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{{History of Kashmir}}
The '''history of [[Kashmir]]''' is intertwined with the history of the broader [[Indian subcontinent]] in [[South Asia]] with influences from the surrounding regions of [[Central Asia|Central]], and [[East Asia]]. Historically, Kashmir referred to only the [[Kashmir Valley]] of the western [[Himalayas]].<ref name="Snedden2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a19eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|date=15 September 2015|publisher=Hurst|isbn=978-1-84904-622-0|pages=22|author=Christopher Snedden}}</ref> Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered union territories of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] (which consists of [[Jammu division|Jammu]] and the Kashmir Valley), [[Ladakh]], the Pakistan-administered territories of [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], and the Chinese-administered regions of [[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]].

In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of [[Hinduism]] and later—under the [[Mauryan Empire|Maurya]]s and [[Kushana Empire|Kushana]]s—of [[Buddhism]]. Later in the ninth century, during the rule of the [[Karkota Dynasty]], a native tradition of [[Kashmir Shaivism|Shaivism]] arose. It flourished in the seven centuries of Hindu rule, continuing under the [[Utpala Dynasty|Utpala]] and the [[Lohara dynasty|Lohara]] dynasties, ending in mid-14th century.

The [[spread of Islam]] in Kashmir began during the 13th century, accelerated under Muslim rule during the 14th and 15th centuries, and led to the eventual decline of Kashmiri Shaivism in the region.

In 1339, [[Shah Mir]] became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the [[Shah Mir dynasty]]. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the [[Mughal Empire]], who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]], which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the [[Sikh Empire|Sikh]]s, under [[Ranjit Singh]], annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], the [[Treaty of Lahore]] was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the [[East India Company|British]] under the [[Treaty of Amritsar (1846)|Treaty of Amritsar]], the Raja of [[Jammu]], [[Gulab Singh]], became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former [[princely state]] became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.

==Etymology==
According to [[folk etymology]], the name "Kashmir" means "[[desiccate]]d land" (from the [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa-Latn|ka}} = water and {{lang|sa-Latn|shimīra}} = desiccate).<ref name="Dhar1986">{{citation|last=Dhar|first=Somnath|title=Jammu and Kashmir folklore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwM7AAAAMAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Marwah Publications|page=8|isbn=9780836418095}}</ref> In the ''[[Rajatarangini]],'' a history of Kashmir written by [[Kalhana]] in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. According to [[Hindu]] mythology, the lake was drained by the great [[rishi]] or sage, [[Kashyapa]], son of Marichi, son of [[Brahma]], by cutting the gap in the hills at [[Baramulla]] (''Varaha-mula''). When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked [[Brahmin]]s to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, there is some ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called ''Kashyapa-pura'', which has been identified with ''Kaspapyros'' of [[Hecataeus of Miletus|Hecataeus]] (''apud'' [[Stephanus of Byzantium]]) and ''Kaspatyros'' of [[Herodotus]] (3.102, 4.44).<ref>{{EB1911 |inline=y |wstitle=Kashmir |volume=15 |page=688 |first=Thomas Hungerford |last=Holdich |author-link=Thomas Holdich}}</ref><ref name="Daniélou2003">{{citation |last=Daniélou |first=Alain |translator-last=Hurry |translator-first=Kenneth |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kwnv3I6qIosC&pg=PA65 |date=2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=65– |orig-year=first published in French, ''L'Histoire de l'Inde'', Fayard, 1971}}</ref> Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by [[Ptolemy]]'s ''Kaspeiria''.{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=792}} Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

==Historiography==

''[[Nilamata Purana]]'' (complied c. 500–600 CE){{sfn|Kenoyer|Heuston|2005|p=28}} contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability.{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=74}}{{efn|Puranic genealogy are "incomplete and occasionally inaccurate". The chronology of events described in Puranas often do not tally with historical discoveries of modern era.}} [[Kalhana]]'s ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' (River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from earlier times to the 12th century.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=13}}{{sfn|Sreedharan|2004|p=330}} It relies upon traditional sources like ''Nilmata Purana'', inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family.{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=73–4}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=13}} Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as "India's first historian".{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=74}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=13}}

During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to ''Rajatarangini'' were written by [[Jonaraja]] (1411–1463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with [[Akbar]]'s conquest of Kashmir in 1586 CE.{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=75}} The text was translated into [[Persian language|Persian]] by Muslim scholars such as [[Nizamuddin Ahmad|Nizam Uddin]], [[Firishta|Farishta]], and [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]].{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=37}} ''Baharistan-i-Shahi'' and Haidar Mailk's ''Tarikh-i-Kashmir'' (completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.{{sfn|Hasan|1983|p=47}}

