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{{History of Korea}}
The [[Lower Paleolithic]] era on the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]] and in [[Manchuria]] began roughly half a million years ago.<ref name="Eckert">{{harvnb|Eckert|Lee|1990|p=2}}</ref><ref name="Norton">
Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825.</ref><ref name="Sin">
{{harvnb|Sin|2005|p=17}}</ref> The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC and the [[Neolithic]] period began thereafter, followed by the [[Bronze Age]] by 2000 BC,<ref name="Eckert 2">
{{harvnb|Eckert|Lee|1990|p=9}}</ref><ref name="Connor">
{{harvnb|Connor|2002|p=9}}</ref><ref name="Kim and Bae">[http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/Bae/pdfs/2010_Kim%20and%20Bae_C14.pdf Jong Chan Kim, Christopher J Bae, "Radiocarbon Dates Documenting The Neolithic-Bronze Age Transition in Korea"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022012215/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Bae/pdfs/2010_Kim%20and%20Bae_C14.pdf |date=2012-10-22 }}, (2010), ''Radiocarbon'', 52: 2, pp. 483–492.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Korea, 8000–2000 B.C. {{!}} Chronology {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/eak.html |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Iron Age]] around 700 BC. The [[Paleolithic]] people are likely not the direct ancestors of the present Korean people, but their direct ancestors are thought to be the Neolithic People of about 2000 BC.<ref>金両基監修『韓国の歴史』[[河出書房新社]] 2002、p.2</ref>

According to the mythic account recounted in the ''[[Samguk yusa]]'' (1281), the [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]] kingdom was founded in northern Korea and southern [[Manchuria]] in 2333 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-17 |title=History of Korea - WisdomMaps.info |url=https://wisdommaps.info/history-of-korea/,%20https://wisdommaps.info/history-of-korea/ |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=wisdommaps.info |language=en-US }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>{{sfn|Sin|2005|p=19}}{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp=14, 167}}{{sfn|Seth|2010|p=17}} The first written historical record on Gojoseon can be found from the text ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]''.<ref name="han'guk">{{Cite book |url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4977201|author=Han'guk Kyowŏn Taehakkyo|title=Atlas of Korean History|series=Department of History Education, [[Korea National University of Education]] |year=2008|page=22|publisher=Published and distributed by Stallion Press|quote=The first record about Gojoseon appears in ''Guanzi''|isbn=9789810807856}}</ref><ref name="naver1">{{in lang|ko}} [http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=14543 Gojoseon] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120701153430/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=14543 |date=2012-07-01 }} at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref>{{sfn|Peterson|Margulies|2009|p=6}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Gojoseon |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Gojoseon/ |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=World History Encyclopedia |date=13 October 2016 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Jin (Korean state)|Jin state]] was formed in southern Korea by the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-10-19 |title=South Korea country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15289563 |access-date=2025-06-24 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> In the late 2nd century BC, Gojoseon eventually [[Han conquest of Gojoseon|fell to]] the [[Han dynasty]] of China, which led to succeeding warring states, the [[Proto–Three Kingdoms period|Proto–Three Kingdoms]] period.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-13 |title=Korea {{!}} History, Peninsula, Rulers, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Korea |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

From the 1st century BC, [[Goguryeo]], [[Baekje]], and [[Silla]] grew to control the peninsula and Manchuria as the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]] (57 BC–668 AD), until [[Unified Silla|unification by Silla]] in 676. In 698, [[Go of Balhae|Dae Jo-young]] established [[Balhae]] in the old territories of Goguryeo,{{sfn|Pratt|2007|p=63-64}}{{sfn|Peterson|Margulies|2009|p=35-36}} which led to the [[Northern and Southern States period]] (698–926) with Balhae and Silla coexisting.

In the late 9th century, Silla was divided into the [[Later Three Kingdoms]] (892–936), which ended with the unification by [[Taejo of Goryeo|Wang Kŏn]]'s [[Goryeo]] dynasty. Meanwhile, Balhae fell after invasions by the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]-led [[Liao dynasty]]; fleeing refugees including the [[Dae Gwang-hyeon|last crown prince]] emigrated to Goryeo, where he was absorbed into the ruling family, thus unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo.<ref name="Goryeosa">Kim Jongseo, Jeong Inji, et al. "Goryeosa (The History of Goryeo)", 1451, Article for July 934, 17th year in the Reign of Taejo</ref><ref name="Balhae">{{harvnb|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|p=103}}, "When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom."</ref> During the Goryeo period, laws were [[Codification (law)|codified]], a [[civil service]] system was introduced, and culture influenced by [[Korean Buddhism|Buddhism]] flourished. However, [[Mongol invasions of Korea|Mongol invasions]] in the 13th century brought Goryeo under the influence of the [[Mongol Empire]] and the [[Yuan dynasty]] of China until the mid-14th century.{{sfn|Seth|2011|p=112}}{{sfn|Kim, Djun Kil|2014|pp=65–68}}

In 1392, General [[Taejo of Joseon|Yi Seong-gye]] established the [[Joseon|Joseon dynasty]] (1392–1897) after a [[coup d'état]] in 1388 that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-10-12 |title=North Korea country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15256929 |access-date=2025-06-24 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> King [[Sejong the Great]] (1418–1450) implemented numerous administrative, social, scientific, and economic reforms, established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty, and personally created [[Hangul]], the Korean alphabet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jeong |first=Yoonjae |date=2009 |title=A Study of King Sejong's Political Ideas and Practice |url=https://www-dbpia-co-kr-ssl.access.hanyang.ac.kr:8443/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE01178470 |journal=A Study of King Sejong's Political Ideas and Practice }}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

After enjoying a period of peace for nearly two centuries, the [[History of the Joseon dynasty|Joseon dynasty]] faced foreign invasions from 1592 to 1637. Most notable of these were the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions of Korea]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Myungki |first=Kim |date=2012 |title=The East Asian World Situation just before the Imjin War |url=https://www-dbpia-co-kr-ssl.access.hanyang.ac.kr:8443/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE02069214 |journal=The East Asian World Situation Just Before the Imjin War }}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The combined force of the [[Ming dynasty]] of China and the Joseon dynasty (whose naval fleet was successfully led by Admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]]) repelled these Japanese invasions, but at a cost to both countries. Henceforth, Joseon gradually became more and more [[Isolationism|isolationist]] and stagnant with frequent internal strifes.

By the mid 19th century, with the country [[hermit kingdom|unwilling to modernize, and under encroachment by European powers]], Joseon Korea was forced to sign [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] with foreign powers. After the assassination of [[Empress Myeongseong]] by Japanese mercenaries in 1895, the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]], and the [[Gabo Reform|Gabo Reforms of 1894 to 1896]], the [[Korean Empire]] (1897–1910) came into existence, heralding a brief but rapid period of social reform and modernization. However, in 1905, the Korean Empire was forced to sign a [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|protectorate treaty]] and in 1910, [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910|Japan effectively annexed the Korean Empire]]; the treaties involved were later confirmed to be null and void. Korea then became a de facto Japanese colony from 1910 to 1945. [[Korean independence movement|Korean resistance]] manifested in the widespread [[March First Movement]] of 1919. Thereafter the [[Korean independence movement|resistance movements]], coordinated by the [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]] in exile, became largely active in neighboring Manchuria, [[China proper]], and [[Siberia]].

After the end of [[World War II]] in 1945, the Allies [[Division of Korea|divided the country]] into a [[Soviet Civil Administration|northern area]] (protected by the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]) and a [[United States Army Military Government in Korea|southern area]] (protected primarily by the [[United States]]). In 1948, when the great powers failed to agree on the formation of a single government, this partition became the modern states of North and South Korea. The peninsula was divided at the [[38th parallel north|38th Parallel]]: the "[[South Korea|Republic of Korea]]" was created in the south, with the backing of the US and Western Europe, and the "[[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]" in the north, with the backing of the Soviets and the communist [[China|People's Republic of China]]. The new premier of North Korea, [[Kim Il Sung]], launched the [[Korean War]] in 1950 in an attempt to [[Korean reunification|reunify the country]] under [[Communist state|Communist rule]]. After immense material and human destruction, the conflict ended with a ceasefire in 1953. In 1991, both states were accepted into the [[United Nations]]. In 2018, the two nations agreed to work toward a [[Peace Treaty on Korean Peninsula|final settlement]] to formally end the [[Korean conflict]] and promote the common prosperity and reunification of Korea.

While both countries were essentially under authoritarian rule after the war, [[History of South Korea|South Korea]] eventually [[June Democratic Struggle|liberalized]]. Since 1987 it has had a competitive electoral system. The South Korean [[Miracle on the Han River|economy has prospered]], and the country is now considered to be fully developed. [[History of North Korea|North Korea]] has maintained a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[Military dictatorship|militarized rule]], with a [[North Korean cult of personality|personality cult]] constructed around the [[Kim family (North Korea)|Kim family]]. Economically, North Korea has remained heavily dependent on [[Aid|foreign aid]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2019 |title=North Korea: Who is sending aid? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48637518 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref>

==Prehistory==
{{Main|Prehistoric Korea}}

===Paleolithic===
[[File:KoreanEarthenwareJar4000BCEAmsa-DongNearSeoul.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Korean earthenware jar with comb pattern; made 4000 BC, [[Amsa-dong]], [[Seoul]], now in [[British Museum]]]]

No fossil proven to be [[Homo erectus]] has been found in the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]],<ref>[http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo_2.htm Early Human Evolution: Homo ergaster and erectus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219092405/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo_2.htm |date=2007-12-19 }}. Anthro.palomar.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref> though a candidate has been reported.<ref name="Norton" /> Tool-making artifacts from the [[Paleolithic]] period have been found in present-day [[North Hamgyong Province|North Hamgyong]], [[South Pyongan Province|South Pyongan]], [[Gyeonggi Province|Gyeonggi]], and north and south [[Chungcheong Province|Chungcheong]] provinces,{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=8–12}} which dates the Paleolithic Age to half a million years ago,<ref name="Connor" /> though it may have begun as late as 400,000 years ago<ref name="Eckert" /> or as early as 600,000–700,000 years ago.<ref name="Norton" /><ref name="Sin" />

===Neolithic===
{{Main|Jeulmun pottery period|Mumun pottery period}}

The earliest known [[Korean pottery and porcelain|Korean pottery]] dates back to around 8000 BC,<ref name="Choe and Bale">[https://www.academia.edu/798598 Chong Pil Choe, Martin T. Bale, "Current Perspectives on Settlement, Subsistence, and Cultivation in Prehistoric Korea"], (2002), ''Arctic Anthropology'', 39: 1–2, pp. 95–121.</ref> and evidence of [[Mesolithic]] [[Comb Ceramic culture|Pit–Comb Ware culture]] (or [[Yunggimun pottery]]) is found throughout the peninsula, such as in [[Jeju Island]]. [[Jeulmun pottery period|Jeulmun pottery]], or "comb-pattern pottery", is found after 7000 BC, and is concentrated at sites in west-central regions of the Korean Peninsula, where a number of prehistoric settlements, such as [[Amsa-dong]], existed. Jeulmun pottery bears basic design and form similarities to that of [[Mongolia]], the [[Amur]] and [[Songhua River|Songhua]] river basins of [[Manchuria]], the [[Jōmon period|Jōmon]] culture in Japan, and the [[Baiyue]] in [[Northern and southern China|Southern China]] and [[Southeast Asia]].{{sfn|Stark|2005|p=137}}{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=23–26}}

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged in the [[Mumun pottery period]] (c. 1500–300 BC).{{sfn|Nelson|1993|pp=110–116}}

People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field and [[Paddy field|paddy-field]] agriculture with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500–850 BC). The first societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850–550 BC), and the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550–300 BC). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important in ceremonial and political society after 700 BC. Archeological evidence from [[Songguk-ri]], [[Daepyeong]], [[Igeum-dong]], and elsewhere indicate that the Mumun era was the first in which chiefdoms rose, expanded, and collapsed. The increasing presence of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BC.{{sfn|Nelson|1993|pp=110–116}}

In addition, 73 tombs similar to the ones found in Japan, estimated to date back to Gojoseon (100 BC), have been found in the southern tip of the Korean peninsula, and the discovery of [[jar burial]]s, suggest a close relationship with Japan,<ref name="ReferenceA">小片丘彦「朝鮮半島出土古人骨の時代的特徴」『鹿児島大学歯学部紀要』 (18), 1–8, 1998</ref> and Gojoseon, proving that Gojoseon and Yayoi period Japan maintained close relations with one another even during the ancient times.

===Bronze Age===
The [[Bronze Age#Korea|Bronze Age in Korea]] is often held to have begun around 900–800 BC,<ref name="Connor" /> though the transition to the Bronze Age may have begun as far back as 2300 BC.<ref name="Kim and Bae" /> Bronze daggers, mirrors, jewelry, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger [[dolmen]] burial sites are found throughout the peninsula.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/977 Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218153900/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/977/ |date=2017-02-18 }}, UNESCO</ref> Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th-century BC.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 82–85}} It is believed that by the 4th century BC, [[Iron Age|iron culture]] was developing in Korea by northern influence via today's [[Primorsky Krai|Russia's Maritime Province]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251565346|title=Large-scale 2nd to 3rd century AD bloomery iron smelting in Korea}}</ref><ref>Wontack Hong, "The Yemaek Tungus of Central Manchuria and Korean Peninsula: Interactions between the Xianbei and the Yemaek Tungus"</ref>

==Ancient Korea==
{{Main|Gojoseon|Jin (Korean state)|Four Commanderies of Han}}
[[File:History of Korea-108 BC.png|left|thumb|Korea in 108 BC]]
[[File:Korea-Neolithic.age-Sword-00.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Korean Bronze Age sword. Seoul, [[National Museum of Korea]]]]

===Gojoseon===
{{See also|Dangun|Gija Joseon|Wiman Joseon}}

[[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]] was the first [[Korea]]n kingdom, located in the north of the peninsula and Manchuria, later alongside the state of [[Jin (Korean state)|Jin]] in the south of the peninsula.

The founding legend of Gojoseon, which is recorded in the ''[[Samguk yusa]]'' (1281) and other medieval Korean books,<ref>See also ''[[Jewang Ungi]]'' (1287) and ''[[Tongguk t'onggam]]'' (1485).</ref> states that the country was established in 2333 BC by [[Dangun]], said to be descended from heaven.{{sfn|Hwang|2010|p=2}} While no evidence has been found that supports whatever facts may lie beneath this,{{sfn|Connor|2002|p=10}}<ref name="Gojoseon">
*{{harvnb|Seth|2010|p=443}}: "An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth."
*{{harvnb|Stark|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z4_bT2SJ-HUC&pg=PA49 49]}}: "Although Kija may have truly existed as a historical figure, Tangun is more problematical."
*{{harvnb|Schmid|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lVgaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA269 270]}}: "Most [Korean historians] treat the [Tangun] myth as a later creation."
*{{harvnb|Peterson|Margulies|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByIo1D9RY40C&pg=PA5 5]}}: "The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China."
*{{harvnb|Hulbert|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WdusAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}}: "If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija."</ref> the account has played an important role in developing Korean national identity.

In the 12th century BC, [[Jizi|Gija]], a prince from the [[Shang dynasty]] of China, purportedly founded [[Gija Joseon]]. In pre-modern Korea, Gija represented the authenticating presence of Chinese civilization, and until the 20th century, Koreans commonly believed that Dangun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Gija gave Korea its high culture—and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilization.<ref>Kyung Moon hwang, "[[A History of Korea: An Episodic Narrative]]", 2010, p. 4</ref> However, due to contradicting historical and archaeological evidence, its existence was challenged in the 20th century, and today no longer forms the mainstream understanding of this period.

