View source for History of Tokyo

{{short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
[[File:Tokyo special wards map.svg|thumb|300x300px|Tokyo's [[Special wards of Tokyo|23 special wards]], one part of the Tokyo Metropolis prefecture]]
The '''history of Tokyo''', Japan's capital prefecture and largest city, starts with archaeological remains in the area dating back around 5,000 years. Tokyo's oldest temple is possibly [[Sensō-ji]] in [[Asakusa]], founded in 628. The city's original name, [[Edo]], first appears in the 12th century. From 1457 to 1640, [[Edo Castle]] was constructed, and was the city's center. 

[[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], after finishing his conquest of [[Honshu]] [[Battle of Sekigahara|in 1600]], chose Edo as a new capital. Japan's monarchy at [[Kyoto]] became a symbolic entity, as the country's real power was given to Edo's [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. By the 1650s, it became Japan's largest city, and by 1720, it was the world's largest. The [[Great Fire of Meireki]] in 1657 killed around 108,000 people.

After the [[opening of Japan]] in 1854, there was conflict over Japan's governance. This led to the [[Boshin War]] and [[Meiji Restoration]]: the [[Fall of Edo|shogunate was dissolved]], and the imperial monarchy's powers were restored at Edo, renamed Tokyo. In the 20th century, city was destroyed by the [[1923 Great Kantō earthquake|Great Kanto earthquake]] and the [[Bombing of Tokyo|Allied bombings]] during [[World War II]]. Over 100,000 people died in the U.S.' [[Bombing of Tokyo (10 March 1945)|Operation Meetinghouse]]. 

After Japan [[Surrender of Japan|surrendered to America]] in 1945, America [[Occupation of Japan|occupied the city]] until 1952. The post-war [[Japanese economic miracle]] and the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] allowed the city to rebuild and grow. The city's transportation needs were met by the interlocking of the [[Tokyo Metro]], [[Toei Subway]], and [[Shinkansen]]. In 1990, the country entered a period of economic stagnation called the [[Lost Decades]]. The [[COVID-19 pandemic in Tokyo|COVID-19 pandemic]] scaled back the [[2020 Summer Olympics]]. Defined by United Nations estimates, Tokyo was the [[List of largest cities|world's largest city]] in 2018 with 37,468,000 people. Judged by [[city proper]], it was the 12th largest, with 13,515,271.

== Pre-Tokugawa period ==
{{Main article|Edo}}[[File:YayoiJar.JPG|thumb|240x240px|A jar from the [[Yayoi period]] (300 BC to 300 AD) found in Kugahara, [[Ōta, Tokyo|Ōta]]]]
The site of Tokyo has been inhabited since ancient times.<ref name=":6" /> The original inhabitants might have been the indigenous [[Ainu people]], who theoretically conquered all of modern Japan before the Japanese subsumed them. The theory they were in [[Kantō region|Kanto]] is based on Ainu place names found in and near Tokyo.<ref name=":362">Nouet, Mills 1990, pp. 15–17.</ref> At the [[Ōmori Shell Mound|Ōmori Shell Midden]] site in modern-day [[Ōmori]], a collection of pottery, worked bones, and a clay tablet were dated to be 5,000 years old, in the [[Bronze Age]]. At [[Yayoi-zaka]] near modern [[Nezu Station]], [[Yayoi period]] grains of charred rice and chaff were found, making it the oldest agricultural site in Tokyo. The 4th century [[Horaisan Kofun]] in Tanagawa is Tokyo's oldest tomb. The 5th century [[Noge Otsuka]] in [[Todoroki Station (Tokyo)|Todoroki]] is a 5th century tomb from the Middle [[Kofun period|Kofun culture]]. Around the tomb's hill, various objects from that time imply the location was the resting place of a powerful chieftain of the southern [[Musashino, Tokyo|Musashino]] area.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Mansfield 2009, pp. 22–23.</ref> Early pots were used to store nuts, scavenged from early inhabitants' [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyles. Hunting and gathering decreased over time as the Tokyo peoples started growing food in areas closer to home.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 11.</ref>

