View source for History of New York City

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{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{History of NYC}}[[File:George Schlegel - George Degen - New York 1873.jpg|thumb|[[Manhattan]] in 1873, looking north. The [[Hudson River]] is at left. The [[Brooklyn Bridge]] across the [[East River (New York)|East River]] (at right) was built from 1870 to 1883.]]
{{Population of NYC}}

The written '''history of New York City''' begins with the arrival of the first European explorer to the area, Italian [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] in 1528. European settlement began with the Dutch in 1608 and [[New Amsterdam]] was founded in 1624.

The "[[Sons of Liberty]]" campaigned against British authority in [[New York City]], and the [[Stamp Act Congress]] of representatives from throughout the [[Thirteen Colonies]] met in the city in 1765 to organize resistance to [[The Crown|Crown]] policies. The city's strategic location and status as a major seaport made it the prime target for British seizure in 1776. General [[George Washington]] lost a series of battles from which he narrowly escaped (with the notable exception of the [[Battle of Harlem Heights]], his first victory of the war), and the [[British Army]] occupied New York and made it their base on the continent until late 1783, attracting [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] refugees.

The city served as the national capital under the [[Articles of Confederation]] from 1785 to 1789, and briefly served as the new nation's capital in 1789–90 under the [[United States Constitution]]. Under the new government, the city hosted the inauguration of George Washington as the first [[President of the United States]], the drafting of the [[United States Bill of Rights]], and the first [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. The opening of the [[Erie Canal]] [[New York (state)|New York]] and the [[Great Lakes]], along with coastal traffic to lower [[New England]], making the city the preeminent port on the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The arrival of rail connections to the north and west in the 1840s and 1850s strengthened its central role.

Beginning in the mid-19th century, waves of new [[Immigration|immigrants]] arrived from Europe, dramatically changing the composition of the city and serving as workers in the expanding industries. Modern New York traces its development to the consolidation of the [[five boroughs]] in 1898 and an economic and building boom following the [[Great Depression]] and [[World War II]]. Throughout its history, New York has served as a main port of entry for many immigrants, and its cultural and economic influence has made it one of the most important urban areas in the [[United States]] and the world. The [[Economic history of the United States|economy]] in the 1700s was based on [[Agriculture|farming]], local production, [[North American fur trade|fur trading]], and Atlantic jobs like [[Shipbuilding in the American colonies|shipbuilding]]. In the 1700s, New York was sometimes referred to as a [[Breadbasket|breadbasket colony]], because one of its major crops was wheat. New York colony also exported other goods including [[iron ore]] as a [[raw material]] and manufactured goods such as tools, plows, nails and kitchen items such as kettles, pans and pots.{{not verified in body|date=September 2025}}

==Native American settlement==
{{Main|History of New York City (prehistory–1664)}}
Prior to the first human settlement, the area that eventually encompassed modern day New York was originally a marshland swamp, with numerous streams and creeks throughout modern day Manhattan Island. The first human Inhabitants were by the [[Lenape]] people. These groups of culturally and linguistically related [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] traditionally spoke an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian language]] now referred to as ''[[Unami language|Unami]]''. Early European settlers called bands of Lenape by the Unami [[place name]] for where they lived, such as "[[Raritan tribe|Raritan]]" in [[Staten Island]] and [[New Jersey]], "[[Canarsee Indians|Canarsee]]" in [[Brooklyn]], and "[[Hackensack tribe|Hackensack]]" in New Jersey across the [[Hudson River]] from [[Lower Manhattan]]. Some modern place names such as [[Raritan Bay]] and [[Canarsie, Brooklyn|Canarsie]] are derived from Lenape names. Eastern [[Long Island]] neighbors were culturally and linguistically more closely related to the [[Mohegan]]-[[Pequot]] peoples of New England who spoke the [[Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language]].<ref>Herbert C. Kraft, ''The Lenape: Archaeology, history, and ethnography'' (New Jersey Historical Society v 21, 1986)</ref>

These peoples made use of the abundant waterways in the [[New York metropolitan area|New York region]] for fishing, hunting trips, trade, and occasionally war. Many paths created by the indigenous peoples are now main thoroughfares, such as [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] in [[Manhattan]], [[the Bronx]], and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]].<ref>{{Cite book
| first = Thelma Wills | last = Foote
| title = Black and White Manhattan: The History of Racial Formation in Colonial New York.
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4GJqzKNXxDMC&pg=PA146
| place = New York
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| page = 25
| year = 2003–2004
| isbn = 0-19-516537-3 }}</ref> The Lenape developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, they were cultivating fields of vegetation through the [[slash and burn]] technique, which extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bay.<ref>[[Mark Kurlansky]], ''[[The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell]]'', New York: Ballantine Books, 2006.</ref> Historians estimate that at the time of European settlement, approximately 5,000 Lenape lived in 80 settlements around the region.<ref name="gothamcenter.org">[http://www.gothamcenter.org/features/timeline/ "Gotham Center for New York City History"] {{webarchive|url=https://swap.stanford.edu/20081229214923/http://www.gothamcenter.org/features/timeline/ |date=December 29, 2008 }} Timeline 1700–1800</ref><ref name="burrows98"/>

==European exploration and settlement==
===New Angoulême===
{{redirect|New Angoulême|the place in [[French Guiana]]|Anne-Marie Javouhey}}
The first European visitor to the area was Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian in command of the French ship ''[[La Dauphine]]'' in 1524. It is believed he sailed into [[Upper New York Bay]], where he encountered native Lenape, returned through the [[The Narrows|Narrows]], where he anchored the night of April 17, and left to continue his voyage. He named the area New [[Angoulême]] (''[[:fr:La Nouvelle-Angoulême|La Nouvelle-Angoulême]]'')<ref name=larousse1960>{{cite book |editor1-last=Deffontaines |editor1-first=Pierre |editor1-link=:fr:Pierre Deffontaines (géographe) |editor2-last=Brunhes Delamarre |editor2-first=Mariel J.- |editor2-link=:fr:Famille Brunhes |editor3-last=Larousse (firm) |editor3-link=Éditions Larousse |title=Géographie universelle Larousse (Vol. 3) |date=1960 |location=Paris |publisher=Larousse |page=184 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t708AAAAMAAJ&q=%22nouvelle+angouleme%22+1524 |access-date=September 20, 2019 |oclc=18122542 |language=fr}} "Ce site unique, entrevu par Verrazano dès 1524 et baptisé par lui Nouvelle-Angoulême en l'honneur de François Ier, fut acheté un siècle plus tard aux Indiens par les Hollandais, et s'appela Nieuwe Amsterdam, avant d'arrriver enfin, en 1665..." (p. 184)</ref> in honor of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], King of France of the royal house of [[House of Valois#Valois-Angoulême|Valois-Angoulême]] and who had been [[Count of Angoulême]] from 1496 until his coronation in 1515.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morison |first1=Samuel Eliot |title=The European Discovery of America. Volume 1: The Northern Voyages|date=1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, U.K. |isbn=978-0195082715 |page=490}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| access-date = April 12, 2016 | date = April 12, 2016 | url = http://frenchmorning.com/conference-passe-francais-de-new-york/ | language= fr | title= Quand New York s'appelait Angoulême : une conférence le 21 avril |first= Nicolas | last = Koussa | publisher = French Morning}}</ref> The name refers to the town of [[Angoulême]], in the [[Charente]] [[département]] of [[France]]. For the next century, the area was occasionally visited by fur traders or explorers, such as by [[Esteban Gomez]] in 1525.<ref name="burrows98">{{cite book |last1=Burrows |first1=Edwin G. |last2=Wallace |first2=Mike |title=Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780199729104 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195140491|url-access=registration }}</ref>{{rp|11–12}}