The historical Gojoseon kingdom was first mentioned in the Chinese record in a text called ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]''.<ref name=han'guk/><ref name="naver1"/>{{sfn|Peterson|Margulies|2009|p=6}} By about the 4th century BC, Gojoseon had developed to the point where its existence was well known in China,{{sfn|Eckert|Lee|1990|p=11}}{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|p=14}} and around this time, its capital moved to [[Pyongyang]].<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [http://enc.daum.net/dic100/contents.do?query1=b01g4157b001 Gojoseon territory] [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]</ref><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC-1 AD] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207003037/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm |date=2010-02-07 }}, Metropolitan Museum of Art</ref>

In 194 BC, the King of Gojoseon was overthrown by [[Wiman of Gojoseon|Wi Man]] (also known as Wei Man), a Korean-Chinese refugee from the [[Yan Kingdom (Han dynasty)|Han vassal state of Yan]]. Wi Man then established [[Wiman Joseon]].<ref>Academy of Korean Studies, ''The Review of Korean Studies'', vol. 10권,3–4, 2007, p. 222</ref><ref>Lee Injae, Owen Miller, Park Jinhoon, Yi Hyun-Hae, ''Korean History in Maps'', Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 20</ref>

In 128 BC, Nan Lü (南閭), a leader of Ye who was receiving pressure from [[Wiman Joseon]], surrendered to the [[Han dynasty]] and became the [[Canghai Commandery]].<ref>[http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=562808&cid=46620&categoryId=46620 창해군] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231104553/https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=562808&cid=46620&categoryId=46620 |date=2022-12-31 }} [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0011883|script-title=ko:남려|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref>

=== Chinese commanderies ===
In 108 BC, the Chinese [[Han dynasty]] defeated [[Wiman Joseon]] and installed [[Four Commanderies of Han|four commanderies]] in the northern Korean peninsula.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chandra |first1=Vipan |last2=Eckert |first2=Carter J. |last3=Lee |first3=Ki-baik |last4=Lew |first4=Young Ick |last5=Robinson |first5=Michael |last6=Wagner |first6=Edward W. |date=1993 |title=Korea Old and New: A History. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2759388 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=284 |doi=10.2307/2759388 |jstor=2759388 |issn=0030-851X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but the [[Lelang Commandery]] remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries, until it was conquered by [[Goguryeo]] in 313 AD.

[[File:Hangunhyeon.PNG|left|thumb| The [[Four Commanderies of Han]], established in the former territory of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]] after the fall of Wiman Joseon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Korea.html |title=Early Korea |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625032709/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Korea.html |archive-date=2015-06-25 }}</ref> The location of the commanderies has become a controversial topic in Korea in recent years.<ref>
*{{Cite book|date=2015-12-24 |script-title=ko:매국사학의 몸통들아, 공개토론장으로 나와라! |publisher=[[ngonews]] |url=http://www.ngo-news.co.kr/sub_read.html?uid=82015 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919142317/http://www.ngo-news.co.kr/sub_read.html?uid=82015 }}
*{{Cite book|date=2016-08-21 |script-title=ko:요서 vs 평양… 한무제가 세운 낙랑군 위치 놓고 열띤 토론 |publisher=[[Segye Ilbo]] |url=http://www.segye.com/content/html/2016/08/21/20160821001406.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170413160938/http://www.segye.com/content/html/2016/08/21/20160821001406.html |archive-date=2017-04-13 }}
*{{Cite book|date=2016-08-22 |script-title=ko:"갈석산 동쪽 요서도 고조선 땅" vs "고고학 증거와 불일치" |publisher=[[The Dong-A Ilbo]] |url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=001&oid=020&aid=0002997608 |access-date=2017-04-14 }}</ref> However, the location of the commanderies is not controversial outside of Korea.<ref group=note>
*{{cite book|last=United States Congress |title=North Korea: A Country Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmFuqReAqUC&pg=PA6 |year=2016 |publisher=Nova Science Publishers |isbn=978-1-59033-443-0 |page=6 }}
:"Han Chinese built four commanderies, or local military units, to rule the peninsula as far south as the Han River, with a core area at Lolang (Nangnang in Korean), near present-day P'yongyang. It is illustrative of the relentlessly different historiography practiced in North Korea and South Korea, as well as both countries' dubious projection backward of Korean nationalism, that North Korean historians denied that the Lolang district was centered in Korea and placed it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing."
*{{cite book|last=Connor|first=Edgar V.|title=Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background|year=2003|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-443-0|page=112}}
:"They place it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing, in order to de-emphasize China's influence on ancient Korean history."
*{{harvnb|Kim, Jinwung|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA18 18]}}
:"Immediately after destroying Wiman Chosŏn, the Han empire established administrative units to rule large territories in the northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria."
*{{cite book|last=Hyung |first=Hyung Il |title=Constructing "Korean" Origins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QxztLeLoVkQC&pg=PA129 |year=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00244-9 |page=129 }}
:"When material evidence from the Han commandery site excavated during the colonial period began to be reinterpreted by Korean nationalist historians as the first full-fledged "foreign" occupation in Korean history, Lelang's location in the heart of the Korean peninsula became particularly irksome because the finds seemed to verify Japanese colonial theories concerning the dependency of Korean civilization on China."
*{{cite book|last=Hyung |first=Hyung Il |title=Constructing "Korean" Origins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QxztLeLoVkQC&pg=PA128 |year=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00244-9 |page=128 }}
:"At present, the site of Lelang and surrounding ancient Han Chinese remains are situated in the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. Although North Korean scholars have continued to excavate Han dynasty tombs in the postwar period, they have interpreted them as manifestations of the Kochoson or the Koguryo kingdom."
*{{cite book|last=Xu |first=Stella Yingzi |title=That glorious ancient history of our nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFYVwaS8N58C&pg=PA223 |year=2007 |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-549-44036-9 |page=223 }}
:"Lelang Commandery was crucial to understanding the early history of Korea, which lasted from 108 BCE to 313 CE around the Pyongyang area. However, because of its nature as a Han colony and the exceptional attention paid to it by Japanese colonial scholars for making claims of the innate heteronomy of Koreans, post 1945 Korean scholars intentionally avoided the issue of Lelang."
*{{cite book|last=Lee |first=Peter H. |title=Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume 2: From the Seventeenth Century to the Modern |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N66XyMJ_sNsC&pg=PA227 |year=1996 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07912-9 |page=227}}
:"But when Emperor Wu conquered Choson, all the small barbarian tribes in the northeastern region were incorporated into the established Han commanderies because of the overwhelming military might of Han China."
</ref>]]

===Jin State===
Around 300 BC, a state called [[Jin (Korean state)|Jin]] arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han China and exported artifacts to the [[Yayoi period|Yayoi]] of [[Japan]].<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/history/worldhistory/yayoi-period-ema-06/ Yayoi Period History Summary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726001937/http://www.bookrags.com/history/worldhistory/yayoi-period-ema-06/ |date=2008-07-26 }}, BookRags.com</ref><ref>[http://www2.gol.com/users/hsmr/Content/East%20Asia/Japan/History/roots.html Japanese Roots] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120525105448/http://www2.gol.com/users/hsmr/Content/East%20Asia/Japan/History/roots.html |date=2012-05-25 }}, Jared Diamond, ''Discover'' 19:6 (June 1998)</ref><ref>[http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/japanorigin.htm The Genetic Origins of the Japanese] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209135625/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/japanorigin.htm |date=2016-02-09 }}, Thayer Watkins</ref> Around 100 BC, Jin evolved into the [[Samhan]] confederacies.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 92–95}}

Many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon such as [[Buyeo]], [[Okjeo]], [[Eastern Ye|Dongye]], [[Goguryeo]], and [[Baekje]]. The [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] refer to [[Goguryeo]], [[Baekje]], and [[Silla]], although Buyeo and the [[Gaya confederacy]] existed into the 5th and 6th centuries respectively.

===Proto–Three Kingdoms===
{{Main|Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea}}

[[File:History of Korea-001.png|thumb|Proto–Three Kingdoms, c. AD 1]]
[[File:평양 석암리 금제교구.jpg|thumb|Gold buckle of the [[Proto–Three Kingdoms period]]]]

The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period (열국시대,列國時代),<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://archive.today/20120708123533/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=120316 Proto-Three Kingdoms period] at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref> is the time before the rise of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], which included [[Goguryeo]], [[Silla]], and [[Baekje]], and occurred after the fall of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]]. This time period consisted of numerous states that sprang up from the former territories of Gojoseon. Among these states, the largest and most influential were [[Eastern Buyeo]] and [[Buyeo|Northern Buyeo]].

====Northern states====
{{Main|Buyeo|Okjeo|Eastern Ye}}

After the fall of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]], [[Buyeo]] arose in today's North Korea and southern [[Manchuria]], from about the 2nd century BC to 494 AD. Its remnants were absorbed by [[Goguryeo]] in 494, and both Goguryeo and [[Baekje]], two of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], considered themselves its successor.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 109–116}}

Although records are sparse and contradictory, it is thought that in 86 BC, [[Eastern Buyeo|Dongbuyeo]] (Eastern Buyeo) branched out, after which the original Buyeo is sometimes referred to as [[Buyeo|Bukbuyeo]] (Northern Buyeo). [[Holbon|Jolbon Buyeo]] was the predecessor to [[Goguryeo]], and in 538, Baekje renamed itself ''Nambuyeo'' (Southern Buyeo).<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=254242&v=43 Buyeo] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120701173656/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=254242&v=43 |date=2012-07-01 }} [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]</ref>

[[Okjeo]] was a tribal-state that was located in the northern [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]], and was established after the fall of Gojoseon. Okjeo had been a part of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]] before its fall. It never became a fully developed kingdom due to the intervention of its neighboring kingdoms. Okjeo became a tributary of Goguryeo, and was eventually annexed into Goguryeo by [[Gwanggaeto the Great]] in the 5th century.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 128–130}}

[[Eastern Ye|Dongye]] (Eastern Ye) was another small kingdom that was situated in the northern [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]]. Dongye bordered [[Okjeo]], and the two kingdoms faced the same fate of becoming tributaries of the growing empire of [[Goguryeo]]. Dongye was also a former part of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]] before its fall.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 130–131}}

====Southern states====
{{Main|Samhan|Mahan confederacy|Jinhan confederacy|Byeonhan confederacy}}

Sam-han ({{Korean|hangul=삼한|hanja=三韓|labels=no}}) refers to the three confederacies of [[Mahan confederacy|Mahan]], [[Jinhan confederacy|Jinhan]], and [[Byeonhan confederacy|Byeonhan]]. The Samhan were located in the southern region of the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]].<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://archive.today/20120707011814/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=86824 Samhan] at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref> The Samhan countries were strictly governed by law, with religion playing an important role. Mahan was the largest, consisting of 54 states, and assumed political, economic, and cultural dominance. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of 12 states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. The Samhan were eventually conquered by [[Baekje]], [[Silla]], and [[Gaya confederacy|Gaya]] in the 4th century.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 135–141}}

==Three Kingdoms of Korea==
{{Main|Three Kingdoms of Korea}}

===Goguryeo===
{{Main|Goguryeo}}
{{See also|Military history of Goguryeo}}

[[File:History of Korea-476.PNG|thumb|left|Goguryeo at its height, in 476 AD]]
[[File:Korean ambassadors to the Tang court, 7th century CE.jpg|thumb|Painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea to the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] court: Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo. ''[[Portraits of Periodical Offering]]'', 7th century Tang dynasty]]
[[File:Korean ambassadors during a audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab, Samarkand.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Korean ([[Goguryeo]]) ambassadors during an audience with King [[Varkhuman]] of [[Samarkand]]. They are identified by the two feathers on top of their head.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Library |first1=British |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |year=2004 |publisher=Serindia Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-1-932476-13-2 |page=110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA110 |language=en}}</ref> 648–651 AD, [[Afrasiab murals]], Samarkand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |date=2004 |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. C |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]
[[Goguryeo]] was founded in 37 BC by [[Jumong]] (posthumously given the royal title Dongmyeongseong).<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://archive.today/20120707121433/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=12449 Goguryeo] at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref> Later, [[Taejodae of Goguryeo|King Taejo]] centralized the government. Goguryeo was the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism as the state religion in 372, in [[Sosurim of Goguryeo|King Sosurim]]'s reign.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=199–202}}<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://archive.today/20120710001657/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=722626 Buddhism in Goguryeo] at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref>

Goguryeo (also spelled as ''Koguryŏ'') was also known as Goryeo (also spelled as ''Koryŏ''), and it eventually became the source of the modern name of Korea.<ref>Fan Ye, ''Book of the Later Han'', volume 85; the ''Dongyi Liezhuan''</ref>

The 3rd and 4th centuries were characterized by territorial competition with the Chinese and Xianbei, resulting in both losses and gains. Goguryeo initiated the [[Goguryeo–Wei War]] by attacking a Chinese fortress in 242 in an attempt to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea. [[Cao Wei]] of the [[Three Kingdoms|Three Kingdoms of China]] retaliated by invading and destroying [[Hwando]] in 244. This forced the king to flee with Cao Wei in pursuit and broke Goguryeo's rule over the Okjeo and Ye, damaging its economy. The king eventually settled in a new capital, and Goguryeo focused on rebuilding and regaining control. In the early 4th century Goguryeo once again attacked the Chinese (now [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Sima Jin]]) to cut off their access to Korea and this time succeeded, and soon afterward conquered Lelang and Daifang ending the Chinese presence in Korea. However Goguryeo's expansion led to confrontation with the rising Xianbeis. The Xianbeis devastated Goguryeo's capital in the mid 4th century and the king retreated. Goguryeo eventually regrouped and began striking back in the late 4th century by King Gogukyang, culminating with the conquests of Gwanggaeto the Great.<ref name=tennant>{{cite book |year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SlGnq9flYdMC&pg=PA22 |isbn=0-7103-0532-X |publisher=Kegan Paul International|title=A history of Korea|author=Charles Roger Tennant |author-link = Roger Tennant|page=22}}</ref><ref name="byington93-96">Byington, Mark E. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111005153543/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/Data/Jnah/J4_1_S4.pdf "Control or Conquer? Koguryŏ's Relations with States and Peoples in Manchuria,"] ''Journal of Northeast Asian History'' volume 4, number 1 (June 2007):93. pages 93–96</ref>

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 5th century, becoming a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=John Morris|last2=Westad|first2=Odd Arne|title=The History of the World |year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-993676-2|page=443|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2cfZkU5aQgC&q=koguryo+powerful+empire|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gardner|first1=Hall|title=Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy|date=27 November 2007|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-60873-3|pages=158–159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=acvGAAAAQBAJ&q=great+powers|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417203941/https://books.google.com/books?id=acvGAAAAQBAJ&q=great+powers|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 17, 2021|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Laet |first1=Sigfried J. de |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century |year=1994 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-102813-7 |page=1133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA1133 |access-date=10 October 2016 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117061404/https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA1133}}</ref>{{sfn|Walker|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA6 6–7]}} when [[Gwanggaeto the Great]] and his son, [[Jangsu of Goguryeo|Jangsu]], expanded the country into almost all of Manchuria, parts of Inner Mongolia,{{sfn|Kim, Jinwung|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA35 35]}} parts of Russia,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotkin|first1=Stephen|last2=Wolff|first2=David|date=2015-03-04 |title=Rediscovering Russia in Asia: Siberia and the Russian Far East: Siberia and the Russian Far East |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-46129-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_DqBgAAQBAJ&q=Koguryo+Siberia+Russia%27s|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref> and took the present-day city of [[Seoul]] from Baekje.{{sfn|Kim, Jinwung|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA35 35]}} Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto and Jangsu,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi |first1=Hyŏn-hŭi |last2=Pak |first2=Sŏng-su |last3=Yun |first3=Nae-hyŏn |title=New history of Korea |publisher=Jimoondang |isbn=978-89-88095-85-0 |page=201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KO8MAQAAMAAJ |quote=He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204071809/https://books.google.com/books?id=KO8MAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=2016-12-04 |year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=John Whitney |title=The Cambridge History of Japan |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22352-2|page=362 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3_6lp8IOK8C&q=%22The+reign+of+King+Kwanggaet%27o+is+thought+of+as+Koguryo%27s+golden+age+of+political+might+and+Buddhist+splendor.%22|access-date=29 July 2016|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Embree |first1=Ainslie Thomas|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history|publisher=Scribner|isbn=978-0-684-18899-7 |page=324|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LtwpAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Nevertheless%2C+the+reigns+of+Kwanggaet%27o+and+his+successor+Changsu+%28413-491%29+constituted+the+golden+age+of+Koguryo.%22|access-date=29 July 2016|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Warren I.|title=East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World |publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50251-1|page=50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Okjd2rDwb8IC&q=%22Koguryo%27s+Golden+Age%22|access-date=29 July 2016 |date=2000-12-20}}</ref> who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]] and becoming the most dominant power of the Korean peninsula.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=199–202}}{{sfn|Kim, Jinwung|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA35 35]}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Kings and Queens of Korea |url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/archive/program/program_dynasty.htm?no=10039827 |website=KBS World Radio |publisher=Korea Communications Commission |access-date=7 October 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828051916/http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/archive/program/program_dynasty.htm?no=10039827 |archive-date=28 August 2016 }}</ref> Jangsu's long reign of 79 years saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements.{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp=38–40}}

