president elected without PAIGC support.<ref name="aa.com.tr">{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/guinea-bissaus-leader-concedes-election-defeat/1658683|last=Tasamba| first=James| date = 29 November 2019|title = Guinea-Bissau's leader concedes election defeat|access-date = 14 June 2021|publisher = [[Anadolu Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-50965779|title = Guinea-Bissau: Former PM Embalo wins presidential election|date= 1 January 2020| access-date = 14 June 2021| website = BBC news}}</ref>

A February 2022 [[2022 Guinea-Bissau coup attempt|coup attempt]] against Embaló failed. According to the president, the attempted coup was linked to drug trafficking.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guinea-Bissau: Many dead after coup attempt, president says |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-60220701 |work=BBC News |date=2 February 2022}}</ref> Another [[2023 Guinea-Bissau coup attempt|coup attempt]] in 2023 resulted in clashes between government forces and the National Guard.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67586556 |title=Guinea-Bissau: Attempted coup was foiled, says President Embaló |date=4 December 2023|website=BBC |access-date=5 December 2023}}</ref> Embaló announced on 11 September 2024 that he would not seek a second term in the presidential election scheduled for November 2025.<ref>{{cite web |title="Guinea-Bissau President Umaro Sissoco Embaló Declines Second Term Amid Political Uncertainty" |url=https://www.africanews.com/2024/09/13/guinea-bissau-president-umaro-sissoco-embalo-declines-second-term-amid-political-uncertain/ |website=africanews.com/ |access-date=13 September 2024}}</ref>  On 3 March 2025, President Umaro Sissoco Embalo said that he would run for a second term in November, contrary to his earlier vows to step down.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guinea-Bissau president to run for second term, backtracking on vow to step down |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/guinea-bissau-president-run-second-term-backtracking-vow-step-down-2025-03-04/ |access-date=17 March 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Politics of Guinea-Bissau]]
* [[United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office in Guinea-Bissau]] (UNOGBIS)
* City of Bissau [[Bissau#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Bissau|timeline]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=Boubacar |title=Senegambia and the Atlantic slave trade |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK}}
* {{cite book |last1=Clarence-Smith |first1=W. G. |title=The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825-1975 |date=1975 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK}}
* {{cite book |first1=Richard Andrew Jr. |last1=Lobban |first2=Peter Karibe |last2=Mendy |title=Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau |edition=4th |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2013 |place=Lanham |isbn=978-0-8108-5310-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Niane |first1=Djibril Tamsir |title=Histoire des Mandingues de l'Ouest: le royaume du Gabou |date=1989 |publisher=Karthala |location=Paris, France |isbn=978-2-86537-236-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHCgAnkySJwC&q=Kikikor |access-date=2 August 2023}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ogilby |first=John |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A70735.0001.001/1:8?rgn=div1;view=toc |title=Africa: being an accurate description of the regions of Aegypt, Barbary, Lybia, and Billedulgerid, the land of Negroes, Guinee, Aethiopia, and the Abyssines, with all the adjacent islands, either in the Mediterranean, Atlantick, Southern, or Oriental Sea, belonging thereunto: with the several denominations of their coasts, harbors, creeks, rivers, lakes, cities, towns, castles, and villages: their customs, modes, and manners, languages, religions, and inexhaustible treasure: with their governments and policy, variety of trade and barter, and also of their wonderful plants, beasts, birds, and serpents |date=1670 |publisher=Printed by Tho. Johnson for the author |location=London |access-date=25 November 2022 |via=Early English Books}}
* {{cite web |last=Rodney |first=Walter Anthony |date=May 1966 |title=A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/31255/1/Rodney_History_Upper_Guinea_Coast.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307115621/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/31255/1/Rodney_History_Upper_Guinea_Coast.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-07 |url-status=live |access-date=24 November 2022 |website=Eprints}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wright |first=Donald R |date=1987 |title=The Epic of Kalefa Saane as a guide to the Nature of Precolonial Senegambian Society-and Vice Versa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3171842.pdf |journal=  History in Africa|volume=14 |pages=287–309 |doi=10.2307/3171842 |jstor=3171842 |s2cid=162851641 }}

{{Years in Guinea-Bissau}}
{{Guinea-Bissau topics}}
{{History of Africa}}
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[[Category:History of Guinea-Bissau| ]]