== Palaeolithic ==
At the Lower-Middle [[Paleolithic|Palaeolithic]] Galander site near [[Pampore]] in the Kashmir Valley, remains of the extinct elephant species ''[[Palaeoloxodon turkmenicus]]'' have been found associated with knapped stone tools produced by [[archaic humans]], with the bones of the elephant suggested to display deliberate fracturing, perhaps produced during the act of butchery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhat |first1=Ghulam M. |last2=Ashton |first2=Nick |last3=Parfitt |first3=Simon |last4=Jukar |first4=Advait |last5=Dickinson |first5=Marc R. |last6=Thusu |first6=Bindra |last7=Craig |first7=Jonathan |date=October 2024 |title=Human exploitation of a straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon) in Middle Pleistocene deposits at Pampore, Kashmir, India |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |language=en |volume=342 |article-number=108894 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108894 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2024QSRv..34208894B }}</ref> The stone tools exhibit production techniques reminiscent of the [[Levallois technique|Levallois]] type, and the site is suggested to date to the [[Middle Pleistocene]], around 400-300,000 years ago.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Jukar |first1=Advait M. |last2=Bhat |first2=Ghulam |last3=Parfitt |first3=Simon |last4=Ashton |first4=Nick |last5=Dickinson |first5=Marc |last6=Zhang |first6=Hanwen |last7=Dar |first7=A. M. |last8=Lone |first8=M. S. |last9=Thusu |first9=Bindra |last10=Craig |first10=Jonathan |date=2024-10-11 |title=A remarkable Palaeoloxodon (Mammalia, Proboscidea) skull from the intermontane Kashmir Valley, India |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2396821 |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=44 |issue=2 |language=en |doi=10.1080/02724634.2024.2396821 |issn=0272-4634|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Early history==
{{Further|Mauryan Empire|Kushan Empire|Huna people|Buddhism in Kashmir|Karkota Empire|Rajatarangini}}

[[Image:Buddhist tope baramula1868.jpg|thumb|right|This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near [[Baramulla]], with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868.  The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.]]
The earliest [[Neolithic]] sites in the flood plains of Kashmir Valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at [[Burzahom]], which had two Neolithic and one [[Megalithic]] phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted until c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=111–3}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2000|p=259}} In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery.{{sfn|Allchin|Allchin|1982|p=113}} During the later [[Vedic period]], as kingdoms of the [[Rigvedic tribes|Vedic tribes]] expanded, the [[Uttarakuru|Uttara–Kurus]] settled in Kashmir.{{sfn|Rapson|1955|p=118}}{{sfn|Sharma|1985|p=44}}
[[Image:Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg|thumb|left|Kanishka inaugurates [[Mahayana Buddhism]] in Kashmir.]]
In 326 BCE, [[King Porus|Porus]] asked [[Abisares]], the king of Kashmir,{{efn|Formally, "Abisares" was the ruler of [[Abhisara]]s, the people of the [[Historical Poonch District|Poonch]] and [[Rajouri district|Rajouri]] districts. Historian P. N. K. Bamzai believes his domain included Kashmir.{{sfn|Bamzai|1994|p=68}}}} to aid him against [[Alexander the Great]] in the [[Battle of Hydaspes]]. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants.{{sfn|Heckel|2003|p=48}}{{sfn|Green|1970|p=403}}

During the reign of [[Ashoka]] (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the [[Maurya Empire]] and [[Buddhism]] was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many [[stupa]]s, some shrines dedicated to [[Shiva]], and the city of Srinagari ([[Srinagar]]) were built.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|p=219}} [[Kanishka]] (127–151 CE), an emperor of the [[Kushan dynasty]], conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1998|p=199}} Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the [[Fourth Buddhist council]] in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as [[Ashvagosha]], [[Nagarjuna]] and [[Vasumitra]] took part.{{sfn|Bamzai|1994|pp=83–4}} By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.{{sfn|Pal|1989|p=51}} [[Kumārajīva]] (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor [[Yao Xing]] and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the [[Chang'an]] monastery.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=522–3}}

[[File:MET DP267829 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portable shrine with image of the Buddha, Jammu and Kashmir, 7-8th century.]]
The [[Alchon Huns]] under [[Toramana]] crossed over the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=480}} His son [[Mihirakula]] (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of [[North India]]. He was opposed by [[Narasimhagupta|Baladitya]] in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] and eventually defeated by [[Yasodharman]] in [[Malwa]]. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of [[Gandhara]] where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=71}}{{sfn|Dani|1999|pp=142–3}}