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state;{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA23 23–24]}}{{sfn|Walker|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA104 104]}} in addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many [[Military history of Goguryeo|military conflicts]] with various Chinese dynasties,{{sfn|Walker|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA161 161]}} most notably the [[Goguryeo–Sui War]], in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force traditionally said to number over a million men,<ref group=note>modern historians including Graff consider such a figure greatly exaggerated{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}</ref> and contributed to the [[Sui dynasty]]'s fall.<ref>{{cite book|last1=White|first1=Matthew|title=Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History|date=7 November 2011|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-08192-3|page=78|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-fQHlaIpR4C&pg=PA78|access-date=8 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant |first1=Reg G.|title=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History|year=2011|publisher=Universe Pub.|isbn=978-0-7893-2233-3|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s4njwZGrZg4C&pg=PA104|access-date=8 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bedeski|first1=Robert|title=Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty|date=12 March 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-12597-5|page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNl9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90|access-date=8 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA47 47]}}, "Koguryŏ was the first to open hostilities, with a bold assault across the Liao River against Liao-hsi, in 598. The Sui emperor, Wen Ti, launched a retaliatory attack on Koguryŏ but met with reverses and turned back in mid-course. Yang Ti, the next Sui emperor, proceeded in 612 to mount an invasion of unprecedented magnitude, marshalling a huge force said to number over a million men. And when his armies failed to take Liao-tung Fortress (modern Liao-yang), the anchor of Koguryŏ's first line of defense, he had a nearly a third of his forces, some 300,000 strong, break off the battle there and strike directly at the Koguryŏ capital of P'yŏngyang. But the Sui army was lured into a trap by the famed Koguryŏ commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk, and suffered a calamitous defeat at the Salsu (Ch'ŏngch'ŏn) River. It is said that only 2,700 of the 300,000 Sui soldiers who had crossed the Yalu survived to find their way back, and the Sui emperor now lifted the siege of Liao-tung Fortress and withdrew his forces to China proper. Yang Ti continued to send his armies against Koguryŏ but again without success, and before long his war-weakened empire crumbled."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nahm|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/panoramaof5000ye0000nahm/page/18 18]}}: "China, which had been split into many states since the early 3rd century, was reunified by the Sui dynasty at the end of the 6th century. Soon after that, Sui China mobilized a large number of troops and launched a sagiwar against Koguryŏ. However, the people of Koguryŏ were united and they were able to repel the Chinese aggressors. In 612, Sui troops invaded Korea again, but Koguryŏ forces fought bravely and destroyed Sui troops everywhere. General Ŭlchi Mundŏk of Koguryŏ completely wiped out some 300,000 Sui troops which came across the Yalu River in the battles near the Salsu River (now Ch'ŏngch'ŏn River) with his ingenious military tactics. Only 2,700 Sui troops were able to flee from Korea. The Sui dynasty, which wasted so much energy and manpower in aggressive wars against Koguryŏ, fell in 618."</ref>

In 642, the powerful general [[Yŏn Kaesomun]] led a coup and gained complete control over Goguryeo. In response, [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong of Tang China]] led a [[First conflict of the Goguryeo–Tang War|campaign against Goguryeo]], but was defeated and retreated.{{sfn|Walker|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA161 161]}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|date=2009-12-23|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-672-5 |page=406|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=%22In+645+he+led+Tang+forces+to+conquer+Koguryo+but+was+defeated.+Again+in+647+and+648+he+sent+out+expeditionary+forces+to+invade+Koguryo%2C+but+these+attacks+were+also+repulsed+by+the+Korean+kingdom.%22|access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 214–222}}{{sfn|Kim, Jinwung|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA50 50]}} After the death of Taizong, his son [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Gaozong]] allied with the Korean kingdom of [[Silla]] and invaded Goguryeo again, but was unable to overcome Goguryeo's stalwart defenses and was defeated in 662.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|last2=Watson|first2=Noelle|last3=Schellinger|first3=Paul |title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-63979-1|page=486|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=stalwart+defenses|access-date=16 July 2016|language=en|date=2012-11-12}}</ref><ref name="Maps">{{cite book |last1=Injae |first1=Lee |last2=Miller |first2=Owen |last3=Jinhoon |first3=Park |last4=Hyun-Hae |first4=Yi |title=Korean History in Maps |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-09846-6 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=17 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117103513/https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |archive-date=17 January 2017 |date=2014-12-15 }}</ref> However, Yŏn Kaesomun died of natural causes in 666 and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother,{{sfn|Kim, Jinwung|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA51 51]}}{{sfn|Kim, Djun Kil|2014|p=49}} with his eldest son defecting to [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and his younger brother defecting to Silla.{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA67 67]}} The Tang–Silla alliance mounted a fresh invasion in 667, aided by the defector Yeon Namsaeng, and [[Goguryeo–Tang War|was finally able to conquer Goguryeo]] in 668.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=224–225}}<ref>{{harvnb|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA67 67]}}, "Loath to let slip such an opportunity, T'ang mounted a fresh invasion under Li Chi in 667 and Silla launched a coordinated offensive. This time the T'ang army received every possible assistance from the defector Namsaeng, and although Koguryŏ continued to hold out for another year, the end finally came in 668."</ref>

After the collapse of Goguryeo, Tang and Silla ended their alliance and fought over control of the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]]. Silla succeeded in gaining control over most of the Korean Peninsula, while Tang gained control over Goguryeo's northern territories. However, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo, a Goguryeo general by the name of [[Go of Balhae|Dae Jo-yeong]] founded the Korean-Mohe state of [[Balhae]] and successfully expelled the Tang presence from much of the former Goguryeo territories.

===Baekje===
{{Main|Baekje}}

[[File:백제 금동대향로.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|[[Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje]]]]

Baekje was founded by [[Onjo of Baekje|Onjo]], a Goguryeo prince and the third son of Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, in 18 BC.<ref>Jonathan W. Best, ''A History of the Early Korean Kingdom of Paekche, together with an annotated translation of "The Paekche Annals" of the "Samguk sagi"'' (Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2007).</ref> Baekje and Goguryeo shared founding myths and originated from [[Buyeo]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=The National Folk Museum of Korea (South Korea)|title=Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. III|date=2014|publisher=길잡이미디어|isbn=978-89-289-0084-8|page=41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DsR3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|access-date=10 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> The [[Records of the Three Kingdoms]] mentions Baekje as a member of the [[Mahan confederacy]] in the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] basin (near now [[Seoul]]). It expanded into the southwest ([[Chungcheong Province|Chungcheong]] and [[Jeolla Province|Jeolla]] provinces) of the peninsula and became a significant political and military power. In the process, Baekje came into fierce confrontation with Goguryeo and the Chinese commanderies in the vicinity of its territorial ambitions.

At its peak in the 4th century during the reign of [[Geunchogo of Baekje|King Geunchogo]], Baekje absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces of [[Gyeonggi Province|Gyeonggi]], [[Chungcheong Province|Chungcheong]], and [[Jeolla Province|Jeolla]], as well as part of [[Hwanghae Province|Hwanghae]] and [[Gangwon Province, South Korea|Gangwon]]) to a centralized government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through maritime contacts with the [[Northern and Southern dynasties|Southern dynasties]] during the expansion of its territory.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 202–206}}

Baekje was a great maritime power;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|last2=Walthall |first2=Anne|last3=Palais|first3=James B.|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-618-13384-0|page=123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0entAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Paekche+was+probably+the+most+important+maritime+nation+in+the+late+fourth+century%22 |access-date=12 September 2016|year=2006}}</ref> its nautical skill, which made it the [[Phoenicia]] of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kitagawa|first1=Joseph|title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-87590-8|page=348|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ&q=%22Of+vital+importance+for+the+dissemination+of+Buddhism+throughout+East+Asia%2C+however%2C+was+Paekche%27s+nautical+skill%2C+which+made+the+kingdom+the+Phoenicia+of+medieval+East+Asia.%22|access-date=29 July 2016 |date=2013-09-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia Buckley |last2=Walthall |first2=Anne |last3=Palais |first3=James B. |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-111-80815-0 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |access-date=12 September 2016 |year=2013}}</ref> Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, such as [[Chinese characters]], [[Buddhism]], iron-making, advanced [[pottery]], and ceremonial burial to ancient [[Japan]].{{sfn|Walker|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA6 6–7]}}<ref>[http://theseoultimes.com/ST/?url=/ST/db/read.php?idx=580 Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese Buddhism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165952/http://theseoultimes.com/ST/?url=%2FST%2Fdb%2Fread.php%3Fidx%3D580 |date=2016-03-03 }}, Seoul Times, 2006-06-18</ref><ref>[http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/koreajapan.html Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233011/http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/koreajapan.html |date=2016-03-03 }}, Asia Society Museum</ref><ref>[http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2046.html Kanji] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510085157/http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2046.html |date=2012-05-10 }}, JapanGuide.com</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pottery – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568150_4/Pottery.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029161656/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568150_4/Pottery.html |archive-date=2009-10-29 |url-status=dead }} "The pottery of the Yayoi culture (300? BC-AD 250?), made by a '''Mongol people''' who came from Korea to Kyūshū, has been found throughout Japan. "</ref><ref>[http://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=359&pID=334&cName=Japanese History of Japan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031432/http://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=359&pID=334&cName=Japanese |date=2016-03-04 }}, JapanVisitor.com</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091029161656/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568150_4/Pottery.html Archived] 2009-10-31.</ref> Other aspects of culture were also transmitted when the Baekje court retreated to Japan after Baekje was conquered by the Silla–Tang alliance.

Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of [[Geunchogo of Baekje|Geunchogo]],<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Korea|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|isbn=978-89-7300-619-9|pages=29–30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT29|access-date=21 November 2016|language=en|date=January 2005}}</ref> but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yu |first1=Chai-Shin |title=The New History of Korean Civilization |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4620-5559-3 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYKNdiDCGLAC&pg=PA27 |access-date=21 November 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117110714/https://books.google.com/books?id=TYKNdiDCGLAC&pg=PA27 |archive-date=17 January 2017 |year=2012 }}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Djun Kil |url=https://books.google.kg/books?id=IgxvBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32&redir_esc=y |title=The History of Korea, 2nd Edition |date=2014-05-30 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-582-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=이윤섭 |url=https://books.google.kg/books?id=PCf-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT91&redir_esc=y |title=광개토대왕과 장수왕 |date=2014-03-07 |publisher=이북스펍 |isbn=979-11-5519-132-3 |language=ko}}</ref> Ultimately, Baekje was defeated by a coalition of Silla and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] forces in 660.<ref>[http://baekje.chungnam.net/english/index.jsp Baekje history] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214055517/http://baekje.chungnam.net/english/index.jsp |date=2009-02-14 }}, Baekje History & Culture Hall</ref>

===Silla===
{{Main|Silla}}
[[File:Hwangnyongsa Pagoda miniature.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Downsized replica of the famous 80-meter-tall [[pagoda]] at [[Hwangnyongsa]] Temple which was destroyed by the Mongols]]
[[File:Korea-Gyeongju-Bunhwangsa-Three story stone pagoda-02.jpg|thumb|The [[pagoda]] of [[Bunhwangsa]] temple, 634 AD, which once stood seven to nine stories in height, yet these collapsed to its current state of three stories]]
According to legend, the kingdom of [[Silla]] began with the unification of six chiefdoms of the [[Jinhan confederacy]] by [[Hyeokgeose of Silla|Park Hyeokgeose]] in 57 BC, in the southeastern area of Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Silla(新羅) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0032800 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref> Its territory included the present-day port city of [[Busan]], and Silla later emerged as a sea power responsible for destroying Japanese pirates, especially during the [[Unified Silla]] period.{{sfn|Lee|1997|pp=48–49}}

Silla artifacts, including unique gold metalwork, show influence from the northern nomadic steppes and [[Iranian peoples]] and especially [[Persians]], with less Chinese influence than are shown by Goguryeo and Baekje.{{sfn|Nelson|1993|pp=243–258}} Silla expanded rapidly by occupying the [[Nakdong River]] basin and uniting the city-states.

By the 2nd century, Silla was a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city-states. Silla gained further power when it annexed the [[Gaya confederacy]] in 562. Silla often faced pressure from Goguryeo, Baekje and Japan, and at various times allied and warred with Baekje and [[Goguryeo]].

Silla was the smallest and weakest of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.{{sfn|Kim, Jinwung|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA44 44–45]}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wells |first1=Kenneth M. |title=Korea: Outline of a Civilisation |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30005-7 |pages=18–19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6zoLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |access-date=12 September 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203232114/https://books.google.com/books?id=6zoLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |archive-date=3 December 2016 |date=2015-07-03 }}</ref>

In 660, King [[Muyeol of Silla]] ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General [[Kim Yu-sin|Kim Yu-shin]], aided by [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on [[Goguryeo]] but were repelled. King [[Munmu of Silla|Munmu]], son of Muyeol and nephew of Kim, launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 222–225}}

===Gaya===
{{Main|Gaya confederacy}}
[[Image:Gold Crown access NT138.jpg|left|upright=0.85|thumb|Gold crown and accessories. National Treasure No.138.]]
[[Gaya confederacy|Gaya]] was a confederacy of small kingdoms in the [[Nakdong River]] valley of southern [[Korea]] since AD 42, growing out of the [[Byeonhan confederacy]] of the [[Samhan]] period. Gaya's plains were rich in iron, so export of iron tools was possible and agriculture flourished. In the early centuries, the Confederacy was led by [[Geumgwan Gaya]] in the [[Gimhae]] region. However, its leading power changed to [[Daegaya]] in the [[Goryeong County|Goryeong]] region after the 5th century.

Constantly engaged in war with the three kingdoms surrounding it, Gaya was not developed to form a unified state, and was ultimately absorbed into [[Silla]] in 562.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 159–162}}

==North and South States==
{{Main|North–South States Period}}

The term North-South States refers to [[Unified Silla]] and [[Balhae]], during the time when Silla controlled the majority of the Korean peninsula while Balhae expanded into [[Manchuria]]. During this time, culture and technology significantly advanced, especially in Unified Silla.

===Unified Silla===
{{Main|United Silla}}
{{See also|Silla–Tang War}}
[[File:Korea-Gyeongju-Bulguksa-33.jpg|thumb|alt=[[Bulguksa]]|[[Bulguksa]] Temple is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]
After the unification wars, the [[Tang dynasty]] established outposts in the former [[Goguryeo]], and began to establish and administer communities in [[Baekje]]. Silla attacked Tang forces in Baekje and northern Korea in 671. Tang then invaded Silla in 674 but Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Korean peninsula.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 241–242}}