European exploration continued on September 2, 1609, when the Englishman [[Henry Hudson]], in the employ of the [[Dutch East India Company]], sailed the ''[[Half Moon (ship)|Half Moon]]'' through the Narrows into Upper New York Bay. Like [[Christopher Columbus]], Hudson was looking for a westerly passage to [[Asia]]. He never found one, but he did take note of the abundant [[beaver]] population. Beaver pelts were in fashion in Europe, fueling a lucrative business. Hudson's report on the regional beaver population served as the impetus for the founding of Dutch trading colonies in the [[New World]].<ref name="burrows98">{{cite book |last1=Burrows |first1=Edwin G. |last2=Wallace |first2=Mike |title=Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780199729104 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195140491|url-access=registration }}</ref> The beaver's importance in New York's history is reflected by its use on the city's official seal.<ref>Burrows, Edwin G.; Wallace, Mike (1998). Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780199729104.</ref>

===Dutch settlement===
{{main|New Amsterdam}}
[[File:Verkoopakte Manhattan.jpg|thumb|1627 letter in Dutch by Pieter Schaghen stating the purchase of Manhattan for 60 guilders]]
[[File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg|thumb|New Amsterdam in 1664]]
The first [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] [[fur trade|fur trading]] posts and settlements were in 1614 near present-day [[Albany, New York]], the same year that [[New Netherland]] first appeared on maps. Only in May 1624 did the [[Dutch West India Company]] land a number of families at ''Noten Eylant'' (today's [[Governors Island]]) off the southern tip of [[Manhattan]] at the mouth of the [[North River (Hudson River)|North River]] (today's Hudson River).<ref name=NYCPR>{{cite web|url=http://www.nycgovparks.org/sub_your_park/historical_signs/hs_historical_sign.php?id=7712 |title="Battery Park". New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. Retrieved on September 13, 2008 |publisher=Nycgovparks.org |access-date=October 4, 2010}}</ref> Soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of [[Fort Amsterdam]] began.<ref name=NYCPR/> Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they were forced to build the wall that defended the town against English and Indian attacks. Early directors included [[Willem Verhulst]] and [[Peter Minuit]]. [[Willem Kieft]] became [[Director-General of New Netherland|director]] in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in [[Kieft's War]] against the Native Americans. The [[Pavonia Massacre]], across the Hudson River in present-day [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City]], resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. Holland sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645.<ref name="ellis-p37">{{cite book |title=The Epic of New York City |author=Ellis, Edward Robb |publisher=Old Town Books |year=1966 |pages=37–40}}</ref>

[[File:Petrus (Peter Pieter) Stuyvesant portrait c1660.jpg|thumb|Peter Stuyvesant]]
On May 27, 1647, [[Peter Stuyvesant]] was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival and ruled as a member of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]]. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653.<ref>Ellis (1966), p. 57.</ref> The first mayors (''burgemeesters'') of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year.<ref>Scheltema, Gajus and Westerhuijs, Heleen (eds.),''Exploring Historic Dutch New York''. Museum of the City of New York/Dover Publications, New York 2011.</ref> By the early 1660s, the population consisted of approximately 1500 Europeans, only about half of whom were Dutch, and 375 Africans, 300 of whom were slaves.<ref>{{cite book |title=In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626–1863 |url=https://archive.org/details/shadowslaveryafr00harr |url-access=limited |author=Harris, Leslie M. |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/shadowslaveryafr00harr/page/n26 14], 22 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226317731}}</ref>{{efn|Although it has been claimed that African slaves comprised 40% of the small population of the city at that time,<ref name="Spencer">[http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/afrburial/ Spencer P.M. Harrington, "Bones and Bureaucrats"], ''Archeology,'' March/April 1993, accessed February 11, 2012</ref> this has not been substantiated.}}

A few of the original Dutch place names have been retained, most notably Flushing (after the Dutch town of [[Vlissingen]]), Harlem (after [[Haarlem]]), and Brooklyn (after [[Breukelen]]). Few buildings, however, remain from the 17th century. The oldest recorded house still in existence in New York, the Pieter Claesen [[Wyckoff House]] in Brooklyn, dates from 1652.

===English rule: 1664–1783===

On August 27, 1664, four English frigates under the command of Col. Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender, as part of an effort by [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]'s brother [[James II of England|James, Duke of York]], the [[Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom#Lord High Admirals of England, 1638–1707|Lord High Admiral]] to provoke the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. Two weeks later, Stuyvesant officially capitulated by signing Articles of Surrender and in June 1665, the town was reincorporated under English law and [[Geographical renaming|renamed]] "New York" after the Duke, and Fort Orange was renamed "[[Albany, New York|Fort Albany]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of 400 Years of New York City's History |author=Homberger, Eric |year=2005 |page=34 |publisher=Owl Books |isbn=0-8050-7842-8}}</ref><ref>William Pelletreau, "History of Putnam County," (Interlaken, New York: Heart of the Lakes Publishing, 1975), p. 5</ref> The war ended in a Dutch victory in 1667, but the colony remained under English rule as stipulated in the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]]. During the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]], the Dutch briefly recaptured the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland to [[Kingdom of England|England]] for what is now [[Suriname]] in November 1674 at the [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shomette|first1=Donald G.|last2=Haslach|first2=Robert D.|title=Raid on America: The Dutch Naval Campaign of 1672–1674|date=2002|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=0788422456}}</ref>

The colony benefited from increased [[Immigration to the United States|immigration]] from Europe and its population grew faster. The Bolting Act of 1678, whereby no mill outside the city was permitted to grind wheat or corn, boosted growth until its repeal in 1694, increasing the number of houses over the period from 384 to 983.<ref>{{cite book|first=Henry Collins|last=Brown|author-link=Henry Collins Brown|title=Old New York|publisher=Valentine Mutual Press|location=New York|year=1922|pages=36–37|url=https://archive.org/stream/ldpd_11290342_000#page/n51/mode/2up}}</ref>

In the context of the [[Glorious Revolution]] in England, [[Jacob Leisler]] led [[Leisler's Rebellion]] and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Terry |first=Steven |date=2013 |title="[F] or King Willian and Queen Mary, for the defence of the protestant religion and the good of the country," Leisler's Rebellion; A study of Colonial New York and the Formation of Political and Religious Coalitions on the frontier 1620–1691 |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cc_etds_theses/196/ |journal=The City College of New York |volume=196 |pages=50 |via=Digital Commons Network}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merwick |first1=Donna |title=Being Dutch: An Interpretation of Why Jacob Leisler Died |journal=New York History |date=October 1989 |volume=70 |issue=4 |page=393 |jstor=23178500 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23178500 |access-date=March 26, 2022}}</ref>

====Lawyers====
In New York at first, legal practitioners were full-time businessmen and merchants, with no legal training, who had watched a few court proceedings. They mostly used their own common sense together with snippets they had picked up about [[English law]]. Court proceedings were quite informal, for the judges had no more training than the attorneys.