In 659, [[Sogdia]], [[Ferghana]], [[Tashkent]], [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]], [[Balkh]], [[Herat]], [[Kashmir]], the [[Pamirs]], [[Tokharistan]], and [[Kabul]] all submitted to the [[Protectorate General to Pacify the West|protectorate]] under [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang]].{{sfn|Haywood|1998|p=3.2}}<ref name="Tanner2009">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&q=tang+dynasty+herat&pg=PA167|date=13 March 2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=978-0-87220-915-2|pages=167–}}</ref><ref name="Tanner2010">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History: Volume 1: From Neolithic cultures through the Great Qing Empire 10,000 BCE–1799 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePBeFRJnE_gC&q=northern+Vietnam+to+northern+Korea%2C+and+northwest+to+Samarkand+and+Bukhara+%28in+modern+Uzbekistan%29+and+Herat+%28in&pg=PA167|date=12 March 2010|publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-1-60384-202-0|pages=167–}}</ref><ref name="Derven2000">{{cite book|author=H. J. Van Derven|title=Warfare in Chinese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IXKkCXDvYFYC&q=tang+dynasty+herat&pg=PA122|date=1 January 2000|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11774-1|pages=122–}}</ref><ref name="Grousset1970">{{cite book|author=René Grousset|title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou|url-access=registration|date=January 1970|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/119 119]–}}</ref>
===Hindu Dynasties===
A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled over the region from the 7th-14th centuries.<ref name="Hindu Dysnaties">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2022-05-09|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent}} Quote: "A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled Kashmir until 1346, when it came under Muslim rule."</ref> After the seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion.{{sfn|Pal|1989|p=52}} Among notable scholars of this period was [[Vasugupta]] (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the ''[[Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta|Shiva Sutras]]'' which laid the foundation for a [[Monism|monistic]] Shaiva system called [[Kashmir Shaivism]]. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=166–7}} Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in [[Southern India]].{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=213}}

[[Image:Central edifice of Martand-Sun Temple.jpg|left|250px|thumb|[[Martand Sun Temple]] Central shrine, dedicated to the deity [[Surya]]. The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the [[Karkoṭa Empire|Karkota dynasty]], [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]], in the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on the Indian Subcontinent.]]
In the eighth century, the [[Karkota Empire]] established themselves as rulers of Kashmir.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated [[Yashovarman]] of [[Kanyakubja]] and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, [[Kamarupa]], [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda]], and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]]. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and [[Gujarat]] and defeated [[Arabs]] at [[Sindh]].{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|pp=260–3}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|pp=242–5}} After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}}

The Utpala dynasty founded by [[Avanti Varman (Utpala dynasty)|Avantivarman]] followed the Karkotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against [[Gurjaradesa|Gurjaras]] in [[Punjab]].{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|p=356}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir until they were defeated by Chakravarman.{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|p=357}} [[Queen Didda]], who descended from the [[Hindu Shahi]]s of [[Udabhandapura]] on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to the [[Lohara dynasty]].{{sfn|Khan|2008|p=58}} Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]–[[Mongol]] chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir in about 1320.{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}}{{sfn|Hasan|1959|pp=35–6}} His wife, Queen [[Kota Rani]] ruled until 1339. She is often credited for the construction of a canal, named "''[[Kutte Kol]]''" after her, diverting the waters of the Jhelum to prevent frequent flooding in Srinagar.<ref>Culture and political history of Kashmir, [[Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai]], M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1994.</ref>

During the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not take by siege the fortress at Lohkot.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=178}}

== Muslim rulers ==
{{Further information|Shah Mir Dynasty|Chak Dynasty|Durrani Empire}}

[[Image:Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG|thumb|left|Gateway of enclosure of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.]]

=== Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s) ===
Historian [[Mohibbul Hasan]] states that the oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights and rise of feudal lords (''Damaras'') during the unpopular rule of the [[Lohara dynasty]] (1003–1320 CE) paved the way for foreign invasions of Kashmir.{{sfn|Hasan|1959|pp=32–4}} Rinchana was a [[Tibetan Buddhist]] refugee in Kashmir, who had established himself as the ruler after Zulju.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=308}}{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}} Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister [[Shah Mir]], probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a majority,{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=309}} Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=308}} Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of [[Shah Miri dynasty|his dynasty]] in Kashmir.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=309}}