Unified Silla was a golden age of art and culture.<ref>{{cite book|last1=DuBois|first1=Jill|title=Korea |publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-1786-6|url=https://archive.org/details/koreadubo00dubo |url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/koreadubo00dubo/page/22 22] |quote=golden age of art and culture.|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en|year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Randel|first1=Don Michael |title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|date=28 November 2003|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01163-2|page=273|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&q=%22golden+age+of+artistic+and+cultural+achievement%22|access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hopfner|first1=Jonathan|title=Moon Living Abroad in South Korea|date=10 September 2013|publisher=Avalon Travel|isbn=978-1-61238-632-4|page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MhwXBQAAQBAJ&q=%22cultural+and+political+golden+age%22|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Kim, Djun Kil|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ci_iGuAAqmsC&pg=PA47 47]}} During this period, long-distance trade between Unified Silla and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] was documented by Persian geographer [[Ibn Khordadbeh]] in the ''[[Book of Roads and Kingdoms (Ibn Khordadbeh)|Book of Roads and Kingdoms]]''.<ref name="Bird2014">{{cite book |author=Isabella Bird|title=Korea and Her Neighbours.: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country. With a Preface by Sir Walter C. Hillier. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHeKAgAAQBAJ|date=9 January 2014|publisher=Adegi Graphics LLC|isbn=978-0-543-01434-4|chapter=1}}</ref> Buddhist monasteries such as the [[World Heritage Site]]s [[Bulguksa]] Temple and [[Seokguram]] Grotto are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/736 Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716182725/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/736 |date=2016-07-16 }}, UNESCO</ref> Other state-sponsored art and architecture from this period include [[Hwangnyongsa]] Temple and [[Bunhwangsa]] Temple. Unified Silla carried on the maritime prowess of [[Baekje]], which acted like the [[Phoenicia]] of medieval [[East Asia]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kitagawa|first1=Joseph|title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture|date=5 September 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-87590-8|page=348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ&q=%22the+Phoenicia+of+medieval+East+Asia%22|access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref> and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of [[Chang Pogo]]; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the [[Shandong Peninsula]] and the mouth of the [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gernet|first1=Jacques|title=A History of Chinese Civilization|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49781-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/291 291]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern|url-access=registration|quote=Korea held a dominant position in the north-eastern seas.|access-date=21 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Reischauer|first1=Edwin Oldfather|title=Ennins Travels in Tang China|year=1955|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited|isbn=978-0-471-07053-5|pages=276–283 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HXqEAAAACAAJ|access-date=21 July 2016|quote=From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. . . . While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. . . . The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world.}}</ref>{{sfn|Kim, Djun Kil|2014|p=3}}{{sfn|Seth|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe4PoOd89XIC&pg=PA65 65]}} Unified Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country,<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacGregor |first1=Neil |title=A History of the World in 100 Objects |date=6 October 2011 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196683-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3mUtaSxCncC&pg=PT408 |access-date=30 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204033532/https://books.google.com/books?id=r3mUtaSxCncC&pg=PT408 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> and its metropolitan capital of [[Gyeongju]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chŏng |first1=Yang-mo |last2=Smith |first2=Judith G. |last3=Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) |title=Arts of Korea |year=1998 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-0-87099-850-8 |page=230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnaiYKYmQegC&pg=PA230 |access-date=30 September 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204064758/https://books.google.com/books?id=DnaiYKYmQegC&pg=PA230 |archive-date=4 December 2016 }}</ref> was the fourth largest city in the world.<ref>{{cite book|last1=International |first1=Rotary |title=The Rotarian |date=February 1996 |publisher=Rotary International |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JjEEAAAAMBAJ/page/n30 28] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JjEEAAAAMBAJ |access-date=30 September 2016 |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ross |first1=Alan |title=After Pusan |date=17 January 2013 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-29935-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bur02Vwn9jgC&pg=PT20 |access-date=30 September 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204035311/https://books.google.com/books?id=bur02Vwn9jgC&pg=PT20 |archive-date=4 December 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Mason |first1=David A. |title=Gyeongju, Korea's treasure house |url=http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Column/view?articleId=109953 |website=[[Korea.net]] |publisher=[[Korean Culture and Information Service]] |access-date=30 September 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003092928/http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Column/view?articleId=109953 |archive-date=3 October 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Adams|first1=Edward Ben|title=Koreaʾs pottery heritage |year=1986|publisher=Seoul International Pub. House|page=53|isbn=9788985113069|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riLrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Kyongju+City+became+one+of+the+most+influential+centers+of+Asia+and+fourth+largest+city+in+the+ancient+world+during+this+period%22|access-date=30 September 2016|language=en}}</ref>

Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mun|first1=Chanju|last2=Green|first2=Ronald S.|title=Buddhist Exploration of Peace and Justice|publisher=Blue Pine Books|isbn=978-0-9777553-0-1|page=147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au1oD1kKv94C&q=%22Korean+Buddhist+monks+such+as+Woncheuk%2C+Wonhyo+and+Uisang+enjoyed+a+very+high+fame+among+Chinese+Buddhists%22|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en|year=2006}}</ref> and contributed to Chinese Buddhism,<ref>{{cite book|last1=McIntire|first1=Suzanne|last2=Burns|first2=William E.|title=Speeches in World History|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-2680-7|page=87|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-6ghsWDMTAC&q=%22Korean+thinkers+made+reciprocal+contributions+to+Chinese+Buddhism%22|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en|date=2010-06-25}}</ref> including: [[Woncheuk]], [[Wonhyo]], [[Uisang]], [[Kim Hwasang|Musang]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buswell |first1=Robert E. Jr. |last2=Lopez |first2=Donald S. Jr. |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203201712/https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |archive-date=3 December 2016 |date=2013-11-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Poceski |first1=Mario |title=Ordinary Mind as the Way: The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-804320-1 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fwRXrVPh-cC&pg=PA24 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204022820/https://books.google.com/books?id=5fwRXrVPh-cC&pg=PA24 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2007-04-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wu |first1=Jiang |last2=Chia |first2=Lucille |title=Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia: The Formation and Transformation of the Chinese Buddhist Canon |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-54019-3 |page=155 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IX7ICgAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204012709/https://books.google.com/books?id=IX7ICgAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2015-12-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wright |first1=Dale S. |title=The Zen Canon: Understanding the Classic Texts |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-988218-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfHQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204040129/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfHQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2004-03-25 }}</ref> and [[Kim Gyo-gak]], a Silla prince whose influence made [[Mount Jiuhua]] one of the Four [[Sacred Mountains of China|Sacred Mountains]] of Chinese Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Su-il |first1=Jeong |title=The Silk Road Encyclopedia |publisher=Seoul Selection |isbn=978-1-62412-076-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UgOwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT668 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204030107/https://books.google.com/books?id=UgOwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT668 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2016-07-18 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Nikaido |first1=Yoshihiro |title=Asian Folk Religion and Cultural Interaction |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3-8470-0485-1 |page=137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TozUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204040811/https://books.google.com/books?id=TozUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2015-10-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Leffman |first1=David |last2=Lewis |first2=Simon |last3=Atiyah |first3=Jeremy |title=China |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-84353-019-0 |page=519 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dA_QbQiZkB4C&pg=PA519 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204083511/https://books.google.com/books?id=dA_QbQiZkB4C&pg=PA519 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |year=2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Leffman |first1=David |title=The Rough Guide to China |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-241-01037-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjqJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT509 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204012702/https://books.google.com/books?id=FjqJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT509 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2014-06-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: China |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-4654-5567-3 |page=240 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rm7XCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |access-date=29 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203201856/https://books.google.com/books?id=rm7XCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |archive-date=3 December 2016 |date=2016-06-21 }}</ref>

Silla began to experience political troubles in late 8th century. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established [[Later Baekje]]. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning the [[Later Three Kingdoms]] period.

Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until [[Gyeongsun of Silla|King Gyeongsun]] surrendered the country to [[Goryeo]] in 935, after 992 years and 56 monarchs.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 266–269}}

===Balhae===
{{Main|Balhae}}

[[File:History of Korea-Inter-country Age-830 CE.gif|thumb|left|[[Balhae]] in the north, [[Unified Silla]] in the south.]]
[[File:Pressapochista4.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Balhae stele at the [[National Museum of Korea]]]]
[[Balhae]] was founded only thirty years after Goguryeo had fallen, in 698. It was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo by [[Go of Balhae|Dae Jo-yeong]], a former Goguryeo general<ref>''Old records of Silla'' 新羅古記({{ill|Silla kogi|ko|신라고기}}): ... 高麗舊將祚榮</ref><ref>''Rhymed Chronicles of Sovereigns'' 帝王韻紀([[Jewang ungi]]): ... 前麗舊將大祚榮</ref> or chief of Sumo Mohe.<ref>''Solitary Cloud'' 孤雲集(Gounjib): ... 渤海之源流也句驪未滅之時本爲疣贅部落靺羯之屬寔繁有徒是名栗末小蕃甞逐句驪, 內徙其首領乞四羽及大祚榮等至武后臨朝之際自營州作孼而逃輒據荒丘始稱振國時有句驪遺燼勿吉雜流梟音則嘯聚白山鴟義則喧張黑姶與契丹濟惡旋於突厥通謀萬里耨苗累拒渡遼之轍十年食葚晚陳降漢之旗.</ref><ref>''Solitary Cloud'' 孤雲集(Gounjip): ... 其酋長大祚榮, 始受臣藩第五品大阿餐之秩</ref><ref>''Comprehensive Institutions'' 通典([[Tongdian]]): ... 渤海夲栗末靺鞨至其酋祚榮立國自號震旦, 先天中 玄宗王子始去靺鞨號專稱渤海</ref> Balhae controlled the northern areas of the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]], much of Manchuria (though it didn't occupy [[Liaodong Peninsula]] for much of history), and expanded into present-day [[Primorsky Krai|Russian Primorsky Krai]]. It also adopted the culture of [[Tang dynasty]], such as the government structure and geopolitical system.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=244–248}}

In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae flourished, especially during the reigns of [[Mun of Balhae|King Mun]] and [[Seon of Balhae|King Seon]]. Balhae was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Injae |first1=Lee |last2=Miller |first2=Owen |last3=Jinhoon |first3=Park |last4=Hyun-Hae |first4=Yi |title=Korean History in Maps |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2014-12-15 |isbn=978-1-107-09846-6 |pages=64–65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |access-date=24 February 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225054603/https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |archive-date=25 February 2017}}</ref> However, Balhae was severely weakened and eventually conquered by the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]-led [[Liao dynasty]] in 926.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=244–248}} Large numbers of refugees, including [[Dae Gwang-hyeon]], the last crown prince of Balhae, were welcomed by Goryeo.<ref name="Goryeosa" /><ref name="Worden">{{cite book|title=North Korea: A Country Study|date=2011-04-21|publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-16-088278-4|page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmFuqReAqUC&pg=PA12|access-date=13 March 2017|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314071321/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmFuqReAqUC&pg=PA12 |archive-date=14 March 2017}}</ref> [[Dae Gwang-hyeon]] was included in the imperial family of [[Taejo of Goryeo|Wang Kŏn]], bringing a national unification between the two successor nations of Goguryeo.<ref name="Balhae" />

No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. [[Goryeo]] absorbed some Balhae territory, welcomed between 100,000 and 200,000 Balhae refugees including its Crown Prince [[Dae Gwang-hyeon]], and maintained hostile relations with the Liao for destroying Balhae.<ref>{{cite book|last1=이상각|script-title=ko:고려사 - 열정과 자존의 오백년|date=2014|publisher=들녘|isbn=9791159250248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LonnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref name="2 건국―호족들과의 제휴">{{cite web|title=(2) 건국―호족들과의 제휴|url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_011_0040_0030_0020_0020|website=우리역사넷|publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]]|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Sang-Do |script-title=ko:[평화칼럼] 발해 유민(遺民)과 꼬마 난민(難民) '쿠르디' |url=http://m.cpbc.co.kr/paper/view.php?cid=598022&path=201510 |website=Catholic Peace Newspaper |access-date=8 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=김 |first1=위현 |title=渤海遺民의 再建運動 : 後渤海와 大渤海}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=나 |first1=영남 |title=《요·금시대 이민족 지배와 발해인》. 외대 역사문화 연구총서 |date=2017 |publisher=History and Culture Research Series at the University of Foreign Studies}}</ref> However, Goryeo's official historical record, the [[Samguk sagi]] ("History of the Three Kingdoms"), includes passages on Balhae, but did not include a dynastic history of Balhae. Balhae was first included in Korean history by Goryeo scholar Yi Seung-hyu's [[Jewang ungi]] in 1287. The 18th century [[Joseon]] dynasty historian [[Yu Deuk-gong]] advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term "North and South States Period" to refer to this era.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=244–248}}

===Later Three Kingdoms===
{{Main|Later Three Kingdoms}}
The Later Three Kingdoms period (892–936) consisted of [[Unified Silla]] and the revival of [[Baekje]] and [[Goguryeo]], known historiographically as "Later Baekje" and "Later Goguryeo". During the late 9th century, as Silla declined in power and exorbitant taxes were imposed on the people, rebellions erupted nationwide and powerful regional lords rose up against the waning kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ko:후삼국시대(後三國時代)|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0065743|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|access-date=31 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref>

[[Later Baekje]] was founded by the general [[Kyŏn Hwŏn]] in 892, and its capital was established in Wansanju (modern [[Jeonju]]). The kingdom was based in the southwestern regions in the former territories of Baekje. In 927, Later Baekje attacked [[Gyeongju]], the capital of Unified Silla, and placed a puppet on the throne. Eventually, Kyŏn Hwŏn was ousted by his sons due to a succession dispute and escaped to Goryeo, where he served as a general in the conquest of the kingdom he personally founded.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ko:일리천(一利川)전투|url=https://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE009&cp_code=cp0208&index_id=cp02081440&content_id=cp020814400001|website=문화콘텐츠닷컴|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=31 March 2018|language=ko|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401075436/https://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE009&cp_code=cp0208&index_id=cp02081440&content_id=cp020814400001|archive-date=1 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Taebong|Later Goguryeo]] was founded by the Buddhist monk [[Kung Ye]] in 901, and its original capital was established in Songak (modern [[Kaesong]]). The kingdom was based in the northern regions, which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees.<ref>{{cite book|last1=이상각|script-title=ko:고려사 – 열정과 자존의 오백년|date=2014|publisher=들녘|isbn=979-11-5925-024-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LonnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref name="2 건국―호족들과의 제휴"/> Later Goguryeo's name was changed to Majin in 904, and Taebong in 911. In 918, [[Taejo of Goryeo|Wang Kŏn]], a prominent general of Goguryeo descent, deposed the increasingly despotic and paranoid Kung Ye, and established [[Goryeo]]. By 936, Goryeo conquered its rivals and achieved the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms.<ref>{{cite web|last1=장덕호|script-title=ko:한반도 중심에 터 닦으니 화합·통합의 새시대 '활짝'|url=http://news.joins.com/article/17253437|website=[[JoongAng Ilbo]]|access-date=31 March 2018|language=ko-KR|date=1 March 2015|archive-date=23 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323092501/http://news.joins.com/article/17253437|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Goryeo dynasty==
{{Main|Goryeo}}
{{See also|Goryeo military regime|Korea under Yuan rule}}
[[File:Korea - Seoul - National Museum - Incense Burner 0252-06a (cropped).jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|left|Celadon [[Censer|Incense Burner]] from the Korean [[Goryeo]] dynasty (918–1392), with kingfisher color [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]]]]
[[Goryeo]] was founded by [[Taejo of Goryeo|Wang Kŏn]] in 918 and became the ruling dynasty of Korea by 936. It was named "Goryeo" because Wang Kŏn, who was of Goguryeo descent,<ref>{{cite book|last1=박|first1=종기|script-title=ko:고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다|publisher=휴머니스트|isbn=978-89-5862-902-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qn6TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 |access-date=27 October 2016 |language=ko |date=2015-08-24}}</ref> deemed the nation as the successor of [[Goguryeo]].<ref name="Worden"/>{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|p=266}}{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA103 103]}}{{sfn|Kim, Djun Kil|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ci_iGuAAqmsC&pg=PA57 57]}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grayson|first1=James H.|title=Korea – A Religious History|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-86925-9|page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LU78AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79|access-date=20 October 2016|date=2013-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rossabi |first1=Morris|date=1983-05-20|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04562-0|page=323 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=%22As+the+self-proclaimed+successor+to+Koguryo+and+the+protector+of+Parhae+refugees%2C+many+of+them+of+Koguryo+origin%2C+Koryo+considered+the+northern+territories+in+Manchuria+its+rightful+legacy.%22|access-date=31 July 2016}}</ref> Wang Kŏn made his hometown [[Kaesong]] (in present-day North Korea) the capital. The dynasty lasted until 1392, although the government was controlled by [[Goryeo military regime|military regime leaders]] between 1170 and 1270. Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ) is the source of the English name "Korea".{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005a|pp= 120–121}}<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://archive.today/20120701103923/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=151665 Korea] at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref>

During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced. [[Korean Buddhism|Buddhism]] flourished and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of [[celadon]] pottery flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 360–361}}{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005a|pp= 122–123}} The production of the [[Tripitaka Koreana]] onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks,{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 309–312}} and use of metal [[movable type]] attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Korean Classics : Asian Collections: An Illustrated Guide (Library of Congress – Asian Division) |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/asian/guide/guide-korean.html |website=Library of Congress |publisher=United States Congress |access-date=19 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026173540/https://www.loc.gov/rr/asian/guide/guide-korean.html |archive-date=26 October 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gutenberg Bible |url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item100565.html |website=British Library |publisher=The British Library Board |access-date=19 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025033159/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item100565.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Korea, 1000–1400 A.D. |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/07/eak.html |website=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=19 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818174906/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/07/eak.html |archive-date=18 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Movable type – Oxford Reference |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100213284 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=19 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026154750/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100213284 |archive-date=26 October 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia Buckley |last2=Walthall |first2=Anne|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2013|isbn=978-1-285-52867-0|page=176|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfkWAAAAQBAJ |access-date=19 August 2016}}</ref>