By the 1760s, the situation had dramatically changed. Lawyers were essential to the rapidly growing international trade, dealing with questions of partnerships, contracts, and insurance. The sums of money involved were large, and hiring an incompetent lawyer was a very expensive proposition. Lawyers were now professionally trained, and conversant in an extremely complex language that combined highly specific legal terms and motions with a dose of Latin. Court proceedings became a baffling mystery to the ordinary layman. Lawyers became more specialized and built their reputation, and their fee schedule, on the basis of their reputation for success. But as their status, wealth and power rose, animosity grew even faster.<ref>Milton M. Klein, Milton M. "From Community to Status: The Development of the Legal Profession in Colonial New York." ''New York History'' 60.2 (1979): 133.</ref> By the 1750s and 1760s, there was a widespread attack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers (lawyers lacking sound legal skills). Their image and influence declined.<ref>Luke J. Feder, "'No Lawyer in the Assembly!": Character Politics and the Election of 1768 in New York City." ''New York History'' 95.2 (2014): 154–171. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/newyorkhist.95.2.154 online]</ref> The lawyers organized a [[bar association]], but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the [[Stephen Delancey|Delancey]] and [[Livingston family|Livingston]] families.  A large fraction of the prominent lawyers were Loyalists; their clientele was often to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to [[Great Britain|Britain]] or [[Canada]] (primarily to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) after losing the war.<ref>Anton-Hermann Chroust, ''The rise of the legal profession in America'' (1965) vol 2:3–11</ref>

For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, to build an effective organization of lawyers. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.<ref>Albert P. Blaustein, "New York Bar Associations Prior to 1870." ''American Journal of Legal History'' 12.1 (1968): 50–57. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/844067 online]</ref>

====Native Americans and enslaved people====
[[File:New York Harbor Waterfront 1727 panorama map.jpg|thumb|New York Harbor, 1727]]
By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200.<ref name="gothamcenter.org"/> The Dutch West Indies Company transported [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] to the post as trading laborers used to build the fort and stockade, and some gained freedom under the Dutch. After the seizure of the colony in 1664, the slave trade continued to be legal. In 1703, 42% of the New York households had slaves; they served as domestic servants and laborers but also became involved in skilled trades, shipping and other fields. Yet following reform in ethics according to American [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thought, by the 1770s slaves made up less than 25% of the population.<ref name = "hh_slavery">{{cite magazine|url = https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/hidden-history-slavery-new-york/|title = The Hidden History of Slavery in New York|access-date = July 28, 2025 |magazine = The Nation }}</ref>

By the 1740s, 20% of the residents of New York were [[Slavery in the colonial United States|slaves]],<ref name = "nyhs_slavery">{{cite web|url = http://www.slaveryinnewyork.org/|title = Exhibit: Slavery in New York|access-date = February 11, 2008|publisher = New York Historical Society}}</ref> totaling about 2,500 people.<ref name="Rothstein">{{cite news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/26/arts/design/26burial.html |title = A Burial Ground and Its Dead Are Given Life|access-date = March 1, 2010|newspaper= The New York Times | first=Edward | last=Rothstein | date=February 26, 2010}}</ref>

After a series of fires in 1741, the city panicked over rumors of its black population conspiring with some poor whites to [[New York Conspiracy of 1741|burn the city]]. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 black and 4 white people, who over a period of months were convicted of arson. Of these, the city executed 13 black people by burning them alive and hanged the remainder of those incriminated.<ref>Eric W. Plaag, "New York's 1741 slave conspiracy in a climate of fear and anxiety." ''New York History'' 84.3 (2003): 275–299 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23183369 online].</ref>

In 1754, [[Columbia University]] was founded under charter by [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]] as King's College in [[Lower Manhattan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=An Historical Sketch of Columbia College, in the City of New York, 1754–1876 |url=https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalske00univgoog |author=Moore, Nathaniel Fish |year=1876 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalske00univgoog/page/n14 8] |publisher=Columbia College}}</ref>

====American Revolution====
[[File:Evacuation Day and Washington's Triumphal Entry.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington]] enters New York in triumph following the [[Evacuation Day (New York)|British evacuation of America]].]]

The [[Stamp Act]] and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among Sons of Liberty who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops over [[Liberty Pole]]s from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of the [[Continental Army]] in the [[Battle of Long Island]] in late 1776, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at the [[Battle of Fort Washington]] the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington's [[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War|espionage and intelligence-gathering]] throughout the war.

New York was greatly damaged twice by [[Great Fire of New York (1776)|fires]] of suspicious origin, with the Loyalists and Patriots accusing each other of starting the conflagration. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war. Continental Army officer [[Nathan Hale]] was hanged in Manhattan for [[espionage]]. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured American [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] aboard [[Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument|prison ships]] in [[Wallabout Bay]], across the [[East River]] in Brooklyn. More Americans lost their lives aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war.<ref>A recent historian estimates that about 6,800 Americans were killed in all the war's battles, and about 18,000 POW's died, mostly in British ships in New York. Edwin G. Burrows, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-AE4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT6 ''Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War'' (2008) p. x–xi.]</ref> The British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, as [[Evacuation Day (New York)|the last British forces left the city]].

===Federal and early America: 1784–1854===
{{Main|History of New York City (1784–1854)}}
[[File:Twelve Miles Around New York (City) Map 1849 by James Charles Sidney.jpg|thumb|''Sidney's Map Twelve Miles Around New York'', 1849. Chromo lithograph by James Charles Sidney]]

Starting in 1785 the [[Congress of the Confederation|Congress]] met in the city of New York under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York became the first [[List of capitals in the United States#United States|national capital]] under the new Constitution. The Constitution also created the current [[Congress of the United States]], and its first sitting was at [[Federal Hall]] on [[Wall Street]]. The first [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall.<ref>{{cite web | title = The People's Vote: President George Washington's First Inaugural Speech (1789) | publisher = U.S. News & World Report | url = https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page11.htm | access-date = May 28, 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080925045133/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page11.htm | archive-date = September 25, 2008 }}</ref> New York remained the national capital until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia.