Kanto was a well-irrigated piece of flatland ideal for the cultivation of rice, and protected from coastal invaders from mainland Asia.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":5" /> The three villages that formed the small fishing village of [[Edo]], Tokyo's earliest form, started around the [[Sumida River|Sumida]], [[Arakawa River (Kantō)|Arakawa]], and [[Edogawa River|Edogawa]] rivers. These areas are highly-prone to natural disasters, which would be a common sight in the area's history. Early Korean communities were present at the Sumida area.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=11 January 2024 |title=Tokyo {{!}} Japan, Population, Map, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tokyo |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> The [[Tama River]] was an important location for farming, and there is evidence there of large-scale irrigation works which created a food abundance. There are sixty early grave mounds around the middle and lower Tama reaches, including Horaisun Kofun.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 12.</ref>[[File:Dai Nippon Kinryū-zan no Zu, Aōdō Denzen, 1809.jpg|thumb|330x330px|An 1809 etched print of the [[Sensō-ji|Senso-ji]] temple, before it was firebombed during [[World War II]] and rebuilt]]On 18 March, 628, fisherman and brothers Hinokuma and Hamanari Takenari allegedly caught a gold statue of [[Kannon]], the Goddess of Mercy, from the Sumida. They gave it to their liege, Haji-no-Nakamoto, who decided to enshrine the statue. The location would be the [[Asakusa]] Kannon temple, or [[Sensō-ji]], which may be Japan's earliest religious temple, completed in 645. Sensō-ji was firebombed during [[World War II]]; when the main hall's remains were excavated, 7th and 8th-century "religious implements and tiles of continental Asian origin" were found. This hints at the statue possibly being of Korean origin. The temple was later rebuilt and served as a spiritual symbol of Japan's resurgence post-war.<ref name=":5">Mansfield 2016, pp. 10–15.</ref>

In 646, the upland region of Tokyo was recorded as [[Musashi Province|Musashi]], likely coming from the Ainu word ''muzasi'' (wilderness of weeds). In the 8th century, Musashi had a governor who lived in [[Fuchū, Tokyo|Fuchu]]. A road was opened from Kozuke (modern [[Gunma Prefecture]]) to Fuchu through an uninhabited plain. Sometime in the 8th century, Koreans moved into the plain, evident in the site name Komagori, near modern [[Hannō]].<ref>Clements 2020, p. 15.</ref>

In 737, [[Emperor Shōmu|Emperor Shomu]] of [[Nara (city)|Nara]] ordered the construction of a [[Buddhism in Japan|Buddhist]] temple and monastery at every region the [[Yamato people]] live in. This led to the building of the [[Kokubunji, Tokyo|Kokubunji]] temple in modern west Tokyo, which has visible remnants today.<ref name=":362" />

=== Heian period ===
{{Further|Heian period}}
[[File:Taira no Masakado 01.jpg|thumb|[[Taira no Masakado]], who challenged the Emperor by becoming the effective ruler of [[Kantō region|Kanto]]]]
Tokyo's nature is described in [[Heian period|Heian]] writings, including the [[Man'yōshū|''Manyoshu'']], and in 880 [[Ariwara no Narihira]], who describes using a ferry to cross the Sumida. Narihira's poem about seagulls over the Sumida is likely the origin of the bird as one of Tokyo's symbols.<ref name=":36">Mansfield 2009, pp. 24–25.</ref>
 
In the 10th century, an imperial member of the [[Taira clan]], [[Taira no Masakado|Taira Makasodo]], started fighting his imperial-descending neighbors, notably the [[Minamoto clan]]. In 935, these quarrels turned into a war, and he also began fighting other Taira. In 938, his army took over a government base in a nearby province, effectively making him the overlord of the Kanto region, and a threat to the emperor's authority. He was killed in 940. The fighting between the Taira and Minamoto later grew into a [[Genpei War|full civil war]].<ref>Clements 2020, pp. 15–17.</ref>

By the 11th century, Kanto was home to new colonists, including the [[Shibuya clan]], who made a stronghold that became the namesake for the modern [[Shibuya]] district.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 18.</ref> The royal [[Sugawara no Takasue no musume|Lady Sarashima]], wrote in ''[[Sarashina Nikki]]'' about moving from [[Kyoto]] (Japan's then-capital<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 February 2024 |title=Kyoto {{!}} Japan, Map, History, Geography, & Points of Interest {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyoto-Japan |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>) to a northwest province in 1120. She describes nature similar to Tokyo, and mentions a location named [[Takeshiba Station|Takeshiba]], which is theorized to be in modern day [[Mita, Minato, Tokyo|Mita]]. Around this time, the area's rival clans divided the land amongst themselves. These areas were ''shoen''.<ref name=":362" /><ref name=":36" />