In 1018, the [[Liao dynasty]], which was the most powerful empire of its time,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bulliet |first1=Richard |last2=Crossley |first2=Pamela |last3=Headrick |first3=Daniel |last4=Hirsch |first4=Steven |last5=Johnson |first5=Lyman |title=The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief: A Global History |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-285-44551-9 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9sbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA264 |access-date=12 September 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204014520/https://books.google.com/books?id=E9sbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA264 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=January 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cohen |first1=Warren I. |title=East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50251-1 |page=107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Okjd2rDwb8IC&pg=PA107 |access-date=12 September 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204045851/https://books.google.com/books?id=Okjd2rDwb8IC&pg=PA107 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |date=2000-12-20 }}</ref> invaded Goryeo but was defeated by General [[Kang Kam-ch'an]] at the [[Battle of Kuju]] to end the [[Goryeo–Khitan War]]. After defeating the Khitan Empire, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the [[Tripitaka Koreana]] was completed, and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists.{{sfn|Lee|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&pg=PA61 61]}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=John|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |year=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50004-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john/page/202 202]|url=https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john|url-access=registration |quote=The Mongolian-Khitan invasions of the late tenth century challenge the stability of the Koryo government, but a period of prosperity follows the defeat of the Khitan in 1018..|access-date=31 July 2016|language=en}}</ref>

In 1231, the [[Mongols]] began their [[Mongol invasions of Korea|invasions of Korea]] during seven major campaigns and 39 years of struggle, but were unable to conquer Korea.<ref name="Mongols">{{harvnb|Lee|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&pg=PA72 72]}}</ref> Exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent its [[Wonjong of Goryeo|crown prince]] to the [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] to swear allegiance to the [[Yuan dynasty]]; [[Kublai Khan]] accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince,<ref name="Mongols" /> and for the following 80 years Goryeo existed [[Goryeo under Mongol rule|under the overlordship]] of the Mongol-ruled [[Yuan dynasty]] in [[China]].{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp=343–350}}{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005a|pp=142–145}} The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,<ref name="Mongols" /> and the [[Empress Gi|last empress]] of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean woman.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Currie |first1=Lorenzo |title=Through the Eyes of the Pack |date=November 2013 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=978-1-4931-4516-4 |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hONCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181 |access-date=28 July 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203222325/https://books.google.com/books?id=hONCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181 |archive-date=3 December 2016 }}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-09-13 |title=4 Reasons Why Hurrem Sultan and Empress Ki were similar (Part 1) |url=https://hypedforhistory.com/2022/09/13/4-reasons-why-hurrem-sultan-and-empress-ki-were-similar-part-1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172414/https://hypedforhistory.com/2022/09/13/4-reasons-why-hurrem-sultan-and-empress-ki-were-similar-part-1/ |archive-date=2022-09-20 |access-date=2025-10-31 |work=Hyped For History |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the 1350s, the Yuan dynasty declined rapidly due to internal struggles, enabling King [[Gongmin of Goryeo|Gongmin]] to reform the Goryeo government.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 351–353}} Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, including the removal of pro-Yuan aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005a|pp= 152–155}} During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered [[Liaoyang]] in 1356, repulsed two large [[Red Turban invasions of Goryeo|invasions by the Red Turbans]] in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General [[Ch'oe Yŏng]] defeated an invading Yuan [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]] in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the [[Wokou]] menace and used [[Naval history of Korea|naval artillery]] created by [[Ch'oe Mu-sŏn]] to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.

The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392. [[Taejo of Joseon|Yi Seong-gye]], the founder of the [[Joseon]] dynasty, took power in a coup in 1388 and after serving as the power behind the throne for two monarchs, established the Joseon dynasty in 1392.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 369–370}}

==Joseon dynasty==
{{Main|Joseon}}
[[File:조선 태조.JPG|upright=0.8|thumb|[[Taejo of Joseon|King Taejo]]'s portrait]]
[[File:Donggwol-do.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|''[[Donggwoldo]]'']]

===Political history===
In 1392, the general [[Taejo of Joseon|Yi Seong-gye]], later known as Taejo, established the [[Joseon]] dynasty (1392–1897), named in honor of the ancient kingdom [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]],<ref name="naver1"/>{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&q=%22Yi+Song-gye+named+his+dynasty+Choson%22 165]}}<ref group=note>Literally "old Joseon", the term was first coined in the 13th century AD to differentiate the ancient kingdom from [[Wiman Joseon]] and is now used to differentiate it from the Joseon dynasty.</ref> and founded on idealistic [[Confucianism]]-based ideology.{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005a|pp=160–163}} The prevailing philosophy throughout the Joseon dynasty was [[Korean Confucianism|Neo-Confucianism]], which was epitomized by the [[seonbi]] class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.

Taejo moved the capital to [[Seoul|Hanyang]] (modern-day [[Seoul]]) and built the palace [[Gyeongbokgung]]. In 1394 he adopted [[Neo-Confucianism]] as the country's official religion, and pursued the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. His son and grandson, [[Taejong of Joseon|King Taejong]] and [[Sejong the Great]], implemented numerous administrative, social, and economic reforms and established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 371–375}}

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science.<ref name="JoseonGold">{{harvnb|Lee|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&pg=PA86 86]}}</ref> Most notable among them was [[Sejong the Great]] (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated [[Hangul]], the Korean alphabet.<ref name="Hangul">{{cite web |script-title=ko:알고 싶은 한글 |trans-title=The Korean That I Want to Know |url=http://www.korean.go.kr/hangeul/setting/002.html |access-date=4 December 2017 |website=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] }}</ref> This golden age<ref name="JoseonGold" /> saw great cultural and scientific advancements,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haralambous |first1=Yannis |last2=Horne |first2=P. Scott |title=Fonts & Encodings |date=26 September 2007 |publisher="O'Reilly Media, Inc." |isbn=978-0-596-10242-5 |page=155 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrElYgVLDwYC&pg=PA155 |access-date=8 October 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117062415/https://books.google.com/books?id=qrElYgVLDwYC&pg=PA155 |archive-date=17 January 2017 }}</ref> including in printing, [[rain gauge|meteorological observation]], astronomy, calendar science, [[Korean pottery and porcelain|ceramics]], military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures |date=11 November 2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-017-1416-7 |pages=505–506 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA505 |access-date=27 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204033148/https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA505}}</ref>

Internal conflicts within the royal court, civil unrest and other political struggles plagued the nation in the years that followed, worsened by the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasion of Korea]] between 1592 and 1598. [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] marshalled his forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled by the Korean military, with the assistance of the [[righteous army|righteous armies]] and Chinese [[Ming dynasty]]. This war also saw the rise of the career of Admiral [[Lee Sun-sin]] with the [[turtle ship]]. As Korea was rebuilding, it had to repel [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|invasions by the Manchu in 1627]] [[Qing invasion of Joseon|and 1636]]. Internal politics were bitterly divided and settled by violence.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 413–416}} Historian [[JaHyun Kim Haboush]], in the summary by her editor William Haboush in 2016, interpreted the decisive impact of the victories against the Japanese and Manchu invaders:
:Out of this great war at the end of the 16th century and the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636–1637, Koreans emerged with a discernible sense of themselves as a distinct ethnic united by birth, language, and belief forged by this immense clash of the three great powers of East Asia&nbsp;... Korea arrived at the brink of the seventeenth century as a nation.<ref>Foreword by William Haboush, in {{cite book|author=JaHyun Kim Haboush|title=The Great East Asian War and the Birth of the Korean Nation|year=2016|publisher=Columbia UP|page=ix|isbn=978-0-231-54098-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8B1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9}}</ref>

After the second Manchu invasion and stabilized relations with the new [[Qing dynasty]], Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of external peace. However internally, the bitter and violent [[Political factions in Joseon dynasty|factional battles]] raged on. In the 18th century, [[Yeongjo of Joseon|King Yeongjo]] (r. 1724–76) and his grandson [[Jeongjo of Joseon|King Jeongjo]] (r. 1776–1800) led a new renaissance.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Korea|date=January 2005|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|isbn=978-89-7300-619-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT98|access-date=23 December 2016|language=en}}</ref> Yeongjo and Jeongjo reformed the tax system which grew the revenue stream into the treasury, strengthened the military and sponsored a revival of learning. The printing press was rejuvenated by using movable metal type; the number and quality of publications sharply increased. Jeongjo sponsored scholars from various factions to work in the [[Kyujanggak]], or Inner Royal Library, established in 1776.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 421–424}}

====19th century====
Corruption in government and social unrest prevailed after 1776. The government attempted sweeping reforms in the late 19th century, but adhered to a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname "[[Hermit kingdom|Hermit Kingdom]]". The policy had been established primarily for protection against Western [[imperialism]], but soon the Joseon dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading into [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]].{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 469–470}}

The destabilization of the Korean nation may be said to have begun in the period of ''Sedo Jeongchi'' ({{Korean|hangul=세도정치|hanja=勢道政治|lit=in-law politics}}) whereby, on the death of [[Jeongjo of Joseon|King Jeongjo of Joseon]] (r. 1776–1800), the 10-year-old [[Sunjo of Joseon]] (r. 1800–34) ascended the Korean throne, with the true power of the administration residing with his regent, Kim Jo-sun, as a representative of the [[Andong Kim clan]]. As a result, the disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues&nbsp;– land tax, military service, and the state granary system&nbsp;– heaped additional hardship on the peasantry. Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (''Hyangni''), who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. [[Yangban]] families, formerly well-respected for their status as a noble class and being powerful both "socially and politically", were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, or ''Hwajok'', and the boat-borne water brigands or ''Sujok'') and exploited by the elite, many poor village folk sought to pool their resources, such as land, tools, and production, to survive. Despite the government effort in bringing an end to the practice of owning slaves in 1801, slavery in Korea remained legal until 1894.<ref name="Yangban">{{cite book|last1=Feenstra|first1=Robert C.|last2=Hamilton|first2=Gary G.|title=Emergent Economies, Divergent Paths: Economic Organization and International Trade in South Korea and Taiwan|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-62209-7|page=186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nC1vk7tTdRE|access-date=21 August 2017}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

At this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well tolerated among the nobles, most notably in and around the area of Seoul.<ref>Ryu Dae Young,  "Treaties, Extraterritorial Rights, and American Protestant Missions in Late Joseon Korea." ''Korea Journal'' 43.1 (2003): 174–203.</ref> Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the [[Pungyang Jo clan]], took the lives of priests and followers, known as the [[Korean Martyrs]], dissuading membership by the upper class. The peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings of [[Choe Je-u]], (최제우, 崔濟愚, 1824–64) called "[[Donghak]]", which literally means ''Eastern Learning'', and the religion became especially popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (from foreign influences), nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing illiterate farmers to understand and accept them more readily. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during the [[Second Opium War]]. He believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the [[Jinju uprising]] led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with "misleading the people and sowing discord in society". Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains.<ref name="Religion">{{cite book|last1=Wessinger|first1=Catherine|title=The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-061194-1|pages=331–32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zgUTDAAAQBAJ|access-date=21 August 2017}}</ref>

[[Gojong of Korea]] (r. 1864–1907), enthroned at the age of 12, succeeded [[Cheoljong of Joseon]] (r. 1849–63). King Gojong's father, [[Heungseon Daewongun]] (Yi Ha-ung; 1820–98), ruled as the de facto regent and inaugurated far-ranging reforms to strengthen the central administration. Of special note was the decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance the project through additional levies on the population. Further inherited rule by a few elite ruling families was challenged by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments. In addition, ''Sowon''&nbsp;– private academies&nbsp;– which threatened to develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large landholdings, were taxed and repressed despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. Lastly, a policy of steadfast isolationism was enforced to staunch the increasing intrusion of Western thought and technology. He was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters of [[Empress Myeongseong]], also called "Queen Min".<ref name="queen min">[https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=940CE7DC1139E033A25753C1A9679D94649ED7CF Characteristics of Queen of Korea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822223055/https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=940CE7DC1139E033A25753C1A9679D94649ED7CF |date=2017-08-22 }} ''[[The New York Times]]'' 10 November 1895</ref>

===Culture and society===
[[File:Koreans oldest pic 3.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|One of the earliest photographs depicting [[yangban]] Koreans, taken in 1863]]
Korea's culture was based on the philosophy of [[Neo-Confucianism]], which emphasizes morality, righteousness, and practical ethics. Wide interest in scholarly study resulted in the establishment of private academies and educational institutions. Many documents were written about history, geography, medicine, and Confucian principles. The arts flourished in painting, calligraphy, music, dance, and [[Korean pottery and porcelain|ceramics]].{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 391–401}}

The most notable cultural event of this era is the creation and promulgation of the Korean alphabet ''[[Hunmin jeongeom]]'' (later called ''[[Hangul]]'') by [[Sejong the Great]] in 1446.<ref name="Hangul" /> This period also saw various other cultural, scientific and technological advances.{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005a|pp=168–173}}

During Joseon dynasty, a social hierarchy system existed that greatly affected Korea's social development. The king and the royal family were atop the hereditary system, with the next tier being a class of civil or military officials and landowners known as ''[[yangban]]'', who worked for the government and lived off the efforts of tenant farmers and slaves.

A middle class, ''[[jungin]]'', were technical specialists such as scribes, medical officers, technicians in science-related fields, artists and musicians. Commoners, ''[[sangmin]]'', constituted the largest class in Korea. They had obligations to pay taxes, provide labor, and serve in the military. By paying land taxes to the state, they were allowed to cultivate land and farm. The lowest class, ''[[cheonmin]]'', included tenant farmers, slaves, entertainers, craftsmen, prostitutes, laborers, shamans, vagabonds, outcasts, and criminals. Although [[Nobi|slave]] status was hereditary, they could be sold or freed at officially set prices, and the mistreatment of slaves was forbidden.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 387–389}}

This ''yangban'' focused system started to change in the late 17th century as political, economic and social changes came into place. By the 19th century, new commercial groups emerged, and the active social mobility caused the ''yangban'' class to expand, resulting in the weakening of the old class system. The Korea government ordered the freedom of government slaves in 1801. The class system of Korea was completely banned in 1894.{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 435–437}}

===Foreign relationships===
{{Main|Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Second Manchu invasion of Korea}}
[[File:KoreanEmbassy1655KanoTounYasunobu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Joseon Tongsinsa|Korean Embassy to Japan]], 1655, attributed to Kano Toun Yasunobu; [[British Museum]]]]

Korea dealt with a pair of [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions from 1592 to 1598]] (''Imjin War'' or the ''Seven Years' War''). Prior to the war, Korea sent two ambassadors to scout for signs of Japan's intentions of invading Korea. However, they came back with two different reports, and while the politicians split into sides, few proactive measures were taken.

This conflict brought prominence to Admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]] as he contributed to eventually repelling the Japanese forces with the innovative use of his [[turtle ship]], a massive, yet swift, ramming/cannon ship fitted with iron spikes.{{sfn|Hawley|2005|p=195f}}{{sfn|Turnbull|2002|p=244}}<ref name="Roh 2004, 13">Roh, Young-koo: "Yi Sun-shin, an Admiral Who Became a Myth", ''The Review of Korean Studies'', Vol. 7, No. 3 (2004), p.13</ref> The use of the [[hwacha]] (a rocket-launched arrow battery) was also highly effective in repelling the Japanese invaders from the land.

Subsequently, Korea was [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|invaded in 1627]] and [[Qing invasion of Joseon|again in 1636]] by the Manchus, who went on to conquer China and establish the [[Qing dynasty]], after which the Joseon dynasty recognized [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] suzerainty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joseon Dynasty and Qing Dynasty: Blue Dependency |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_037_0020_0010_0010_0020 |website=Uri history net}}</ref> Though Joseon respected its traditional tributary position to China, there was persistent loyalty for the perished [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]] and disdain for the Manchus, who were regarded as barbarians.

During the 19th century, Joseon tried to control foreign influence by closing its borders to all nations. In 1853 the American whaleship ''[[USS South America (1861)|South America]]'' visited [[Busan]] for 10 days and had amiable contact with local officials. Several Americans shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court was aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the West.

In 1866, reacting to greater numbers of Korean converts to Catholicism despite several waves of persecutions, the Joseon court clamped down on them, massacring French Catholic missionaries and Korean converts alike. [[French campaign against Korea (1866)|In response France invaded]] and occupied portions of Ganghwa Island. The French army occupied [[Ganghwa Island]], an island near Seoul, and tried to advance to Seoul, but failed due to strong resistance from the Korean army, and then withdrew from the island.