During the 19th century, the city was transformed by [[History of immigration to the United States|immigration]], a visionary development proposal called the [[Commissioners' Plan of 1811]] which expanded the city [[street grid]] to encompass all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the [[Midwestern United States]] and Canada. By 1835, New York had surpassed [[Philadelphia]] as the largest city in the United States. New York grew as an economic center, first as a result of [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s policies and practices as the first [[Secretary of the Treasury]].<ref>{{cite book|author = Bridges, William | title = Map of the City of New York and Island of Manhattan with Explanatory Remarks and References | year=1811}}</ref><ref name="lankevich-p67">Lankevich (1998), pp. 67–68.</ref>

In 1842, water was piped from a reservoir to supply the city for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.localhistories.org/newyork.html|title=A History of New York|access-date=October 24, 2014|archive-date=September 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924034628/http://www.localhistories.org/newyork.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Great Irish Famine]] (1845–1850) brought a large influx of [[Irish people|Irish]] immigrants, and by 1850 the Irish comprised one quarter of the city's population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The New York Irish |author=Bayor, Ronald H. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-8018-5764-3 |page=91}}</ref> Government institutions, including the [[New York City Police Department]] and the [[New York City Department of Education|public schools]], were established in the 1840s and 1850s to respond to growing demands of residents.<ref name="lankevich-p84">Lankevich (1998), pp. 84–85.</ref> In 1831, [[New York University]] was founded by U.S. Secretary of the Treasury [[Albert Gallatin]] as a [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominal]] institution surrounding Washington Square Park.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Communications |first=NYU Web |title=A Brief History of New York University |url=http://www.nyu.edu/content/nyu/en/faculty/governance-policies-and-procedures/faculty-handbook/the-university/history-and-traditions-of-new-york-university/a-brief-history-of-new-york-university |access-date=March 8, 2024 |website=www.nyu.edu |language=en}}</ref>

==Modern history==

===Tammany and consolidation: 1855–1897===
{{Main|History of New York City (1855–1897)}}
[[File:Longacre Square, New York City, 1898.jpg|thumb|Broadway at 42nd St. in 1898]]

This period started with the 1855 inauguration of [[Fernando Wood]] as the first mayor from [[Tammany Hall]]. It was the [[political machine]] based among [[Irish Americans]] that controlled the local [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]].  It usually dominated local politics throughout this period and into the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Fernando Wood: A Political Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/fernandowoodpoli0000mush |url-access=registration |author=Mushkat, Jerome Mushkat |publisher=Kent State University Press |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fernandowoodpoli0000mush/page/36 36] |isbn=0-87338-413-X}}</ref> Public-minded members of the merchant community pressed for a [[Central Park]], which was opened to a design competition in 1857; it became the first landscape park in an American city.

During the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), the city was affected by its history of strong commercial ties to the [[American South|South]]; before the war, half of its exports were related to cotton, including textiles from upstate mills. Together with its growing immigrant population, which was angry about [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]], sympathies among residents were divided for both the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] at the outbreak of war. Tensions related to the war culminated in the [[New York Draft Riot|Draft Riots of 1863]] led by Irish Catholics, who attacked black neighborhood and abolitionist homes.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Armies of the Streets: The New York City Draft Riots of 1863 |author=Cook, Adrian |year=1974 |pages=193–195}}</ref> Many blacks left the city and moved to Brooklyn. After the Civil War, the rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new and better life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the [[Statue of Liberty]] in 1886.

[[File:King's Color-graphs of New York City14.png|thumb|center|King's Color-graphs of New York City (1910)]]

===Early 20th century: 1898–1945===
{{Main|History of New York City (1898–1945)}}
{{See also| List of former municipalities in New York City}}
[[File:Singer City Investing Hudson Terminal 1909 crop.jpg|thumb|New York's [[Singer Building]] was the [[History of the tallest buildings in the world|world's tallest building]] when completed in 1908. It was demolished in 1968.]]
[[File:Mulberry Street NYC c1900 LOC 3g04637u edit.jpg|thumb|[[Mulberry Street (Manhattan)|Mulberry Street]], on the [[Lower East Side]], circa 1900]]
[[File:NYC Manhattan 1938 Franz Grasser.jpg|thumb|The Lower East Side and Lower Manhattan skyline in New York City photographed using [[Agfacolor]] process in 1938.]]

From 1890 to 1930, the largest cities, led by New York, were the focus of international attention. The skyscrapers and tourist attractions were widely publicized. Suburbs were emerging as bedroom communities for commuters to the central city. [[San Francisco]] dominated the [[Western United States|West]], [[Atlanta]] dominated the [[Southern United States|South]], [[Boston]] dominated New England; [[Chicago]] dominated the [[Midwest United States]]. New York City dominated the entire nation in terms of communications, trade, finance, popular culture, and high culture. More than a fourth of the 300 largest corporations in 1920 were headquartered here.<ref>David R. Goldfield and Blaine A. Brownell, ''Urban America: A History''(2nd ed. 1990), p. 299</ref>

In 1898, the modern [[City of Greater New York|City of New York]] was formed with the consolidation of [[History of Brooklyn|Brooklyn]] (until then an independent city), [[Manhattan]], and outlying areas.<ref>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/nyc100/html/classroom/hist_info/100aniv.html The 100 Year Anniversary of the Consolidation of the 5 Boroughs into New York City], New York. Retrieved June 29, 2007.</ref> Manhattan and [[the Bronx]] were established as two separate [[borough (New York City)|boroughs]] and joined with three other boroughs created from parts of adjacent counties to form the new municipal government originally called "Greater New York". The Borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge; the Borough of [[Queens]] was created from western Queens County (with the remnant established as [[Nassau County, New York|Nassau County]] in 1899); and the Borough of Richmond contained all of [[Richmond County, New York|Richmond County]]. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions were absorbed by the city or each borough.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Kenneth|title=Encyclopedia of New York City|year=1995|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|page=206}} "[B]orough presidents ... responsible for local administration and public works."</ref> In 1914, the New York State Legislature created Bronx County, making five counties coterminous with the five boroughs.

The Bronx had a steady boom period during 1898–1929, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression created a surge of unemployment, especially among the working class, and a slow-down of growth.<ref>Olmsted, Robert A. "Transportation Made the Bronx", ''Bronx County Historical Society Journal'' (1998) 35#2 pp: 166–180</ref>

On June 15, 1904, over 1,000 people, mostly German immigrant women and children, were killed when the excursion steamship ''[[General Slocum]]'' caught fire and sank. It is the city's worst maritime disaster. On March 25, 1911, the [[Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire]] in [[Greenwich Village]] took the lives of 146 garment workers. In response, the city made great advancements in the fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations.

Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication, marking its rising influence with such events as the [[Hudson-Fulton Celebration]] of 1909. [[Interborough Rapid Transit Company|Interborough Rapid Transit]] (the first [[New York City Subway]] company) began operating in 1904, and the railroads operating out of [[Grand Central Terminal]] and [[Pennsylvania Station (New York City)|Pennsylvania Station]] thrived.