In the 14th century, [[Islam]] gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/explore-the-beauty-of-kashmir-1444056294|title=Explore the Beauty of Kashmir|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=5 October 2015|last1=Downey|first1=Tom}}</ref> With the fall of Kashmir, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hanneder|first=J.|title=On 'The Death of Sanskrit'|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=45|issue=4|year=2002|pages=293–310|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1021366131934|s2cid=189797805|jstor=24664154|doi=10.1163/000000002124994847|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1017/s001041750100353x|title=The Death of Sanskrit|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=43|issue=2|pages=392–426|year=2001|last1=Pollock|first1=Sheldon|s2cid=35550166}}</ref>{{rp|397–398}} Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as [[Nund Rishi]], combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses.{{sfn|Bose|2005|pp=268–9}} The Sultans between 1354 and 1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of [[Sikandar Butshikan|Sultan Sikandar]] (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title ''But–Shikan'' for destroying idols.{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}} Sultan [[Zayn al-Abidin the Great|Zain-ul-Abidin]] (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from [[Central Asia]] and [[Persia]] to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, [[papier-mâché]], shawls and carpets weaving prospered.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=313}} For a brief period in the 1470s, states of [[Jammu]], [[Poonch district, India|Poonch]] and [[Rajauri]] which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=313}} By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the [[Brahmin|Hindu priests]] had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and [[Persian language|Persian]] replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of [[Chak dynasty|Chaks]] had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=313}}
[[File:Silver coin of Kashmir Sultanate.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al-Din Shah II (ruled 1537–38). During the Sultanate period, the Kashmir sultans issued silver and copper coins. The silver coins were square and followed a weight standard unique to Kashmir of between 6 and 7&nbsp;gm. This coin weighs 6.16&nbsp;gm.]]
[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] general [[Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat|Haidar Dughlat]], a member of ruling family in [[Kashgar]], invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor [[Humayun]].{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}}{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=793}} Persecution of [[Shia Islam|Shia]]s, [[Shafi'i]]s and [[Sufism|Sufi]]s and instigation by [[Suri Empire|Suri]] kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.{{sfn|Hasan|1983|p=48}}{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=793}}

=== Mughals (1580s–1750s) ===
Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule until the reign of Mughal emperor [[Akbar the Great]], who took control of Kashmir and added it to his [[Kabul Subah]] in 1586. [[Shah Jahan]] carved it out as a separate [[subah]] (imperial top-level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}}{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=793}}

[[File:Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] in Srinagar; the Mughals built several [[charbagh]]-style [[Mughal Gardens|gardens]] all over the Kashmir valley]]
In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought ''Mo-i Muqqadas'' (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of [[Muhammad]], to the valley. The relic was housed in the [[Hazratbal Shrine]] on the banks of [[Dal Lake]].{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=4}} [[Nadir Shah's invasion of India]] in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=4}}

=== Durrani Empire (1752–1819) ===
Taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire, the Afghan Durrani Empire under [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] took control of Kashmir in 1752.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&q=durrani+capture+kashmir&pg=PA43|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|pages=43, 44}}</ref> In the mid-1750s the Afghan-appointed governor of Kashmir,<ref name="Banga">{{Cite journal|jstor=44155495|title=Ahmad Shah Abdali's Designs over the Punjab|last1=Banga|first1=Indu|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=1967|volume=29|pages=185–190}}</ref> [[Sukh Jiwan Mal]], rebelled against the Durrani Empire before being defeated in 1762.<ref name="Banga" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Dhar|first=Triloki Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kb815NoRRoC&q=Sukhjiwan,+the+Governor+of+Kashmir&pg=PA232|title=Saints and Sages of Kashmir|date=2004|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-576-0|pages=232}}</ref> After Mal's defeat, the Durrani engaged in the oppression of the remaining Hindu population through forced conversions, killings, and forced labor.<ref name=":0" /> Repression by the Durrani extended to all classes, regardless of religion, and a heavy tax burden was levied on the Kashmiri populace.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zutshi|first=Chitralekha|url=https://www.zukunftsphilologie.de/fileadmin/pdf/zukunftsphilologie/lecture-cum-seminar/Zutshi_Languages_Belonging.pdf|title=Languages of Belonging; Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|pages=35}}</ref> According to the historian [[Victoria Schofield]]: "The names of the Afghan governors who ruled Kashmir are all but forgotten but not their cruelty, which was directed mainly towards the Hindus".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Schofield |first=Victoria |author-link=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War |date=2003 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-898-4 |edition=New |location=London |pages=5 |chapter=Introducing Kashmir}}</ref> Extortion was common and many Kashmiris were sold as slaves to Afghanistan, adds Schofield.<ref name=":1" />

A number of Afghan governors administered the region on behalf of the Durrani Empire. During the Durrani rule in Kashmir, income from the region constituted a large part of the Durrani Empire's revenue.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.2307/2644508|jstor = 2644508|last1 = Rubin|first1 = Barnett R.|title = Lineages of the State in Afghanistan|journal = Asian Survey|year = 1988|volume = 28|issue = 11|pages = 1188–1209}}</ref> The empire controlled Kashmir until 1819, after which the region was annexed by the [[Sikh Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=41394023|title=The Intractable Kashmir Issue: Search for a Rational Solution|last1=Zaidi|first1=S. H.|journal=Pakistan Horizon|year=2003|volume=56|issue=2|pages=53–85}}</ref>