The ''SS General Sherman'', a privately American-owned armed merchant marine sidewheel schooner, illegally attempted to open Korea to trade in 1866. Due to a miscalculation of water depth, the ship ran aground Pyongyang. After being ordered to leave on pain of execution by the Korean officials, the American crewmen sent out a [[dinghy]] to forage. They took hostages from the [[junk (ship)|junk]] that intercepted them. Sporadic fighting ensued, resulting in the deaths of eight Koreans, the destruction of the ''Sherman'' by [[fire ship]], and the killing of the crew. This incident is celebrated by the DPRK as a precursor to the capture of the [[USS Pueblo (AGER-2)|USS Pueblo]] in 1968. The Korean government did not inform the United States about the incident. In 1871, the [[United States expedition to Korea]] ({{lang|ko|Shinmiyangyo}}) set out to determine the fate of the ''Sherman''. This incident is called the [[United States expedition to Korea|Shinmiyangyo]] in Korea. American warships, also with an agenda to open Korea to trade, sailed up the Han River against the will of the Korean government, attracting fire from a fort defending the capital. As punishment, the Americans attacked local military installations, provoking the [[Battle of Ganghwa]]. They killed around 243 to 350 Koreans on [[Ganghwa Island]] before withdrawing. This angered the Korean government and had the unintended effect of temporarily increasing isolationism and military strength.

In 1876, Korea was forced by warships to sign a trade treaty with Japan, the first formal treaty between the two nations in 433 years, since the 1443 [[Treaty of Gyehae]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Young-Iob |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/0195178300.001.0001 |title=Korea under Siege, 1876-1945 |date=2006-03-09 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |doi=10.1093/0195178300.001.0001 |isbn=0-19-517830-0}}</ref> This [[Unequal treaties|unequal treaty]] compelled the Joseon to open up Korean ports, as well as granting [[extraterritoriality]] within Korea to the [[Government of Meiji Japan|Meiji government]] and her people.
In 1882 signed a treaty with the United States, in a few years ending centuries of isolation.

{{Wikisource|Littell's Living Age/Volume 129/Issue 1662/A Glimpse of the Korea|a description of a visit to Korea by a British ship in 1876}}Conflict between the conservative court and a reforming faction led to the [[Gapsin Coup]] in 1884. The reformers sought to reform Korea's institutionalized social inequality, by proclaiming social equality and the elimination of the privileges of the [[yangban]] class. The reformers were backed by Japan, and were thwarted by the arrival of Qing troops, invited by the conservative [[Empress Myeongseong|Queen Min]]. The Chinese troops departed but the leading general [[Yuan Shikai]] remained in Korea from 1885 to 1894 as Resident, directing Korean affairs.

In 1885, British [[Royal Navy]] occupied [[Port Hamilton incident|Geomun Island]], and withdrew in 1887.

Korea became linked by telegraph to China in 1888 with Chinese controlled telegraphs. China permitted Korea to establish embassies with Russia (1884), Italy (1885), France (1886), the United States, and Japan. China attempted to block the exchange of embassies in Western countries, but not with Tokyo. The Qing government provided loans. China promoted its trade in an attempt to block Japanese merchants, which led to Chinese favour in Korean trade. Anti-Chinese riots broke out in 1888 and 1889 and Chinese shops were torched. Japan remained the largest foreign community and largest trading partner.{{sfn|Seth|2010|p=225}}

A [[Meiji (era)|rapidly modernizing Meiji Japan]] successfully challenged China in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895) triggered by the [[Donghak Peasant Movement]], forcing it to abandon its long-standing claims to deference by Korea. Modernization began in Korea when Japan forced it to open its ports in 1876. However, at first, the forces of modernization met strong opposition not only from the traditionalism of the ruling Korean elite but from the population at large, which supported the traditional Confucian system of government by gentlemen, therefore no major modernization processes occurred until the establishment of the [[Korean Empire]] in 1897. Japan used modernization movements to gain more and more control over Korea.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Haryong Kim |title=Problems of the Modernization of Korea: The Modernization of Korean Politics |journal=Asiatic Research Bulletin |date=1963 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=1–6}}</ref>
[[File:1895FuneralofEmpressMyeongseongmaybe18901923CarpenterLOC1.jpg|thumb|1897 funeral of [[Empress Myeongseong]]|250px|right]]
In 1895, Japanese agents carried out the [[assassination of Empress Myeongseong]],{{sfn|Schmid|2002 |p=72}}{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005b|p=43}} who had sought Russian help, and the Russians were forced to retreat from Korea for the time.

Pro-Japanese government grew, while anti-Japanese politicians were either killed or fled for their survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=신 |first=명호|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB2xAwAAQBAJ&dq=%EC%9C%A4%EC%9B%85%EB%A0%AC&pg=PT611|script-title=ko:왕을 위한 변명|date=20 April 2009|publisher=김영사|isbn=978-89-349-5462-0|language=ko}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2024}} On 11 February 1896, King [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]] and his crown prince fled from the [[Gyeongbokgung]] to the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] legation in [[Seoul]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Veritable Records of Joseon Dynasty |script-title=ko:러시아 공사관으로 주필을 이어하다 |url=https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13302011_001 |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=[[Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty]]}}</ref> from where they governed for about one year, an event known as [[Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation]].

==Modern history==
{{anchor|Modern}}
===Korean Empire (1897–1910)===
{{Main|Korean Empire}}
{{Further|Gwangmu Reform}}

As a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895), the 1895 [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] was concluded between China and Japan.<ref>{{cite journal | title=A Study of Functionality of the "Symbol" on Nationalism in Modern Korea: Activities of the Independence Club and the Independence Arch (1896–1899) | last=Kim | first=Yong Chan | url=http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/ras/04_publications/ria_ja/36_09.pdf | language=ja | journal=Ritsumeikan Journal of International Relations and Area Studies | volume=36 | date=October 2012 | pages=189–205 | access-date=January 21, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313001720/http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/ras/04_publications/ria_ja/36_09.pdf | archive-date=March 13, 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref> It stipulated the abolition of subordinate relationships Korea had with China, in which Korea was a client state of China since the [[Imo Incident]] in 1882.

In 1897, Joseon was renamed the [[Korean Empire]], and King Gojong became [[Gojong of Korea|Emperor Gojong]]. The imperial government aimed to become a strong and independent nation by implementing domestic reforms, strengthening military forces, developing commerce and industry, and surveying land ownership. Organizations like the [[Independence Club]] also rallied to assert the rights of the Joseon people, but clashed with the government which proclaimed absolute monarchy and power.{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005b|pp= 51–55}}

Russian influence was strong in the Empire until being defeated by Japan in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–1905). Korean Empire effectively became a [[protectorate]] of Japan on 17 November 1905, the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|1905 Protectorate Treaty]] having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal or commission.{{sfn|Association of Korean History Teachers|2005b|pp= 58–61}}{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp= 309–317}}

Following the signing of the treaty, many intellectuals and scholars set up various organizations and associations, embarking on movements for independence. In 1907, Gojong was forced to abdicate after Japan learned that he [[Hague Secret Emissary Affair|sent secret envoys]] to the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Second Hague Conventions]] to protest against the protectorate treaty, leading to the accession of Gojong's son, [[Sunjong of Korea|Emperor Sunjong]]. Immediately after Sunjong ascended the throne, Empire of Japan forcibly concluded the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907]] in order to further strengthen the authority of the Resident-General, appointing Japanese vice-ministers in each department of the Korean Empire's government and openly interfering in the empire's internal affairs (vice-ministerial politics), and forcibly disbanded the army through a secret agreement.

Soldiers who opposed this joined the [[Righteous army]], and the movement expanded into a nationwide Righteous army war. However, on [[July 12]], [[1909]], Empire of Japan took away the Korean Empire's judicial and police powers through the Japan–Korea Memorandum of 1909, and suppressed the resistance of the Righteous army nationwide with force through the 60-day South Korea big suppression operation. At this operation, about 17,000 Righteous army and civilians were massacred.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0066314 | title=남한 대토벌 작전 (南韓 大討伐 作戰) }}</ref>

In 1909, independence activist [[An Jung-geun]] assassinated [[Itō Hirobumi]], former [[Japanese Resident-General of Korea|Resident-General of Korea]], for Ito's intrusions on the Korean politics.<ref name="hoare pares japanese rule">{{harvnb|Hoare|Pares|1988|pp= 50–67}}</ref><ref>[http://www.korea.net/news.do?mode=detail&guid=45163 An Jung-geun] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101100357/http://www.korea.net/news.do?mode=detail&guid=45163 |date=2019-01-01 }}, Korea.net</ref> This prompted the Japanese to ban all political organizations and proceed with plans for annexation.

===Japanese rule (1910–1945)===
{{Main|Korea under Japanese rule|Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea}}
[[File:Sui-ho Dam under construction.JPG|thumb|[[Sup'ung Dam]] under construction. (July 1942)]]

In 1910, the [[Empire of Japan]] effectively annexed [[Korean Empire|Korea]] through the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910|Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty]]. Along with all other previously signed treaties between Korea and Japan, the annexation treaty was confirmed to be null and void in 1965. While Japan asserted that the treaty was concluded legally, Korea disputed the legality of the treaty, because the treaty was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and it violated the international convention on external pressures regarding treaties.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kawasaki|first=Yutaka|title=Was the 1910 Annexation Treaty Between Korea and Japan Concluded Legally?|journal=Murdoch University Journal of Law|volume=3|issue=2|date=July 1996|url=http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v3n2/kawasaki.html|access-date=2007-06-08}}</ref><ref>[http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/05/11/2010051101277.html Japan's Annexation of Korea 'Unjust and Invalid'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121002/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/05/11/2010051101277.html |date=2016-03-04 }}, Chosun Ilbo, 2010-05-11. Retrieved 2010-07-05.</ref> Many Koreans formed the [[Righteous army]] to fight against Japanese rule.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=C. I. Eugene|date=1962|title=Japanese Rule in Korea (1905–1910): A Case Study|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/985211|journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|volume=106|issue=1|pages=53–59|jstor=985211|issn=0003-049X}}</ref>

Korea was controlled by [[Japan]] under a [[Governor-General of Chōsen]] from 1910 until Japan's unconditional surrender to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] on 15 August 1945. ''De jure'' sovereignty was deemed to have passed from the [[Joseon|Joseon dynasty]] to the [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]].<ref name="hoare pares japanese rule"/>

After the annexation, Japan set out to suppress many traditional Korean customs, including eventually even the Korean language itself.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhXrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title = Moon Living Abroad in South Korea|isbn = 978-1-61238-870-0|last1 = Hopfner|first1 = Jonathan|date = 22 April 2014| publisher=Avalon }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Economic policies were implemented primarily for Japanese benefit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://smesindia.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Korea.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114010017/http://smesindia.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Korea.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-14 |url-status=live |title=ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA, 1945–1992 |author=Jong-Wha Lee |website=smesindia.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/2220 |title=Legal Categories, Demographic Change and Japan's Korean Residents in the Long Twentieth Century |author=Yoshiko NOZAKI, Hiromitsu INOKUCHI and Kim Tae-young |website=www.japanfocus.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125052048/http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/2220 |archive-date=25 January 2007}}</ref> European-style [[transport]] and [[communication]] networks were constructed across the nation in order to extract resources and exploit labor. The banking system was consolidated and the Korean currency abolished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metzler |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veUlDQAAQBAJ&dq=Korean+currency+abolished+by+Japanese&pg=PA53 |title=Lever of Empire: The International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan |date=2006-03-13 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24420-7 |pages=53 |language=en}}</ref>

The Japanese removed the [[Joseon]] hierarchy and gave the census register to the ''[[baekjeong]]'' and ''[[nobi]]'' who were not allowed to have the census register{{huh|date=August 2025}} during Joseon period,<ref>{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Young-hoon|title=大韓民国の物語 (Story of Republic of Korea, Lectures on "Re-acknowledging before and after the liberation)|year=2009|publisher=Bungeishunjū|pages=95}}</ref> The palace [[Gyeongbokgung]] was mostly destroyed, and replaced with the [[Government-General of Chōsen Building]].<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://archive.today/20120707043113/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=722442 After the reconstruction Gyeongbok Palace of 1865–1867] at [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]</ref>

[[File:三一运动.jpg|thumb|the [[March First Movement]] in 1919]]
After [[Gojong of Korea|Emperor Gojong]] died in January 1919, with rumors of poisoning, independence rallies against the Japanese colonizers took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the [[March First Movement]]). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 persons were killed by Japanese soldiers<ref group=note>[[Park Eun-sik]] stated this amount is no more than hearsay and an inexact reasoning.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Park|first=Eun-sik|title=朝鮮独立運動の血史 1 (The Bloody History of the Korean Independence Movement)|year=1972|publisher=Tōyō Bunko|pages=169}}</ref> and police.<ref>{{cite web|title=March 1st Movement |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050797?query=march%20first%20movement&ct= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211125737/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050797?query=march%20first%20movement&ct= |archive-date=2007-12-11 }}</ref> An estimated two million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies, although Japanese records claim participation of less than half a million.{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp=340–344}} This movement was partly inspired by United States President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self-determination and an end to colonial rule after World War I.{{sfn|Lee, Ki-baik|1984|pp=340–344}}

The [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]] was established in [[Shanghai]], China, in the aftermath of the March 1 Movement, which coordinated the liberation effort and resistance against Japanese rule. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government included the [[Battle of Qingshanli|Battle of Chingshanli]] of 1920 and the [[Yun Bong-gil|ambush of Japanese military leadership in China]] in 1932. In 1920, Imperial Japanese Army massacred somewhere from 5,000 to tens of thousands of Korean civilians at Gando in retaliation to loss at [[Battle of Qingshanli|Battle of Chingshanli]]. This incident is called [[Gando Massacre]]. The Provisional Government is considered to be the ''de jure'' government of the Korean people between 1919 and 1948. The legitimacy of the provisional government is enshrined into the preamble of the [[constitution]] of the [[South Korea|Republic of Korea]].<ref>[http://korea.assembly.go.kr/res/low_01_read.jsp?boardid=1000000035 Constitution of the Republic of Korea: Preamble] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120710041912/http://korea.assembly.go.kr/res/low_01_read.jsp?boardid=1000000035 |date=2012-07-10 }}, The [[National Assembly of the Republic of Korea]].</ref>

Primary and secondary education in Korea were classified as being for "those habitually using the Korean language", and for "those habitually using the Japanese language". Ethnic Koreans could thus attend the schools primarily for Japanese, and vice versa.<ref>"The New Korea", [[Alleyne Ireland]] 1926 E.P. Dutton & Company pp.198–199</ref>

As of 1926, the Korean language was taught for four hours a week for the first and second year of a six-year course, and three hours a week for the rest of the course. Both Japanese and Koreans paid school fees, without exception. The average fee in a common school was about 25 cents a month. In 1923, Koreans paid on average 20 cents per capita and Japanese in Korea about 3.30 dollars per capita.<ref>"The New Korea", [[Alleyne Ireland]] 1926 E.P. Dutton & Company pp.204,210–211</ref>

The [[literacy rate]] of Korea reached 22% in 1945.<ref>G.H.Q. U・S Army Forces, Summation of U・S Army Military Government Activities in Korea Vol.2. No.5-16, 1946, p.32</ref> The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching of the Korean language and history.{{when|date=August 2025}}<ref name="hoare pares japanese rule"/> The Korean language was banned, and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names,{{sfn|Miyata|1992|p={{page needed|date=April 2022}}}}<ref group=note>However, the change of their given names was voluntary</ref><ref>朝鮮総督府官房文書課編 "諭告・訓示・演述総攬" 1941, p.676</ref> and newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean. Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.<ref name="Newsweek">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/48765/output/print |title=Korea: A Tussle over Treasures&nbsp;— Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan? |magazine=[[Newsweek]] |access-date=2008-06-06 |author=Kay Itoi |author2=B. J. Lee |date=2007-10-17}}</ref> According to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were taken from Korea.<ref name="Newsweek"/><ref>[https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2010/01/148_36696.html Lost treasures make trip home] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609212755/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2010/01/148_36696.html |date=2016-06-09 }}, Korea Times, 2008-12-28.</ref>

[[File:Korean Liberation Army.JPG|thumb|alt=Korean Liberation Army alt text|[[Korean Liberation Army]]]]
Some [[Koreans]] left the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]] for exile in China, the United States, and elsewhere. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as [[Korean independence movement|Dongnipgun]] (Liberation Army); they would travel in and out of the Sino-Korean border, fighting [[guerrilla warfare]] with Japanese forces. Some of them would group together in the 1940s as the [[Korean Liberation Army]], which took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the [[People's Liberation Army]] and the [[National Revolutionary Army]].