From 1918 to 1920, New York City was [[1918-20 New York City rent strikes|affected by the largest rent strike wave in its history.]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lawson |first=Ronald |url=http://archive.org/details/tenantmovementin0000unse |title=The Tenant movement in New York City, 1904–1984 |date=January 1, 1986 |publisher=New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8135-1203-7 |pages=51–89 |chapter=Ch. 2: New York City Tenant Organizations and the Post-World War I Housing Crisis}}</ref><ref name="rent wars">{{Cite book |last=Fogelson |first=Robert Michael |url=https://academic.oup.com/yale-scholarship-online/book/18895 |title=The great rent wars: New York, 1917–1929 |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University press |isbn=978-0-300-19172-1 |location=New Haven (Conn.) |doi=10.12987/yale/9780300191721.001.0001}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Lawson |first=Ronald |url=http://archive.org/details/tenantmovementin0000unse |title=The Tenant movement in New York City, 1904-1984 |date=January 1, 1986 |publisher=New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8135-1203-7 |pages=51–89 |chapter=Ch. 2: New York City Tenant Organizations and the Post-World War I Housing Crisis}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Day |first=Jared N. |title=Urban castles: tenement housing and landlord activism in New York City, 1890 – 1943 |date=1999 |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-231-11402-8 |series=The Columbia history of urban life |location=New York, NY}}</ref> Somewhere between several tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands of tenants went on strike across the city.<ref name="rent wars2">{{Cite book |last=Fogelson |first=Robert Michael |url=https://academic.oup.com/yale-scholarship-online/book/18895 |title=The great rent wars: New York, 1917–1929 |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University press |isbn=978-0-300-19172-1 |location=New Haven (Conn.) |doi=10.12987/yale/9780300191721.001.0001}}</ref>{{Rp|page=82}} A [[World War I|WW1]] housing and coal shortage sparked the strikes.<ref name="rent wars4">{{Cite book |last=Fogelson |first=Robert Michael |url=https://academic.oup.com/yale-scholarship-online/book/18895 |title=The great rent wars: New York, 1917–1929 |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University press |isbn=978-0-300-19172-1 |location=New Haven (Conn.) |doi=10.12987/yale/9780300191721.001.0001}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite book |last=Day |first=Jared N. |title=Urban castles: tenement housing and landlord activism in New York City, 1890 - 1943 |date=1999 |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-231-11402-8 |series=The Columbia history of urban life |location=New York, NY}}</ref> It became marked both by occasional violent scuffles and the [[Red Scare]].<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Lawson |first=Ronald |url=http://archive.org/details/tenantmovementin0000unse |title=The Tenant movement in New York City, 1904–1984 |date=January 1, 1986 |publisher=New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8135-1203-7 |pages=51–89 |chapter=Ch. 2: New York City Tenant Organizations and the Post-World War I Housing Crisis}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=57–72}} It would lead to the passage of the first rent laws in the nation's history.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Lawson |first=Ronald |url=http://archive.org/details/tenantmovementin0000unse |title=The Tenant movement in New York City, 1904–1984 |date=January 1, 1986 |publisher=New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8135-1203-7 |pages=51–89 |chapter=Ch. 2: New York City Tenant Organizations and the Post-World War I Housing Crisis}}</ref><ref name=":113">{{Cite book |last=Day |first=Jared N. |title=Urban castles: tenement housing and landlord activism in New York City, 1890 – 1943 |date=1999 |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-231-11402-8 |series=The Columbia history of urban life |location=New York, NY}}</ref>

[[File:Tallest buildings 1908 - 1974 (en).svg|thumb|The [[skyscraper]] epitomized New York's success of the early 20th century; it was home to the [[History of the tallest buildings in the world|tallest building]] between 1908 and 1974.<ref>{{cite web |title=Height: The History of Measuring Tall Buildings |last=Gerometta |first=Marshall |publisher=Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat |year=2010 |access-date=December 20, 2010 |url=http://www.ctbuh.org/AboutCTBUH/History/HistoryMeasuringTallBuildings/tabid/1320/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611040533/http://www.ctbuh.org/AboutCTBUH/History/HistoryMeasuringTallBuildings/tabid/1320/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
The city was a destination for internal migrants as well as immigrants. Through 1940, New York was a major destination for [[African American]]s during the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] from the rural American South.  The [[Harlem Renaissance]] flourished during the 1920s and the era of [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]]. New York's ever accelerating changes and rising crime and poverty rates were reduced after World War I disrupted trade routes, the [[List of United States immigration legislation|Immigration Restriction Acts]] limited additional immigration after the war, and the Great Depression reduced the need for new labor. The combination ended the rule of the [[Gilded Age]] barons. As the city's demographics temporarily stabilized, labor unionization helped the working class gain new protections and middle-class affluence, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under [[Fiorello La Guardia]], and his controversial parks commissioner, [[Robert Moses]], ended the blight of many tenement areas, expanded new parks, remade streets, and restricted and reorganized [[Zoning in the United States|zoning controls]].

For a while, New York ranked as the most populous city in the world, overtaking [[London]] in 1925, which had reigned for a century.<ref>{{cite web |title=The World's Largest Cities |publisher=City Mayors|url=http://www.citymayors.com/features/largest_cities1.html| access-date=November 29, 2007 |date=June 28, 2007}}</ref> During the difficult years of the Great Depression, the reformer Fiorello La Guardia was elected as mayor, and Tammany Hall fell after eighty years of political dominance.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Tiger – The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall |author=Allen, Oliver E. |publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company|chapter=Chapter 9: The Decline |year=1993}}</ref>

Despite the effects of the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were built during the 1930s. [[Art Deco architecture of New York City|Art Deco architecture]]—such as the iconic [[Chrysler Building]], [[Empire State Building]], and [[30 Rockefeller Plaza]]— came to define the city's skyline. The [[construction of the Rockefeller Center]] occurred in the 1930s and was the largest-ever private development project at the time. Both before and especially after World War II, vast areas of the city were also reshaped by the construction of bridges, parks and parkways coordinated by Robert Moses, the greatest proponent of automobile-centered modernist urbanism in America.