== Sikh rule (1819–1846) ==

[[File:Sheik Imam-Ud-Din, Runjur Sing, and Dewan Dina Nath..jpg|thumb|right|[[Shaikh Imam-ud-Din|Sheikh Imam-ud-din]], governor of Kashmir under the Sikhs, shown along with [[Ranjodh Singh Majithia|Ranjur Singh]] and [[Diwan Dina Nath|Dewan Dina Nath]]. 1847. (James Duffield Harding)]]

{{Multiple image
| image1      = Base coin of the Sikhs in Kashmir O1.jpg
| alt1        = (Obverse) 
| caption1    = (Obverse) Inscribed ‘Har’ (Gurmukhi).
| image2      = Base coin of the Sikhs in Kashmir R1.jpg
| total_width = 230px
| alt2        = (Reverse)
| caption2    = (Reverse) Date of minting in Farsi 1878 VS (1821 CE)
| header      = Sikh coins in Subah Kashmir were called 'Hari Singhee'.
}}
{{Multiple image
| image3      = Base coin of the Sikhs in Kashmir O2.jpg
| alt3        = (Obverse) 
| caption3    = (Obverse) Inscribed ‘Om Sri’ (Devanagri).
| image4      = Base coin of the Sikhs in Kashmir R2.jpg
| total_width = 230px
| alt4        = (Reverse)
| caption4   = (Reverse) Date of minting in Farsi 1879 VS (1822 CE).
| footer      = All coins bore the Gobindshahi couplet in Farsi on the obverse. 
}}
[[File:A rare book on the period of Sikh-rule over Kashmir 02.jpg|thumb|right|A rare book on the period of Sikh-rule over Kashmir]]

After four centuries of Muslim rule, Kashmir fell to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under [[Ranjit Singh]] of [[Punjab]] after the [[Battle of Shopian]] in 1819.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|pp=5–6}} However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,{{sfn|Madan|2008|p=15}} protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}} The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}} which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,{{sfn|Schofield|2010|pp=5–6}} closing down the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]] in Srinagar, and banning the ''[[azaan]]'', the public Muslim call to prayer;{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}} these laws were however later repealed by the governor [[Shaikh Ghulam Muhy-ud-Din|Muhyuddin]] during the last decade of Sikh rule. Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|pp=5–6}} However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire. During this time [[Pashmina|Kashmiri shawl]]s became known worldwide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}}

Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and made a tributary.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, [[Gulab Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Gulab Singh]], subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns and got appointed as the Raja of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, [[General Zorawar Singh|Zorawar Singh]], Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of [[Ladakh]] and [[Baltistan]].{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} The notable governors appointed to Kashmir by the Sikh kingdom include [[Moti Ram]], [[Hari Singh Nalwa|Hari Singh]], [[Diwan Kirpa Ram|Kirpa Ram]], [[Mihan Singh]] and Muhyuddin.

== Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947) ==
{{Main|Kashmir}}
[[File:Gulab Sing.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar. (Artist: James Duffield Harding).]]
[[File:Ruined temple, Boniar (Kashmir). 19 May 1876.jpg|thumb|10th century Boniar temple in 1876, cleared during the Dogra rule. Best preserved Kashmir temple.]]
In 1845, the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof until the [[battle of Sobraon]] (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir [[Henry Montgomery Lawrence|Henry Lawrence]].  Two treaties were concluded.  By the first the State of Lahore (''i.e.'' West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for ([[rupees]]) ten&nbsp;million of indemnity, the hill countries between [[Beas River|Beas]] and [[Indus]]; by the second{{sfn|Treaty of Amritsar 1846}} the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of [[Indus]] and west of [[Ravi River|Ravi]]" (''i.e.'' the Vale of Kashmir).{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} The [[Treaty of Amritsar, 1846|Treaty of Amritsar]] freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=7}} The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the [[revolt of 1857]] which challenged [[British Raj|British rule]] in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=9}} Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857,{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=7}} his son, [[Ranbir Singh (Maharaja)|Ranbir Singh]], added the emirates of [[Hunza (princely state)|Hunza]], [[Gilgit, Pakistan|Gilgit]] and [[Nagar (princely state)|Nagar]] to the kingdom.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=11}}

[[Image:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg|thumb|left|1909 Map of the [[Kashmir region|Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu]]. The names of different regions, important cities, rivers and mountains are underlined in red.]]
The [[Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu]] (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."<ref name=bowers>Bowers, Paul.  2004. [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf "Kashmir."  Research Paper 4/28] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326182755/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf |date=26 March 2009 }}, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.</ref> It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly [[Sunni Islam|''Sunni'']] Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri [[brahmin]]s or [[Kashmiri Pandits|pandits]]; to the northeast, sparsely populated [[Baltistan]] had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised [[Shia Islam|''Shi'a'' Islam]]; to the north, also sparsely populated, [[Gilgit Agency]], was an area of diverse, mostly ''Shi'a'' groups; and, to the west, [[Poonch district, Jammu and Kashmir|Punch]] was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.<ref name=bowers/>

Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e181?_hi=3&_pos=46|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619232553/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e181?_hi=3&_pos=46|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 June 2018|title=Kashmir|publisher=OUP}}</ref> Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers.<ref name="Sevea2012">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fk8hAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|title=The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India|date=29 June 2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-53639-4|pages=16–|author=Iqbal Singh Sevea}}</ref> The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by a Hindu elite.<ref name="bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17">{{Harvnb|Bose|2005|pp=15–17}}</ref><ref name="talbot-singh-p54">{{Harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=54}}</ref> &nbsp;The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to landlords and moneylenders,<ref name="bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17" />&nbsp;and did not organize politically until the 1930s.<ref name="talbot-singh-p54" />
<!---
{{Refimprove}}
Ranbir Singh's grandson [[Hari Singh]] ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925. The Maharajah Singh never represented the will of his subjects, creating tension between the Hindu rulers and the Muslim population of Kashmir. Muslims in Kashmir detested him, as they were heavily taxed and had grown tired of his insensitivity to their religious concerns. The Dogra rule (the name of the municipal governments) had excluded Muslims from the civil service and the armed services. Islamic religious ceremonies were taxed. Historically, Muslims were banned from organizing politically, which would only be tolerated beginning in the 1930s. In 1931, in response to a sermon that had tones of opposition to the government, the villages of Jandial, Makila and Dana were ransacked and destroyed by the Dogra army, with their inhabitants burned alive.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}A legislative assembly, with no real power, was created in January, 1947. It issued one statement that represented the will of the Muslim people: "After carefully considering the position, the conference has arrived at the conclusion that accession of the State to Pakistan is absolutely necessary in view of the geographic, economic, linguistic, cultural and religious conditions... It is therefore necessary that the State should accede to Pakistan". {{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} (Put credible citations and uncomment these...)--->
<!--- This is one of the rare instances that an elected block of the people of Kashmir had been given the chance to speak. Representing the subjects who elected them, they sought accession with Muslim Pakistan.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} Prem Nath Bazaz, founder of the Kashmir Socialist Party in 1943, a reliable primary source of history, reiterated that a majority of Kashmiris were against the decision of the Maharajah in his book, The History of The Struggle of Freedom in Kashmir.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} He writes, "The large majority of the population of the State, almost the entire Muslim community and an appreciable number of non-Muslims was totally against the Maharjah declaring accession to India." This statement, and the decision reached by the legislative assembly are important because they dispel any belief that the Kashmiris' religious ties with Pakistan did not necessarily indicate a will to unite. Indeed, the ethnic bond between Kashmir and Pakistan influenced a majority of the people to seek accession with Pakistan. The Hindu Maharajah would not listen, and continued to delay his decision about which nation to join. (Put credible citations and uncomment these...) --->

==1947==
{{Further|1947 Poonch Rebellion|1947 Jammu massacres|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947}}
Ranbir Singh's grandson [[Hari Singh]], who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition]] of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent [[Dominion of India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. An [[1947 Poonch Rebellion|internal revolt began in the Poonch region]] against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja.<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn13 Prem Nath Bazaz, "The Truth About Kashmir"]</ref> In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon demonstrations in favour of Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent people.<ref>Official Records of the United Nations Security Council, Meeting No:234, 1948, pp.250–1:[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn13]</ref> The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October.<ref name="Kashmir during 1947">[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/1947_detailed.shtml 1947 Kashmir History]</ref> Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people.  In 1947, Jammu and Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim and 20% Hindu".{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}}  To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a [[standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. Such an agreement was pending with India.<ref name="Schofield" /> Following [[1947 Jammu massacres|huge riots in Jammu]], in October 1947, [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] from Pakistan's [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]] recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded [[Kashmir]], along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in looting and killing along the way.<ref>{{citation |last=Jamal |first=Arif |title=Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TNO5MAAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Melville House |isbn=978-1-933633-59-6 |pages=52–53}}</ref><ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn17 Pathan Tribal Invasion into Kashmir]</ref> The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission.  Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]]{{efn|Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of an independent India.}} agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}} Once the Maharaja signed the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|Instrument of Accession]], Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn19 Govt. of India, White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi 1948, p.77]</ref> until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained.  Kashmir leader [[Sheikh Abdullah]] endorsed the accession as ad hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja.<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn19 Sheikh Abdullah, Flames of the Chinar, New Delhi, 1993, p.97]</ref> The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force.