The expulsion of the Japanese in 1945 removed practically all administrative and technical expertise. While the Japanese only comprised 2.6% of the population in 1944, they were an urban elite. The largest 50 cities contained 71% of the Japanese but only 12% of the Koreans. They largely dominated the ranks of the well-educated occupations. Meanwhile, 71% of the Koreans worked on farms.<ref>Morgan E. Clippinger, "Problems of the Modernization of Korea: the Development of Modernized Elites Under Japanese Occupation" ''Asiatic Research Bulletin'' (1963) 6#6 pp 1–11.</ref>

===Division and Korean War (1945–1953)===
{{Main|Division of Korea}}
[[File:Prison Release of Korean activists.JPG|thumb|Liberation of Korea]]
[[File:Lopez scaling seawall.jpg|thumb|American Marines climbing a sea wall in [[Incheon]] during a decisive moment in the timeline of the [[Korean War]]]]

At the [[Cairo Conference]] on November 22, 1943, the US, UK, and China agreed that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent";{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|p=581}}<ref>[http://timelines.com/perspectives/161a29f9e4be8f94fbe6e8d306d4e9a2 Cairo Conference is held] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413142214/http://timelines.com/perspectives/161a29f9e4be8f94fbe6e8d306d4e9a2 |date=2013-04-13 }}, Timelines; [http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/timeline/factfiles/nonflash/a1140364.shtml Cairo Conference] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319223311/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/timeline/factfiles/nonflash/a1140364.shtml |date=2011-03-19 }}, BBC</ref> at a later meeting in [[Yalta]] in February 1945, the Allies agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/yalta.asp |title=The Avalon Project : Yalta (Crimea) Conference |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202234250/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/yalta.asp |archive-date=2016-02-02 }}</ref> On August 14, 1945, [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces entered Korea by amphibious landings, enabling them to secure control in the north. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on August 15, 1945.

The unconditional surrender of Japan brought about the liberation of Korea. However, the fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology in the post-war world led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones, effectively starting on September 8, 1945. The [[United States]] administered the southern half of the peninsula and the [[Soviet Union]] took over the area north of the [[38th parallel north|38th parallel]]. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American belief that it was too aligned with the communists.{{sfn|Robinson|2007|pp= 107–108}} This division was meant to be temporary and was intended to return a unified Korea back to its people after the United States, [[United Kingdom]], [[Soviet Union]], and [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] could arrange a single government.

=== Post-Liberation Korea and the Division ===
Following the '''unconditional surrender of the Japanese Empire''' in August 15, 1945, Korea experienced a temporary liberation.  However,  the post-war global situation rapidly devolved into the '''Cold War''' system centered around the two superpowers: the '''United States (US)''' and the '''Soviet Union (USSR)'''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-05 |title=What was the Cold War—and are we headed to another one? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/cold-war |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=Culture |language=en}}</ref> This Cold War dynamic became visibly apparent on the Korean Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=Charles K. |date=2003 |title=The Cultural Cold War in Korea, 1945-1950 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3096136 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=71–99 |doi=10.2307/3096136 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>

The United States was wary of the potential influence of the Soviet Union's powerful ground forces on the Korean Peninsula and the larger East Asian region. <ref>{{cite journal |last=Kim |first=Bong-jin |year=2011 |title=The Breakdown of the US-Soviet Joint Commission and USAMGIK's Policy towards Korea |trans-title=Miso Gongdong Wiwonhoe Gyeolryeolgwa Migunjeong-ui Daehan Jeongchaek |url=https://scienceon.kisti.re.kr/srch/selectPORSrchArticle.do?cn=DIKO0011402886 |journal=Yeoksa-wa Hyeonsil (History and Reality) |language=Korean |volume=82 |pages=35}}</ref> Consequently, the US proposed a division of the peninsula along the '''38th parallel''' into two zones—North and South—to be governed under a '''Trusteeship''' administration, to which the Soviet Union agreed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Division of Korea and the Korean War - Korea100 |url=https://dh.aks.ac.kr/Korea100/wiki/index.php/The_Division_of_Korea_and_the_Korean_War |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=dh.aks.ac.kr}}</ref>
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=== The Moscow Conference and the Trusteeship Controversy ===
On December 16, 1945, after the '''Three Foreign Ministers' Conference''' involving the US, USSR, and the United Kingdom, US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes submitted a document titled '''‘the united administration for Korea’''' the following day. The core of this document was a detailed '''Trusteeship plan'''.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v08/d465 |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, The Far East, Volume VIII |date=1946 |publisher=United States Department of State |pages=617–618 |quote=In American draft it was proposed for establishment of trusteeship in Korea to create four power administrative organ (US, USSR, Great Britain, China) which should exercise its powers and functions through High Commissioner and Executive Council... In American draft it was proposed to establish trusteeship in Korea for period of 5 years and extension of trusteeship for 5 more years was allowed.}}</ref>

This plan stipulated that, instead of being governed by a Korean government, the peninsula would be administered by the four governing powers—acting on behalf of the UN and the Korean people—who would assume administrative, legislative, judicial, and executive functions for '''five years''', until Korea could independently carry out these functions.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v08/d465 |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, The Far East, Volume VIII |date=1946 |publisher=United States Department of State |pages=617–618 |quote=In American draft it was proposed for establishment of trusteeship in Korea to create four power administrative organ (US, USSR, Great Britain, China) which should exercise its powers and functions through High Commissioner and Executive Council... In American draft it was proposed to establish trusteeship in Korea for period of 5 years and extension of trusteeship for 5 more years was allowed.}}</ref>  However, the Soviet Union initially '''objected''' to this proposal, advocating instead that a '''Provisional Government''' should first be established within Korea, ''after which'' the Trusteeship should be implemented.<ref>{{cite web |title=모스크바 3상회의 결정과 미·소공동위원회 (The Decision of the Moscow Three Foreign Ministers' Conference and the US–Soviet Joint Commission) |url=https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_052_0020_0020_0020 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=우리역사넷 (Our History Net) |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=Korean |quote=Soviet Union insisted on establishing the government first, thereby braking the US plan.}}</ref>

The compromise between the US and Soviet positions led to the joint communiqué of the '''Moscow Foreign Ministers' Conference (December 27)''' and the subsequent establishment of the '''US-Soviet Joint Commission'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Korea, 1945–1950 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/korea |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State |language=English |quote=In December 1945, the Foreign Ministers of the United States, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the United Kingdom met in Moscow and issued a joint communiqué committing their governments to the establishment of a provisional Korean democratic government and to the formation of a joint U.S.-Soviet commission to assist that process.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02/d558 |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, General: Political and Economic Matters, Volume II |date=1945 |publisher=United States Department of State |pages=790 |language=English |quote=A Joint Commission of the representatives of the two commands in Korea shall be established to carry out the provisions of this agreement. |access-date=2025-11-05}}</ref>
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=== Anti-Trusteeship (Ban-Tak) and Pro-Trusteeship (Chan-Tak) Movements ===
In Korea, the proposal for Trusteeship was widely viewed as a continuation of '''Japanese colonial rule'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=신탁통치 반대운동 (Anti-Trusteeship Movement) |url=https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_i502600&code=kc_age_50 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=우리역사넷 (Our History Net) |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=Korean |quote=The Anti-Trusteeship movement, spearheaded primarily by right-wing forces due to media distortion of the Moscow decision, took on an anti-Soviet and anti-Communist character.}}</ref> This sentiment fueled the '''Anti-Trusteeship''' ('''Opposition to Trusteeship''', ''Ban-Tak'') campaign.This movement was primarily led by '''right-wing''' political forces, including the '''Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (PGROK)''' in Shanghai and figures like '''Syngman Rhee''', who sought to establish a unified and sovereign national government immediately.<ref>{{cite web |title=신탁통치 반대운동 (Anti-Trusteeship Movement) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0033478 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Culture) |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |language=Korean |quote=Initially, both left and right-wing groups opposed trusteeship, but the left-wing soon reversed its position, supporting trusteeship as the only way to prevent division, while the right-wing maintained its opposition.}}</ref>

Conversely, '''left-wing''' forces, generally aligned with the Soviet Union, advocated for '''Pro-Trusteeship''' ('''Support for Trusteeship''', ''Chan-Tak'')<ref>{{cite web |title=좌익세력과 찬탁논리 (Left-wing Forces and the Pro-Trusteeship Logic) |url=https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/mid/nh_052_0030_0010_0020_0040 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=우리역사넷 (Our History Net) |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=Korean |quote=The left-wing forces decided to support the Moscow decision, asserting that it was the most appropriate international and domestic solution that respected the interests of the Korean nation in light of the current international and domestic situation.}}</ref> The two camps failed to reconcile their views and remained in fierce opposition, a fundamental conflict that paved the way for the '''permanent division of the Korean Peninsula'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=탁치문제에 대한 논쟁 (The Controversy over the Trusteeship Issue) |url=https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_052_0030_0010_0020_0050 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=우리역사넷 (Our History Net) |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=Korean |quote=The confrontation between pro- and anti-trusteeship factions fractured the national liberation and unification movements, thereby consolidating the division structure and laying the groundwork for the establishment of a separate government.}}</ref>
----

=== Failure of Unification Efforts and the Establishment of Two Koreas ===
The Provisional Government in Shanghai was ultimately '''not recognized''' as the legitimate government by the '''United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK)'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, The British Commonwealth, The Far East, Volume VI |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06/d768 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State |publisher=United States Department of State |language=English |quote=The policy of this Government in dealing with groups such as the 'Korean Provisional Government' is to avoid taking action which might... tend to compromise the right of the Korean people to choose the ultimate form of government under which they will live.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=South Korea Under United States Occupation, 1945-48 |url=https://countrystudies.us/south-korea/9.htm |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=Country Studies (Library of Congress) |publisher=The Library of Congress |language=English |quote=The United States recognized neither the republic nor the provisional government. The United States would not recognize any group as a government until an agreement was reached among the Western Allies.}}</ref> Furthermore, the US-Soviet Joint Commission collapsed due to insurmountable differences in opinion between the two countries. In '''September 1947''', the US submitted the Korean issue to the '''United Nations (UN)'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=미소공동위원회 (US-Soviet Joint Commission) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0019973 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Culture) |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |language=Korean |quote=The Second US-Soviet Joint Commission was indefinitely adjourned on August 21, 1947, due to the irreconcilable differences between the US and the USSR over the scope of political parties and social organizations that could participate in the formation of the provisional government.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1947v06/d863 |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, The Far East, Volume VI |date=1947 |publisher=United States Department of State |pages=757 |language=English |quote=When the Soviet Union rejected this American proposal, the United States decided to refer the problem of Korean independence to the General Assembly of the United Nations in September 1947. |access-date=2025-11-05}}</ref>

Leaders of the Provisional Government, such as '''Kim Gu''' and '''Kim Kyu-sik''', continued to oppose a separate general election in the South and the establishment of two separate governments.<ref>{{cite web |title=남북협상 (Inter-Korean Negotiation) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0011503 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Culture) |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |language=Korean |quote=Kim Ku announced 'An Appeal to the Thirty Million Compatriots' on February 10, 1948, opposing a separate government and proposing a conference of leaders from both South and North to prevent division.}}</ref> They attempted to hold talks with the North in a final effort to establish a unified nation, but these efforts were unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite web |title=통일국가 수립을 위한 마지막 노력 (The Final Effort to Establish a Unified Nation) |url=https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_i503200 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=우리역사넷 (Our History Net) |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=Korean |quote=In opposition to the movement for a separate government in the South, Kim Ku and Kim Kyu-sik attended the Joint Conference of South and North Korean Political Parties and Social Organizations held in Pyongyang in April 1948, but failed to find a breakthrough for establishing a unified state.}}</ref>

Ultimately, under the supervision of the '''UN Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK)''', a separate election (the '''May 10 General Election''') was held in South Korea.<ref>{{cite web |date=1947-11-14 |title=Resolution 112 (II). The problem of the independence of Korea |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/112(II) |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=United Nations General Assembly |language=English |quote=The General Assembly... recommends that in all parts of Korea elections be held not later than 31 March 1948 on the basis of adult suffrage and by secret ballot to choose representatives with whom the Commission may consult.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v06/d193 |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, Volume VI: East Asia and the Pacific |date=1948-02-26 |publisher=United States Department of State |pages=1130 |quote=The Interim Committee adopted the resolution on February 26, 1948, instructing the Commission to proceed with the observance of elections... in as much of Korea as was accessible to the Commission.}}</ref> The '''Government of the Republic of Korea (South Korea)''' was established on '''August 15, 1948'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Korea, 1945–1950 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/korea |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State |language=English |quote=On August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea (ROK) was formally established, with Syngman Rhee as the first President.}}</ref>Subsequently, the '''Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea)''' was established in the North on '''September 9, 1948''', formalizing the existence of two states on the peninsula.<ref>{{cite web |title=Division and the Korean War |url=https://countrystudies.us/south-korea/11.htm |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=Country Studies (Library of Congress) |publisher=The Library of Congress |language=English |quote=The Soviet Union recognized the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), proclaimed in Pyongyang on September 9, 1948, with Kim Il Sung as premier.}}</ref> On '''December 12, 1948''', the UN General Assembly recognized the '''Republic of Korea''' as the only lawful government in Korea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/043/66/IMG/NR004366.pdf?OpenElement |title=Resolution 195, UN Third General Assembly |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061108/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/043/66/IMG/NR004366.pdf?OpenElement |archive-date=2013-10-23 }}</ref>

On June 25, 1950, the [[Korean War]] broke out when North Korea breached the 38th parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being. After the war, the 1954 [[1954 Geneva Conference|Geneva conference]] failed to adopt a solution for a unified Korea. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than [[World War II]] or the [[Vietnam War]], making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era. In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.<ref name="Kim p.45">{{cite book|last=Kim|first=Samuel S.|chapter=The Evolving Asian System|title=International Relations of Asia|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4422-2641-8|page=45|quote=With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including the [[Chinese Civil War]] (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), the [[Vietnam War]] (2 million), and the [[Pol Pot]] [[Cambodian genocide|genocide]] in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).}}</ref><ref name="Cumings p. 35">{{cite book|last=Cumings|first=Bruce|author-link=Bruce Cumings|title=The Korean War: A History|publisher=[[Modern Library]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0-8129-7896-4|page=35|quote=Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of nonhostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=McGuire|first=James|title=Wealth, Health, and Democracy in East Asia and Latin America|url=https://archive.org/details/wealthhealthdemo00mcgu|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2010|isbn=978-1-139-48622-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/wealthhealthdemo00mcgu/page/n217 203]|quote=In Korea, war in the early 1950s cost nearly 3 million lives, including nearly a million civilian dead in South Korea.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Painter|first=David S.|author-link=David S. Painter|title=The Cold War: An International History|url=https://archive.org/details/coldwarinternati00pain|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-15316-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/coldwarinternati00pain/page/n40 30]|quote=Before it ended, the Korean War cost over 3 million people their lives, including over 50,000 US servicemen and women and a much higher number of Chinese and Korean lives. The war also set in motion a number of changes that led to the militarization and intensification of the Cold War.}}</ref><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453">{{cite book|last=Lewy|first=Guenter|author-link=Guenter Lewy|title=[[America in Vietnam]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1980|isbn=978-0-19-987423-1|pages=450–453|quote=For the Korean War the only hard statistic is that of American military deaths, which included 33,629 battle deaths and 20,617 who died of other causes. The North Korean and Chinese Communists never published statistics of their casualties. The number of South Korean military deaths has been given as in excess of 400,000; the South Korean Ministry of Defense puts the number of killed and missing at 281,257. Estimates of communist troops killed are about one-half million. The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1 million military deaths and a possible 2.5 million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict. The proportion of civilians killed in the major wars of this century (and not only in the major ones) has thus risen steadily. It reached about 42 percent in World War II and may have gone as high as 70 percent in the Korean War.&nbsp;... we find that the ratio of civilian to military deaths [in Vietnam] is not substantially different from that of World War II and is well below that of the Korean War.}}</ref>

===Modern Korea (1951–present)===
{{more cn section|date=August 2025|find=Korea|find2=1951 to present}}

On April 27, 2018, both North and South Korea signed the [[Panmunjom Declaration]] on ending the conflict between the two countries to reunify Korea in the future.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Griffiths |first1=James |title=North and South Korea vow to end the Korean War in historic accord |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/04/27/asia/korean-summit-intl/index.html |work=CNN |date=27 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref> The declaration was suspended by North Korea in 2023<ref>{{cite news |author=Al Jazeera Staff |title=North Korea suspends Seoul military agreement, restores troops at border |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/23/north-korea-suspends-seoul-military-agreement-restores-troops-at-border |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> and by South Korea in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea Fully Suspends Military Deal With North Korea After Tensions Over Trash Balloons |url=https://thediplomat.com/2024/06/south-korea-fully-suspends-military-deal-with-north-korea-after-tensions-over-trash-balloons/ |work=thediplomat.com}}</ref>

==== South Korea ====
{{main|History of South Korea}}

In 1951, under pressure of the United States, the government of South Korea began diplomatic discussions with Japan. This was the first international interaction between Korea and Japan since the end of [[World War II]]. [[Harry S. Truman|President Harry S. Truman]], under the doctrine of the [[Bamboo curtain]], deemed it urgent for Japan and South Korea to ally with each other to create a stronger western hegemon in the East.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dingman |first=Roger |date=1980-05-01 |title=Review: ''Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Vol. VI: Asia and the Pacific. Part I. U.S. Department of State Publication 8889'' and ''Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Vol. VI: Asia and the Pacific. Part 2. U.S. Department of State Publication 8918'' |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3638931 |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=396–398 |doi=10.2307/3638931 |jstor=3638931 |issn=0030-8684|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This proved to be much more of an onerous process than expected by American diplomats. The trauma from the [[Korea under Japanese rule]] period was manifold and resented.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cha |first=Victor D. |date=1996 |title=Bridging the Gap: The Strategic Context of the 1965 Korea-Japan Normalization Treaty |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/397988 |journal=Korean Studies |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=123–160 |doi=10.1353/ks.1996.0009 |issn=1529-1529|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The cultural distrust between Korea and Japan in political life can be traced as far back as the [[Imjin War]] in the 1590s. Diplomats of the ROK drew out discussions till June 1965, where they agreed to sign the [[Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea|treaty on basic relations]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oda |first=Shigeru |date=January 1967 |title=The Normalization of Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2196830 |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=35–56 |doi=10.2307/2196830 |jstor=2196830 |issn=0002-9300|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:The-Treaty-on-Basic-Relations-Between-Japan-and-the-Republic-of-Korea-1.jpg|thumb|Prime minister [[Hayato Ikeda]] of Japan meeting with South Korean dictator [[Syngman Rhee]] on June 22, 1965, signing the treaty.]]