===Post–World War II: 1946–1977===
{{Main|History of New York City (1946–1977)}}
[[File:RMS Queen Mary 20Jun1945 NewYork.jpeg|thumb|{{RMS|Queen Mary}} arriving in New York Harbor with thousands of U.S. troops]]

Returning World War II veterans and immigrants from Europe created a postwar economic boom. Demands for new housing were aided by the [[G.I. Bill]] for veterans, stimulating the development of huge suburban tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County. The city was extensively photographed during the post&ndash;war years by photographer [[Todd Webb]].<ref name=twsOctBE21>{{cite news|last= Hagen|first= Charles|title= Art in Review|newspaper=The New York Times|quote=  In 1945... Todd Webb moved to New York City and began a remarkable project. For the next year Mr. Webb walked the streets of the city with a heavy camera and tripod, photographing the buildings and people he encountered...|date= September 22, 1995|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/22/arts/art-in-review-761095.html|access-date= October 10, 2010}}</ref>

New York emerged from the war as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading the United States ascendancy. In 1951, the [[United Nations]] relocated from its first headquarters in [[Flushing Meadows Park]], Queens, to the [[East Side (Manhattan)|East Side of Manhattan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Center of the World – New York: A Documentary Film (Transcript) |author=Burns, Ric |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/newyork/filmmore/pt.html |access-date=July 20, 2006 |date=August 22, 2003 |archive-date=June 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623065806/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/newyork/filmmore/pt.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> During the late 1960s, the views of real estate developer and city leader Robert Moses began to fall out of favor as the anti-[[urban renewal]] views of [[Jane Jacobs]] gained popularity. Citizen rebellion stopped a plan to construct an [[Limited-access road|expressway]] through [[Lower Manhattan]].

After a short war boom, the Bronx declined from 1950 to 1985, going from predominantly moderate-income to mostly lower-income, with high rates of violent crime and poverty. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today.<ref>Robert A. Olmsted, "A History of Transportation in the Bronx", ''Bronx County Historical Society Journal'' (1989) 26#2 pp: 68–91</ref>

The transition away from the industrial base toward a service economy picked up speed, while the jobs in the large shipbuilding and garment industries declined sharply. The ports converted to container ships, costing many traditional jobs among longshoremen. Many large corporations moved their headquarters to the suburbs or to distant cities. At the same time, there was enormous growth in services, especially finance, education, medicine, tourism, communications and law. New York remained the largest city and largest metropolitan area in the United States, and continued as its largest financial, commercial, information, and cultural center.

Like many major U.S. cities, New York suffered race riots, gang wars and some population decline in the late 1960s. Street activists and minority groups such as the [[Black Panthers]] and [[Young Lords]] organized rent strikes and garbage offensives, demanding improved city services for poor areas. They also set up free health clinics and other programs, as a guide for organizing and gaining "Power to the People." By the 1970s the city had gained a reputation as a crime-ridden relic of history. In 1975, the city government avoided bankruptcy only through a federal loan and [[debt restructuring]] by the Municipal Assistance Corporation, headed by [[Felix Rohatyn]]. The city was also forced to accept increased financial scrutiny by an agency of New York State. In 1977, the city was struck by the [[New York City blackout of 1977]] and serial slayings by the [[Son of Sam]].<ref>Miriam Greenberg, ''Branding New York: How a city in crisis was sold to the world'' (Routledge, 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Branding-New-York-Crisis-Cultural/dp/0415954428/ excerpt] pp 3–6.</ref> [[Ed Koch]] became mayor in 1978.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-30 |title=Ed Koch {{!}} Biography, Mayor, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ed-Koch |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===1978–present===
{{Main|History of New York City (1978–present)}}

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The 1980s began a rebirth of Wall Street, and the city reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry.  Unemployment and crime remained high, the latter reaching peak levels in some categories around the close of the decade and the beginning of the 1990s. Neighborhood restoration projects funded by the city and state had very good effects for New York, especially [[Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn|Bedford-Stuyvesant]], Harlem, and The Bronx. The city later resumed its social and economic recovery, bolstered by the influx of Asians, Latin Americans, and U.S. citizens, and by new crime-fighting techniques on the part of the [[New York Police Department]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} In [[1989 New York City mayoral election|1989]], [[David Dinkins]] became the city's first Black mayor. He came out of the [[Gang of Four (Harlem)|Gang of Four]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=McFadden |first=Robert D. |date=November 24, 2020 |title=David N. Dinkins, New York's First Black Mayor, Dies at 93 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/24/nyregion/david-dinkins-dead.html |access-date=September 27, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> 

[[Rudy Giuliani]] became mayor in 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-26 |title=Rudy Giuliani {{!}} Biography, Facts, & September 11 Attacks {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudy-Giuliani |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In the late 1990s, the city benefited from the nationwide fall of violent crime rates, the resurgence of the finance industry, and the growth of the "[[Silicon Alley]]", during the [[dot com boom]], one of the factors in a decade of booming real estate values. New York was also able to attract more business and convert abandoned industrialized neighborhoods into arts or attractive residential neighborhoods; examples include the [[Meatpacking District, Manhattan|Meatpacking District]] and [[Chelsea, Manhattan|Chelsea]] (in Manhattan)  and [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] (in Brooklyn).

[[File:WTC smoking on 9-11.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Lower Manhattan]] on [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]], after terrorists flew planes into the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] towers]]

New York's population reached an all-time high in the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 census]]; according to census estimates since 2000, the city has continued to grow, including rapid growth in the most urbanized borough, Manhattan. During this period, New York City was a site of the [[September 11 attacks]] of 2001; [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|2,606 people who were in the towers and in the surrounding area were killed]] by a [[terrorism|terrorist attack]] on the World Trade Center, an event considered highly traumatic for the city but which did not stop the city's rapid regrowth. On November 3, 2014, [[One World Trade Center]] opened on the site of the attack.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://skyscrapercenter.com/new-york-city/one-world-trade-center/98/|title = One World Trade Center – the Skyscraper Center}}</ref> 

[[Michael Bloomberg]] became mayor in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-12 |title=Britannica Money |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Michael-Bloomberg |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The [[Occupy Wall Street]] protest movement happened in New York City in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-23 |title=Occupy Wall Street {{!}} 2011, Definition, Movement, & Purpose {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Occupy-Wall-Street |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Hurricane Sandy]] brought a destructive [[storm surge]] to New York in the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan. It flooded low-lying areas of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. Electrical power was lost in many parts of the city and its suburbs.<ref>[http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2012/10/29/hurricane-sandy-strengthens-to-85-mph/ Superstorm Sandy causes at least 9 U.S. deaths as it slams East Coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120072118/http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2012/10/29/hurricane-sandy-strengthens-to-85-mph/ |date=January 20, 2013 }} CNN</ref> 

[[Bill de Blasio]] became mayor in 2014.  Despite efforts to promote equity, the racial achievement gap in New York City's public schools widened during his time in office.  While the administration invested in programs to address homelessness, the number of homeless individuals remained high and was a consistent point of criticism. De Blasio had a strained relationship with the city's police unions, particularly in the wake of protests against police brutality.  His signature achievement was providing free, full-day pre-kindergarten to all of the city's four-year-olds.  De Blasio set ambitious goals for creating and preserving affordable housing units through his "Housing New York" plan.   De Blasio implemented various programs aimed at addressing inequalities in the public school system, including expanding access to computer science, AP classes, and college access programs in all high schools.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-21 |title=Bill de Blasio {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bill-de-Blasio |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> 