==Post-1947==
{{Further|Timeline of the Kashmir conflict|History of Azad Kashmir}}

In early 1948, India sought a resolution of the [[Kashmir conflict]] at the [[United Nations]]. Following the set-up of the [[United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan]] (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47|Resolution 47]] on 21{{nbsp}}April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of people of J&K must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession will be decided.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A15FC3B5E17738DDDAA0894D9415B8788F1D3 |work=The New York Times |title=NEHRU URGES U.N. TO POLL KASHMIR; Would Have Supervised Ballot to Decide Accession – Bomb Attack by India Reported |date=3 November 1947 |access-date=4 May 2010}}</ref> However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}}

On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite.{{sfn|UNCIP Resolution, 5 January 1949}} As per the 1948{{sfn|UNCIP Resolution, 13 August 1948}} and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle, that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army of Pakistan is to be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.{{sfn|UNCIP Resolution, 30 March 1951}}

<!--- However, this chain of events is disputed by Pakistan, which claims that the Indian army entered Kashmir before the Instrument of Accession was signed. (please include this line in the article Kashmir Dispute or state a citation)---> <!--- According to the instruments of partition of India, the rulers of princely states were given the choice to freely accede to either India or Pakistan, or to remain independent. They were, however, advised to accede to the contiguous dominion, taking into consideration the geographical and ethnic issues. (already mentioned in the previous section, 1947) ---> <!--- In Kashmir, however, the Maharaja hesitated. The Maharaja, fearing pressure from Pakistan army which entered Kashmir, agreed to join India by signing the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947. Kashmir was provisionally accepted into the Indian Union pending a free and impartial plebiscite. (This part has already been discussed in the previous section, 1947... This section is titled, Post 1947) ---> <!--- This was spelled out in a letter from the Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten, to the Maharaja on 27 October 1947. In the letter, accepting the accession, Mountbatten made it clear that the State would only be incorporated into the Indian Union after a reference had been made to the people of Kashmir. (A previous line states that " Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten[19] for assistance, and the Governor-General agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.[17]" ... The line is also substantiated with a citation... If this statement is accepted then the entire article will contradict itself...) --->
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the [[plebiscite]] demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}} and eventually led to three more wars over Kashmir in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], 1971 and [[Kargil War|1999]]. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, governing it as [[Gilgit–Baltistan]] and [[Azad Kashmir]]. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."<ref name=britannica-kashmir />

[[File:J&K10low.jpg|thumb|left|[[ceasefire|Cease-fire]] line between India and Pakistan after the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947 conflict]]]]

The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39 establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict.  Subsequent to the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN.  In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite. However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was non-binding. Moreover, the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war. They were required by the Security Council resolution 47 to remove all armed personnels from the Azad Kashmir before holding the plebiscite.{{sfn|Resolution 47 (1948)}}
<!-- The Government of India holds that the Maharaja signed a document of accession to India 26 October 1947. Pakistan has disputed whether the Maharaja actually signed the accession treaty before Indian troops entered Kashmir. Furthermore, Pakistan claims the Indian government has never produced an original copy of this accession treaty and thus its validity and legality is disputed. However, India has produced the instrument of accession with an original copy image on its website. Alan Campbell-Johnson, the press attache to the Viceroy of India states that "The legality of the accession is beyond doubt."{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} (there is an article called "Kashmir conflict". These lines are fit for there. There is no need to go into the details of "Kashmir conflict" in every article related to Kashmir.)-->

The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the [[Chinese Revolution (1949)|communist revolution in 1949]]. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.:<ref name=britannica-kashmir>"Kashmir." (2007). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref> "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the [[Aksai Chin]] area to provide better communication between [[Xinjiang]] and western [[Tibet]]. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."<ref name=britannica-kashmir /> China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.

In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir<!--- , (what is this comma and? a new form of English?)---> and yield the government to [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the leader of a popular political party, the [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference Party]].<ref name="Schofield">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1762146.stm Schofield, Victoria. 'Kashmir: The origins of the dispute', ''BBC News UK Edition'' (16 January 2002)] Retrieved 20 May 2005</ref> Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy<ref name="Elections in Kashmir">[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/kashmir-elections.shtml Elections in Kashmir]</ref> also led to the rise of Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.