By the 12th century, a medieval society had formed around Tokyo, ran by a bureaucratic aristocracy described by author [[Stephen Mansfield]] as being incompetent. It was located in Musashino's Kuku domain. The ''kuku-fu'' (provincial capital) was at Fuchu. The name Edo was first used around this time. It likely meant "door to the cove" or similar,<ref>Clements 2020, p. 19.</ref> referring to [[Edo Bay]]. The first recorded use of the word was when a man named [[Edo Shiro Shigetsugu|Chichibu Shigetsugu]] changed his first name to Edo. He likely named himself after his home, a mound by the sea at [[Kōjimachi|Kojimachi]]. A 12th century lord [[Imai Kanehira]] also lived at the Shigetsugu residence.<ref name=":362" /><ref name=":36" /><ref name=":20">Mansfield 2016, p. 16.</ref>

A Minamoto member of the Imperial Court, [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]], broke away from the court in 1180. At [[Kamakura]], south of Edo, he set up Japan's first [[shogun]]ate, a feudal lord system of governance that followed a warrior code. One of his vassals was [[Edo Shigenaga]], Shigetsugu's son. Shigenaga was rewarded by the shogunate with patches of land around Edo, including the village [[Kitami Station (Tokyo)|Kitami]]. In 1185, the Minamoto [[Battle of Dan-no-ura|defeated the Taira]].<ref name=":362" /><ref name=":20" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2024 |title=Minamoto Yoritomo {{!}} Facts, History, & Kamakura Shogunate {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Minamoto-Yoritomo |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":65">Clements 2020, pp. 23–25.</ref> A road from Kamakura to Edo, and the Kozuke-Fuchu road, were used by armed bands on their way to fight battles in the Middle Ages.<ref name=":362" />

=== Kamakura and Muromachi periods ===
{{Further|Kamakura period|Muromachi period}}

After 1185, a Minamoto branch that settled in Kozuke would eventually become the [[Tokugawa family|Tokugawa clan]], who ruled Edo from the 17th to the 19th centuries.<ref name=":362" />

Around 1439, the [[Uesugi clan]] in Kanto was made up of two families: the Yamanouchi and Ogigayatsu, who switched been being allies or enemies. The Yamaouchi gained control of the Kanto governor who lived in Kamakura, and the Ogigayatsu supported them.  [[Ōta Dōkan]] was appointed in 1455 as a vassal to the Ogigayatsu head [[Ogigayatsu Sadamasa|Sadamasa]], who served Kyoto's [[Ashikaga shogunate]]. Sadamasa commissioned him to build camp-like "castles" across the Musashi plain. In 1456, entering Edo, the Edo family still living there left, avoiding a fight with the Uesugi. They moved to their property in Kitami, giving their land and castle to Dōkan.<ref name=":65" /><ref name=":33">Nouet, Mills 1990, pp. 17–20.</ref><ref name=":14">Mansfield 2016, p. 20.</ref><ref>Mansfield 2009, p. 27.</ref>[[File:Outa Doukan.jpg|thumb|[[Ōta Dōkan|Ōta Dokan]], who built the start to [[Edo Castle]]|left|237x237px]]
[[Edo Castle]] began construction in 1457 at the modern [[Kokyo|Imperial Palace]]'s East Garden. It was west of the Edo village, at the [[Chiyoda, Tokyo|Chiyoda]] peasant village. The castle was in a strategic spot, as it was defensible and near the multiple rivers' estuaries. Boats could anchor near the castle.<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":34" /><ref name="naito2" /> The Chiyoda peasants were moved away for construction. At the time, the castle was more of a square camp with "earthen embankments" featuring landscaping projects, fences, a few buildings, and wells.<ref name=":33" /> Shrines and temples were built nearby, and the dock turned into a center for Chinese goods.<ref name=":34">Mansfield 2016, p. 19.</ref><ref name="naito2">Naito, Akira. [http://web-japan.org/nipponia/nipponia25/en/feature/index.html "From Old Edo to Modern Tokyo: 400 Years"], ''Nipponia.'' No. 25, 15 June 2003; retrieved 18 July 2011</ref> The name Chiyoda was later given to an area in Tokyo's center.<ref name=":33" />

After 1458, Dōkan stayed in the Edo region, conquered the plain, and gained a correspondence with the emperor. At the time, the villages of [[Hibiya]], [[Iigura Station|Iigura]], Iwaida, Mita, [[Sakurada Gate|Sakurada]], [[Shiba, Tokyo|Shiba]] and Takarada were present. The suffixes ''ta'' or ''da'' in Japanese place names implies [[History of rice cultivation|rice cultivation]].  At some point, Dōkan had the [[Hachiman shrine]] built on the [[Ichigaya]] hill. A second shrine was built next to Hachiman, likely honoring his family, as their [[mon (emblem)]], the [[Platycodon|kikyo flower]], is present. In the late 15th century, the Yamanouchi and Ogigayatsu fought. Dōkan was loyal to Sadamasa, but Sadamasa was suspicious and jealous of him. In 1486, Sadamasa invited Dōkan to his house and murdered him. Dōkan's tomb is in the Doshoin temple near [[Mount Ōyama (Kanagawa)|Mount Oyama]]. He is considered Edo's founder, and there are multiple monuments to him at Tokyo City Hall and the Imperial Palace.<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":14" /> The Ōta clan survived as minor nobles for 300 years after.<ref name=":65" />