The city went into lockdown in March 2020 amidst the first wave of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. {{As of|December 2021}}, New York City had experienced the most deaths of any locality in the [[COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state)|coronavirus pandemic in New York state]], which itself has the highest number of confirmed coronavirus cases of any state in the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|United States]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Coronavirus in New York: Latest Updates |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2020/03/new-york-coronavirus-cases-updates.html |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=March 28, 2020}}</ref> During the first wave, one-third of total known U.S. cases [[COVID-19 pandemic in New York City|were in New York City]].<ref>{{cite news |title=How New York became the epicenter of America's coronavirus crisis |url=https://www.vox.com/coronavirus-covid19/2020/3/27/21195162/new-york-coronavirus-news-andrew-cuomo-hospitals-population-ventilators |work=Vox |date=March 27, 2020}}</ref> 

[[Eric Adams]] became mayor in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eric Adams {{!}} American politician {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eric-Adams |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2024, Adams became the first New York City mayor to be indicted on criminal charges. He has been federally charged with corruption and bribery.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-27 |title=NYC Mayor Adams turns himself in to federal authorities ahead of arraignment |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/nyc-mayor-eric-adams-federal-arraignment-rcna172989 |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[American urban history]]
* [[History of education in New York City]]
* [[History of public health in New York City]]
* [[Timeline of New York City]]
* ''[[Here Grows New York]]'' – film history of city from 1609 to present
* [[Gentrification of New York City]]

{{col-begin}}{{col-break|width=20%}}
'''Boroughs'''
*[[History of the Bronx]]
*[[History of Brooklyn]]
*[[Queens#History|History of Queens]]
*[[Staten Island#History|History of Staten Island]]
*[[The 24$ deal|History of Manhattan]]

'''Streets and thoroughfares'''
*[[Fifth Avenue#History|History of Fifth Avenue]]
*[[Broadway (Manhattan)#History|History of Broadway]]
*[[Wall Street#History|History of Wall Street]]
{{col-break|width=20%}}
'''Small islands'''
*[[Hart Island (Bronx)#History|Hart Island]]
*[[Rikers Island#History|Rikers Island]]
*[[Randall's Island#History|Randall's Island]]
*[[Liberty Island]]
*[[Governors Island#History|Governors Island]]
*[[City Island, Bronx#History|City Island]]
*[[Roosevelt Island#History|Roosevelt Island]]
*[[Ellis Island#History|Ellis Island]] – New Jersey/NYC
{{col-break|width=20%}}
'''Miscellany'''
*[[New-York Historical Society]]
*[[Museum of the City of New York]]
*[[New York: A Documentary Film]]
*[[New York City water supply system]]
*[[Timeline of New York City crimes and disasters]]
*[[Kenneth T. Jackson]] — historian
*[[List of newspapers in New York in the 18th century]]
{{col-end}}
*{{Portal-inline|New York City}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==Further reading==
{{See also|Timeline of New York City#Bibliography|Mayor of New York City#Further reading}}
* Jackson, Kenneth A. ed. ''Encyclopedia of New York City'' (2nd Edition, 2010) [https://archive.org/details/theencyclopediaofnewyorkcitysecondedition online and can be downloaded]
 
* Abu-Lughod, Janet L. ''New York, Chicago, Los Angeles: America's global cities'' (U of Minnesota Press, 1999). ISBN 978-0-8166-3336-4. [https://archive.org/details/newyorkchicagolo0000abul online] Compares the three cities in terms of geography, economics and race from 1800 to 1990.
* Anbinder, Tyler. ''City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016). 766 pp. 
* [[Thomas J. Archdeacon|Archdeacon, Thomas J.]] ''New York City, 1664–1710: Conquest and Change'' (1976)
* Beckert, Sven. ''The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896'' (Cambridge UP, 2001). [https://archive.org/details/moniedmetropolis0000beck online]
* {{cite gotham}}, The standard scholarly history, 1390pp  [https://networks.h-net.org/node/24846/reviews/25627/goldin-burrows-and-wallace-gotham-history-new-york-city-1898 onlibe review]; Pulitzer Prize; [https://www.amazon.com/Gotham-History-York-City-1898/dp/0195140494/ excerpt]
** Wallace, Mike. ''Greater Gotham: A History of New York City from 1898 to 1919'' (2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Greater-Gotham-History-York-City/dp/0195116356/ excerpt]
* Burns, Ric, and James Sanders. ''New York: An Illustrated History'' (2003), book version of 17-hour Burns PBS documentary, "NEW YORK: A Documentary Film"
* Connable, Alfred and Edward Silberfarb. ''Tigers of Tammany: Nine Men Who Ran New York'' (Holt, 1967); popular history.
* Cray, Robert E., Jr. ''Paupers and Poor Relief in New York City and Its Rural Environs, 1700–1830'' (Temple UP, 1988) [https://archive.org/details/povertypoorrelie0000cray online]
* Duffy, John. ''A History of Public Health in New York City, 1866-1966'' (1966) covers sanitation, water supply, food safety, crowded housing, hospitals, diseases, medical care, and the progress of medicine. [https://www.russellsage.org/sites/default/files/History-Public-Health.pdf online]

* Ellis, Edward Robb. ''The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History'' (2004) 640pp; [https://www.amazon.com/The-Epic-New-York-City/dp/0786714360/ Excerpt and text search]; Popular history concentrating on violent events & scandals 
* {{cite book |last1=Habert |first1=Jacques |last2=Lipman-Wulf |first2=Peter (illustrations) |title=When New York was Called Angoulême |date=1949 |publisher=Transocean Press |location=New York |oclc=489918773 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtBQAQAAMAAJ}}
* Hershkowitz, Leo. ''Tweed's New York: Another Look''. (New York: Anchor Press, 1977); scholarly study that argues Tweed was mostly innocent. [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1296084413?fromopenview=true&imgSeq=1&pq-origsite=gscholar online review]
* Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. ''Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820–1980'' (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. [https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_r8s1 online]; see index at p.&nbsp;410 for list. 
* Homberger, Eric. ''The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of 400 Years of New York City's History'' (2005) [https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000homb online]
* Hood. Clifton. ''In Pursuit of Privilege: A History of New York City's Upper Class and the Making of a Metropolis'' (2016). Cover 1760–1970.