Beginning with [[Syngman Rhee]] in 1948, a series of autocratic governments took power in South Korea with American support and influence.

With the coup of [[Park Chung Hee]] in 1961, a new economic policy began. In order to promote economic development, a policy of [[export-oriented industrialization]] was applied. President Park developed the South Korean economy through a series of highly successful [[Five-Year Plans of South Korea|Five-Year Plans]]. South Korea's economic development was spearheaded by the [[chaebol]], family conglomerates such as [[Samsung]], [[Hyundai Group|Hyundai]], [[SK Group]] and [[LG Corporation]]. The chaebols received state backing via tax breaks and cheap loans, and took advantage of South Korea's inexpensive labor to produce exportable products.<ref name="pagina12.com.ar">{{Cite web | url=https://www.pagina12.com.ar/104906-corea-del-sur-no-es-un-milagro |title = Corea del Sur no es un milagro &#124; Un Estado muy fuerte, industrialización, extrema flexibilización laboral y conglomerados familiares. El papel de EE.UU| date=30 March 2018 }}</ref> The government made education a very high priority to create a well-educated populace capable of productively contributing to the economy. Despite occasional political instability, the Korean economy subsequently saw enormous growth for nearly forty years, in a period known as the [[Miracle on the Han River]]. The unparalleled economic miracle brought South Korea from one of the poorest states in the world after the Korean War into a fully [[developed country]] within a generation.

South Korea eventually transitioned into a market-oriented democracy in 1987 largely due to popular demand for political reform, and then hosted the [[1988 Summer Olympics]], the second [[Summer Olympic Games]] to be held on the Asian continent, in the following year.

Moving on from cheap, lower-value light industry exports, the South Korean economy eventually moved onto more capital-intensive, higher-value industries, such as [[information technology]], [[shipbuilding]], auto manufacturing, and petroleum refining. Today, South Korea is a leading economy and a technological powerhouse, rivaling even countries such as the United States in [[information and communications technology]]. South Korean pop culture has also boomed abroad in recent years, in a phenomenon known as the [[Korean wave|Korean Wave]].

==== North Korea ====
{{main|History of North Korea}}

North Korea began their first ever diplomatic missions to Japan in 1955 to establish a "General Association of Korean Residents", an international organization led by Koreans in Japan who identified as belonging to the North Korean government, or ethnically North Korean; effectively to establish an embassy in Japan without initiating formal amity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chung |first=Kiwon |date=1964-04-01 |title=Japanese-North Korean Relations Today |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3023416 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=788–803 |doi=10.2307/3023416 |jstor=3023416 |issn=0004-4687|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The office was created in [[Tokyo]].

[[Kim Il Sung]] denounced the 1965 [[Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea|Treaty on Basic Relations]] between Japan and South Korea. Throughout the 1970s, North Korea eagerly supported and harbored members of the [[Japanese Red Army]], which was recognized as a terrorist group by the Japan and United States government in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Pan Suk |date=1994-03-01 |title=Will North Korea Blink?: Matters of Grave Danger |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2644984 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=258–272 |doi=10.2307/2644984 |jstor=2644984 |issn=0004-4687|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The DPRK also gave diplomatic support to the [[Japan Socialist Party]].

Due to Soviet influence, North Korea established a communist government with a hereditary succession of leadership, with ties to China and the Soviet Union. [[Kim Il Sung]] became the supreme leader until his death in 1994, after which his son, [[Kim Jong Il]] took power. Kim Jong Il's son, [[Kim Jong Un]], is the current leader, taking power after his father's death in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Sung-Yoon |title=Kim Jong Un's decade in power: Starvation, repression and brutal rule – just like his father and grandfather |url=https://theconversation.com/kim-jong-uns-decade-in-power-starvation-repression-and-brutal-rule-just-like-his-father-and-grandfather-173809 |website=The Conversation |date=17 December 2021}}</ref> After the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, the North Korean economy went on a path of steep decline, and it is currently heavily reliant on international food aid and trade with China.

==See also==
* Korean monarchs' family trees: [[Family tree of Silla monarchs|Silla]]; [[Family tree of Goryeo monarchs|Goryeo]]; [[House of Yi#House of Yi family tree|Joseon]]
*[[Korean influence on Japanese culture]]
*[[List of monarchs of Korea]]
*[[Military history of Korea]]
*[[National Treasure (South Korea)|National Treasure of South Korea]]
*[[Prehistoric Korea]]
* [[South Korea–United States relations]]
*[[Timeline of Korean history]]
* [[Korean Reunification]]

==References==
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leeyu <ref>{{harvnb|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|p=847}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|p=847}}
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{{reflist}}

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===Surveys===
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*{{cite book |last1=Nahm |first1=Andrew C. |first2=James |last2=Hoare |title=Historical dictionary of the Republic of Korea |year=2004 |location=Lanham |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-4949-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Sarah M. |title=The archaeology of Korea |year=1993 |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=1013 |isbn=978-0-521-40783-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Park |first=Eugene Y. (2022) |title=Korea: A History |year=2022 |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-503-62984-4 |page=432 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=34169}}
*{{cite book |last1=Peterson |first1=Mark |first2=Phillip |last2=Margulies |title=A Brief History of Korea |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-2738-5 |page=328 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ByIo1D9RY40C}}
*{{cite book |last=Pratt |first=Keith |title=Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea |year=2007 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-86189-335-2 |page=320}}
*{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Michael Edson |year=2007 |title=Korea's twentieth-century odyssey |url=https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi |url-access=registration |location=Honolulu |publisher=U of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-3174-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |title=A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century |year=2006 |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-4005-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe4PoOd89XIC |access-date=21 July 2016}}
*{{cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |title=A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/historykoreafrom00seth |url-access=limited |year=2010 |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-6716-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historykoreafrom00seth/page/n540 520]}}
*{{Cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |title=A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/historykoreafrom00seth |url-access=limited |year=2011 |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-6715-3 |oclc=644646716}}
*{{cite book |last=Sin |first=Hyong-sik |title=A Brief History of Korea |edition=2nd |series=The Spirit of Korean Cultural Roots |volume=1 |year=2005 |publisher=[[Ewha Womans University]] Press |location=Seoul |isbn=978-89-7300-619-9}}

{{Refend}}

===Historiography===
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book |last=Em |first=Henry H. |title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2013 |page=272 |isbn=978-0-8223-5372-0}}<br> Examines how Korean national ambitions have shaped the work of the country's historians.
* Hong Sung-gi. "Trends in Western historiography on Korea," ''Korea Journal'' (1999) 39#3 pp 377
* Kim, Han Kyo. ''Studies on Korea: A Scholar's Guide'' (1980); 458pp comprehensive guide; {{ISBN|0-8248-0673-5}}
* Kim, Duol, and Ki-Joo Park. "A Cliometric Revolution in the Economic History of Korea: A Critical Review," ''Australian Economic History Review'' (2012) 52#1 pp 85–95,
* Kim, Hieyoon. "Living with a Postcolonial Conundrum: Yi Yŏngil and Korean Film Historiography." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 78.3 (2019): 601–620.
* Michael, K. I. M. "Cosmopolitanism, Nationalism, and Transnationalism in Korean History." ''Journal of Contemporary Korean Studies'' 1#1  (2014): 15–34. [http://www.academia.edu/download/37067218/Kim__Cosmopolitainism_and_Transnationalism.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Xu, Stella. ''Reconstructing ancient Korean history: the formation of Korean-ness in the shadow of history'' (Lexington Books, 2016).
*{{cite journal |last=Yuh |first=Leighanne |title=The Historiography of Korea in the United States |journal=International Journal of Korean History |year=2010 |volume=15#2 |pages=127–144}} [https://www.academia.edu/download/57492699/US_historiography.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=July 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}
{{Refend}}

===Primary sources===
* {{cite book|last=Lee |first=Peter H. |title=Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume 1: From Early Times to the Sixteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZU1uLvWyRJYC |year=2010 |orig-year=1993 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51529-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Lee |first=Peter H. |title=Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume 2: From the Seventeenth Century to the Modern |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N66XyMJ_sNsC |year=2010 |orig-year=1996 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51530-6}}

===Other books used in this page===
{{Refbegin|40em}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Cha |first1=M. S. |last2=Kim |first2=N. N. |date=2012 |title=Korea's first industrial revolution, 1911–1940 |journal=Explorations in Economic History |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=60–74 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2011.09.003}}
*{{cite book |last=Connor |first=Mary E. |title=The Koreas, A global studies handbook |year=2002 |page=[https://archive.org/details/koreasglobalstud0000conn/page/307 307] |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-277-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/koreasglobalstud0000conn/page/307}}
*{{cite book |last=Cwiertka |first=Katarzyna J. |title=Cuisine, Colonialism, and Cold War: Food in Twentieth-Century Korea |publisher=Reaktion Books and University of Chicago Press |year=2012 |page=237 |isbn=978-1-78023-025-2}}<br> Scholarly study of how food reflects Korea's history
*{{cite book |last=Hawley |first=Samuel |title=The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China |year=2005 |publisher=The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul |isbn=978-89-954424-2-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Hulbert |first=H. B. |year=2014 |title=The History of Korea |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-84941-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdusAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Kim |editor-first1=Byung-Kook |editor-first2=Ezra F. |editor-last2=Vogel |title=The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea |url=https://archive.org/details/parkchungheeerat00kimb |url-access=limited |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2011 |page=[https://archive.org/details/parkchungheeerat00kimb/page/n752 744] |isbn=978-0-674-05820-0}}<br> Studies of on modernization under Park, 1961–1979.
*{{cite book |author1=Kim, Chong Ik Eugene |author2=Han-Kyo Kim |title=Korea and the Politics of Imperialism, 1876-1910 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiSgjPJgJ_MC&pg=PA53 |year=1967}}
*{{cite book |last=Lee |first=Chong-Sik |year=1963 |title=The Politics of Korean Nationalism |publisher=University of California Press}}
*{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Yur-Bok |first2=Wayne |last2=Patterson |title=One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882–1982 |year=1986 |url=https://www.questia.com/read/97608442/one-hundred-years-of-korean-american-relations-1882-1982 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904050230/https://www.questia.com/read/97608442/one-hundred-years-of-korean-american-relations-1882-1982 |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 4, 2015}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Lee |editor1-first=Hong-yung |editor2-first=Yong-Chool |editor2-last=Ha |editor3-first=Clark W. |editor3-last=Sorensen |year=2013 |title=Colonial Rule and Social Change in Korea, 1910–1945 |publisher=U of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-99216-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Schmid |first=Andre |author-link=Andre Schmid (academic) |title=Korea Between Empires, 1895–1919 |year=2002 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-12538-3}}  <!-- 9780-2311-2539-0 -->
*{{cite book |last=Schmid |first=Andre |title=Korea Between Empires |year=2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50630-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVgaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA269}}
*{{cite book |last=Stark |first=Miriam T. |author-link=Miriam T. Stark |title=Archaeology Of Asia |year=2005 |location=Boston |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1-4051-0212-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Stark |first=Miriam T. |title=Archaeology of Asia |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5303-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4_bT2SJ-HUC}}
*{{cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian) |title=Samurai Invasion. Japan's Korean War 1592–98 |location=London |year=2002 |publisher=Cassell & Co |isbn=978-0-304-35948-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/samuraiinvasionj0000turn}}
*{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Hugh Dyson |title=East Asia: A New History |date=2012 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-6517-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC |access-date=4 November 2016}}
*{{cite book |last=Yang |first=Sung-chul |title=The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis |year=1999 |location=Seoul |publisher=Hollym |isbn=978-1-56591-105-5}}
{{Refend}}

===C/J/K books===
{{Refbegin|40em}}
*{{cite book |author=Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) |title=韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed |year=1999 |isbn=978-89-445-9101-3 |publisher=Samyeongsa |location=Seoul |language=ko}}
*{{cite book |last=Yamawaki |first=Keizo |year=1994 |title=Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s (近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題) |location=Tokyo |publisher=Akashi-shoten (明石書店) |isbn=978-4-7503-0568-4 |language=ja}}
*{{cite book |last=Miyata |first=Setsuko |year=1992 |title=Creating Surnames and Changing Given Names (創氏改名) |location=Tokyo |publisher=Akashi-shoten (明石書店) |isbn=978-4-7503-0406-9}}
*{{cite book |author=[[Lee Young-hoon]] (이영훈) |title=[[Anti-Japan Tribalism]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-89-7087-326-8 |publisher=Miraesa (미래사) |language=ko}}
*{{cite book |author=Choe Ki-ho (최기호) |title=日韓併合 : 歴史再検証 : 韓民族を救った「日帝36年」の真実(The Japanese annexation of Korea:Reverification of history:The truth of 36 years lasted "Ilje Gangjeom-gi" that rescued Korean) |year=2007 |isbn=978-4-396-31435-4 |publisher=Shōdensha |language=ja}}
*{{cite book |author=[[Alleyne Ireland]] |title=The New Korea |year=1926 |asin=B00085A9QC |publisher=New York E.P. Dutton & company |language=en}}
*{{cite book |author=[[George Trumbull Ladd]] |title=In Korea with Marquis Ito |year=1908 |publisher=New York : C. Scribner's Sons |language=en}}
*{{cite book |author=[[O Sonfa]] |title=Getting over it! : why Korea needs to stop bashing Japan |year=2015 |publisher=Tachibana Publishing |location=Tokyo |language=en}}
{{Refend}}
<!-- end modified notes+bibliography -->

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==External links==
{{commons category|History of Korea}}
{{Wikivoyage|History of Korea}}
*[http://www.history.go.kr/ the National Institute of Korean History]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140213042851/http://www.koreanhistory.or.kr/eng/index.jsp Korean History online] — Korean History Information Center
*[http://www.koreaorbit.com/history-of-korea/history-of-korea-dynasties.html Timeline of Korean Dynasties]
*[http://kyujanggak.snu.ac.kr/kiks/index.do Kyujanggak Archive], PDF copies of Korean classics in their original written classical Chinese
*[http://www.hawaii.edu/korea/biblio/BiblioOpen.html Korean History: Bibliography] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630001159/http://www.hawaii.edu/korea/biblio/BiblioOpen.html |date=2011-06-30 }}) — Center for Korean Studies, [[University of Hawaii at Manoa]].
*[http://rki.kbs.co.kr/english/korea/korea_history_detail.htm History of Korea] — KBS World
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2374 History of Corea, Ancient and Modern; with Description of Manners and Customs, Language and Geography] by [[John Ross (missionary)|John Ross]], 1891.

{{Korea topics}}
{{History of Asia}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Korea}}
[[Category:History of Korea| ]]