In 1986, the [[1986 Anantnag riots|Anantnag riots]] broke out after the CM Gul Shah ordered the construction of a mosque at the site of a Hindu Temple in Jammu and Gul Shah made an incendiary speech.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Verma |first1=P. S. |title=Jammu and Kashmir at the Political Crossroads |date=1994 |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |isbn=9780706976205 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl5uAAAAMAAJ }}</ref> Hindu-Muslim riots (a reaction to the opening of [[Babri Masjid]] to Hindu worshippers) were a national event, taking place in seven other states as well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hindu-Moslem riots reported in Kashmir, Calcutta |url=https://apnews.com/article/7aace3ff6f33b7ee0fd67aa2cc54b66a |access-date=2022-03-12 |work=Associated Press News}}</ref> Following the [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] that were widely perceived to have been rigged, disgruntled Kashmiri youth such as the so-called 'HAJY group' – Abdul Hamid Shaikh, Ashfaq Majid Wani, Javed Ahmed Mir and Mohammed [[Yasin Malik]] – joined the [[Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front]](JKLF) as an alternative to the ineffective democratic setup that was prevalent in Kashmir. This led to gain in the momentum of the popular insurgency in the Kashmir Valley.{{sfn|Puri|1993|p=52}}<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/1987-1998_detailed.shtml 1989 Insurgency]</ref> The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as [[Mujahadeen]]s from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] the same year.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm BBC Timeline on Kashmir conflict.]</ref> Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_files/hrw_arms.htm Human Rights Watch Report, 1994]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1881669.stm Pakistan admission over Kashmir]</ref><ref>See [[Operation Tupac]]</ref>

In August 2019, the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under [[Article 370 of the Constitution of India|Article 370]] of the Indian constitution in 2019, and the Parliament of India passed the [[Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act]], which contained provisions to dissolve the state and reorganise it into two [[Union territory|union territories]] – [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west and [[Ladakh]] in the east.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/article-370-to-be-scrapped-jk-will-ceases-to-be-a-state-2-union-territories-created/articleshow/70531899.cms|title=Jammu Kashmir Article 370: Govt revokes Article 370 from Jammu and Kashmir, bifurcates state into two Union Territories|date=5 August 2019|newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=5 August 2019|agency=Ist}}</ref> These changes came into effect from 31 October 2019.

==Historical demographics of Kashmir==

In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}} In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (''i.e.'' 5.24%), and in the frontier ''wazarats'' of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}} In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}} These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.{{sfn|Rai|2004|p=27}} In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%.{{sfn|Rai|2004|p=27}} In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%<ref name=BBC2003>BBC. 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/default.stm ''The Future of Kashmir? In Depth.'']</ref> and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.<ref name=BBC2003/>

Among the Muslims of the ''Kashmir province'' within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as ''krams'' ..."<ref name="imperialgazetteerkashmir">''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.</ref> It was recorded that these ''kram'' names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc. The [[Sayyid|Saiyids]], it was recorded, "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their ''kram'' name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."<ref name="imperialgazetteerkashmir" /> The ''Mughals'' who were not numerous were recorded to have ''kram'' names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where [[Pashtun people|Pathan]] colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak [[Pashtu]]."<ref name="imperialgazetteerkashmir" /> Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.

Among the Hindus of ''Jammu'' province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "[[Brahmin]]s (186,000), the [[Rajput]]s (167,000), the [[Khatri]]s (48,000) and the [[Thakur (Indian title)|Thakkars]] (93,000)."{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}}

==Gallery==

<gallery>
Image:Horned figure on pottery. Pré-Indus civilization. Kashmir.jpg|Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in [[Sindh]].
Image:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|A Muslim shawl making family in Kashmir. 1867. ''Cashmere shawl manufactory'', chromolith., William Simpson.
Image:Kashmiri-home-life-1890.jpg|Kashmiri home life c. 1890. Photographer unknown.
Image:Muslim papier-mache ornament painters.jpg|Muslim papier-mâché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
Image:Kashmir-hindu-priests.jpg|Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
Image:Ladakhi-men-kashmir1890.jpg|Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47]]
* [[Kashmiriyat]]
* [[Sharada Peeth]]
* [[Buddhism in Kashmir]]
* [[Harsha of Kashmir]]
* [[List of topics on the land and the people of "Jammu and Kashmir"]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==External links==
* [http://history.world-citizenship.org/baharistan-i-shahi Baharistan -i Shahi A Chronicle of Medieval Kashmir translated into English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922114637/http://history.world-citizenship.org/baharistan-i-shahi |date=22 September 2013 }}
* [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/kashmir.html ''Conflict in Kashmir: Selected Internet Resources by the Library, University of California, Berkeley, USA''; Bibliographies and Web-Bibliographies list]
* [http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/ Kashmir Website with Historical Timeline]
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-kashmirsultans.html Coins of the Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1586)]
* {{in lang|ar}} [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4077 "The Great History of the Events of Kashmir"] from 1821

{{History of India by State}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Kashmir}}
[[Category:History of Kashmir| ]]
[[Category:History of India by location]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan by location]]
[[Category:History of China by location]]
[[Category:Sikhs]]
[[Category:Ranjit Singh]]
[[Category:Coins]]