* [[Kenneth T. Jackson|Jackson, Kenneth T.]] and Roberts, Sam (eds.) ''The Almanac of New York City'' (2008)
* Jaffe, Steven H. ''New York at War: Four Centuries of Combat, Fear, and Intrigue in Gotham '' (2012) [https://www.amazon.com/New-York-War-Centuries-Intrigue/dp/0465036422/  Excerpt and text search]
* Kessner, Thomas. ''Fiorello H. LaGuardia and the Making of Modern New York'' (1989) the most detailed standard scholarly biography [https://archive.org/details/fiorellohlaguard00kess online]
* Lankevich, George J. ''New York City: A Short History'' (2002)
* McCully, Betsy. ''City At The Water's Edge: A Natural History of New York'' (2005), environmental history [https://www.amazon.com/CITY-AT-WATERS-EDGE-Natural/dp/B0085XRE08/ excerpt and text search]
* McNickle, Chris. ''To be mayor of New York: Ethnic politics in the city'' (Columbia University Press, 1993) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ONlCSIMrV_kC&dq=Mayor+new+York+city&pg=PR9 online]; covers 1881–1989.
* McNickle, Chris. ''Bloomberg: A Billionaire's Ambition'' (Simon and Schuster, 2017), scholarly study of mayoralty. 2002–2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=OjaCDwAAQBAJ&dq=mcnickle++Bloomberg&pg=PA1401 online].
* Maier, Mark H. ''City Unions: Managing Discontent in New York City'' (Rutgers UP, 1987)
* Nadel, Stanley. ''Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City, 1845–80'' (1990).
* Quigley, David. '' Second Founding: New York City, Reconstruction, and the Making of American Democracy'' (Hill and Wang, 2004) [https://www.amazon.com/Second-Founding-Reconstruction-American-Democracy-ebook/dp/B00XHLIA0G/ excerpt]
* Reitano, Joanne. ''The Restless City: A Short History of New York from Colonial Times to the Present'' (2010), Popular history with focus on politics and riots [https://www.amazon.com/The-Restless-City-History-Colonial/dp/0415880149/  excerpt and text search]
* Richter, Hedwig. "Transnational Reform and Democracy: Election Reforms in New York City and Berlin Around 19001." ''The Journal Of The Gilded Age And Progressive Era'' 15.2 (2016): 149–175. [https://www.academia.edu/25338056/_TRANSNATIONAL_REFORM_AND_DEMOCRACY_ELECTION_REFORMS_IN_NEW_YORK_CITY_AND_BERLIN_AROUND_1900_in_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era_15_2016_149_175?email_work_card=thumbnail online]
* Rosenwaike, Ira. ''Population history of New York City'' (1972) [https://archive.org/details/populationhistor00irar online]
* Syrett, Harold Coffin. ''The city of Brooklyn, 1865–1898: a political history'' (Columbia University press, 1944) [https://archive.org/details/cityofbrooklyn180000syre online]

===Primary sources===
* Burke, Katie. ed. ''Manhattan Memories: A Book of Postcards of Old New York'' (2000); Postcards lacking the (c) symbol are not copyright and are in the public domain.
*  Dinkins, David N. ''A Mayor's Life: Governing New York's Gorgeous Mosaic'' (PublicAffairs Books, 2013)
* Gellman, David N.  and David Quigley, eds. ''Jim Crow New York: A Documentary History of Race and Citizenship, 1777–1877'' (2003)
* Jackson, Kenneth T. and David S. Dunbar, eds. ''Empire City: New York Through the Centuries'' 1015 pages of excerpts [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780231109086 online]
* Kouwenhoven, John Atlee. ''The Columbia Historical Portrait of New York: An Essay In Graphic History''. (1953)
* Paterson, David. ''Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity.''  New York, 2020)
* Still, Bayrd, ed. ''Mirror for Gotham: New York as Seen by Contemporaries from Dutch Days to the Present'' (New York University Press, 1956) 
* Stokes, I.N. Phelps. ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909 compiled from original sources and illustrated by photo-intaglio reproductions of important maps plans views and documents in public and private collections '' (6 vols., 1915–28). A highly detailed, heavily illustrated chronology of Manhattan and New York City. see [[The Iconography of Manhattan Island]] All volumes are on line free at:
** [https://archive.org/stream/iconographyofman01stok#page/n13/mode/2up I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 1. 1915] v. 1. The period of discovery (1524–1609); the Dutch period (1609–1664). The English period (1664–1763). The Revolutionary period (1763–1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction; New York as the state and federal capital (1783–1811)	
** [https://archive.org/stream/iconographyofma_02stok#page/n13/mode/2up I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 2. 1916] v. 2. Cartography: an essay on the development of knowledge regarding the geography of the east coast of North America; Manhattan Island and its environs on early maps and charts / by F.C. Wieder and I.N. Phelps Stokes. The Manatus maps. The Castello plan. The Dutch grants. Early New York newspapers (1725–1811). Plan of Manhattan Island in 1908
** [https://archive.org/stream/iconographyofman_b03stok#page/n11/mode/2up I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 3. 1918] v. 3. The War of 1812 (1812–1815). Period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815–1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842–1860). The Civil War (1861–1865); period of political and social development (1865–1876). The modern city and island (1876–1909)
** [https://archive.org/stream/iconographyofman_a04stok#page/n13/mode/2up I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 4. 1922]; v. 4. The period of discovery (565–1626); the Dutch period (1626–1664). The English period (1664–1763). The Revolutionary period, part I (1763–1776)
** [https://archive.org/stream/iconographyofman05stok#page/n13/mode/2up I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 5. 1926]; v. 5. The Revolutionary period, part II (1776–1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction New York as the state and federal capital (1783–1811). The War of 1812 (1812–1815); period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815–1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842–1860). The Civil War (1861–1865); Period of political and social development (1865–1876). The modern city and island (1876–1909)
** [https://archive.org/stream/iconographyofman06stok#page/n13/mode/2up I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 6. 1928]; v. 6. Chronology: addenda. Original grants and farms. Bibliography. Index.
* Virga, Vincent, ed. ''Historic Maps and Views of New York'' (2008)

===Further viewing===
* ''[[New York: A Documentary Film]]'': an eight part, 17{{sfrac|1|2}}&nbsp;hour documentary film directed by [[Ric Burns]] for [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]. It originally aired in 1999 with additional episodes airing in 2001 and 2003.

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* {{cite web |url=http://library.columbia.edu/subject-guides/nyc_hist.html |title=New York City History |work=Research Guides |author=Columbia University Libraries |location=New York |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |access-date=February 6, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223130606/http://library.columbia.edu/subject-guides/nyc_hist.html |archive-date=February 23, 2014 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=http://nyu.libguides.com/nyc |title=New York City |work=Research Guides |author=New York University Libraries |publisher=[[New York University]] |access-date=February 6, 2014 |archive-date=February 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222052505/http://nyu.libguides.com/nyc |url-status=dead }}
*[http://www.gothamcenter.org Gotham Center for New York City History]
*[http://www.mcny.org/ Museum of the City of New York]
*[http://www.nyhistory.org/ New-York Historical Society]
* Boston Public Library, Map Center. [http://maps.bpl.org/explore/location/new-york-ny-7 Maps of NYC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515151029/http://maps.bpl.org/explore/location/new-york-ny-7 |date=May 15, 2013 }}, various dates
* {{cite web |url=http://www.nypl.org/research_guides/833 |title=Urban Affairs |work=Research Guides |publisher=[[New York Public Library]] }}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=New York City|volume=19|pages=610–624}}
*[https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject Select "New York City" value to browse NYC Maps (satyrical, political, pictorial)  from 1883 to 1984 at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection], [[Cornell University Library]].

{{New York City}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of New York City| ]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]