==== Later history ====
The plains were not safe for travelers. The bandit [[Owada Dogen]] gained a dangerous reputation there. However, villagers in Shibuya likely had sympathy for him, as he was a fugitive from a 1526 battle that ended the Shibuya clan. A hill was named ''[[Dōgenzaka]]'' after him, which is now a street in Shibuya.<ref name=":20" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Enbutsu |first=Sumiko |date=2 December 2005 |title=History rises up in Shibuya |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2005/12/02/travel/history-rises-up-in-shibuya/ |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

The Uesugi conflict led to the [[Hōjō clan|Hojo clan]] gaining power in Kanto. In 1524, at [[Kawagoe, Saitama|Kawagoe]], Hojo Oitsuna fought against [[Uesugi Tomooki|Uesugi Tomo]], and [[Siege of Edo|captured Edo Castle]]. The castle later belonged to the [[Koga family]]'s [[Ashikaga Shigeuji]], and then the Hojo again. The Hojo's representative at Edo was Toyama Kaganao. In 1563, Ōta Dōkan's great-grandson failed an attempt to recapture the castle. For a long time, the castle stayed Hojo property.<ref name=":33" />
[[File:Tokugawa Ieyasu2.JPG|thumb|Tokugawa Ieyasu, who made Edo the capital of Japan]]

=== Azuchi-Momoyama period ===
{{Further|Azuchi–Momoyama period}}
From 1560 to 1582, [[Oda Nobunaga]]'s army overthrew the Ashikaga Shogunate, and unified half of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 2024 |title=Oda Nobunaga {{!}} Biography, Significance, & Death {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Oda-Nobunaga |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> He did not seem to have interest in Edo. Nobunaga's successor, [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], continued Nobunaga's conquests. Hideyoshi and his army's commander, the [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], took control of the Hojo in 1589.<ref name=":16" /> Hideyoshi unexpectedly gave Ieyasu the gift of Hojo territories in Kanto as a fief, if Ieyasu gave him his territories in the south. This was an attempt to neutralize Ieyasu as a potential threat by moving him away from Kyoto. In 1590,<ref>Nouet, Mills 1990, p. 21.</ref><ref name=":35" /><ref name=":66">Clements 2020, pp. 25–26.</ref> [[Tokugawa Ieyasu|Ieyasu]] visiting Edo was considered crucial to the city's legitimacy.<ref name=":66" /> In 1598, after Hideyoshi died, there was struggle to be shogun between Ieyasu and Hideyoshi's vassals. Ieyasu won at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in 1600. Ieyasu started building a new government's capital in Edo. He dictated the social structure Mansfield calls "the most well-managed feudal society the world has ever known".<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |date=27 January 2024 |title=Tokugawa Ieyasu {{!}} Shogun of Japan, Unifier of Japan {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tokugawa-Ieyasu |access-date=15 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":35">Mansfield 2016, pp. 20–21.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Sekigahara {{!}} Summary, Facts, & Outcome {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Sekigahara |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Tokugawa period (17th century)==
{{Main article|Tokugawa shogunate}}{{Further|Edo period|Edo society}}
The Tokugawa period began when the Imperial Court appointed Ieyasu shōgun in 1603, starting the [[Tokugawa shogunate]].<ref name=":16" /> Japan's imperial seat and official capital remained in [[Kyoto]], but the Emperor was virtually powerless; Ieyasu was the effective ruler of Japan, and Edo became powerful as the capital.<ref name="naito2"/><ref>Nussbaum, "''Edo jidai''" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|p. 409|page=409}}</ref><ref name=":67">Clements 2020, p. 27.</ref>[[File:Edo social structure.svg|thumb|320x320px|A social hierarchy chart based on old academic theories. Such hierarchical diagrams were removed from Japanese textbooks after various studies in the 1990s revealed that peasants, craftsmen, and merchants were in fact equal and merely social categories.<ref name="tokyoshoseki">{{cite web|url=https://www.tokyo-shoseki.co.jp/question/e/syakai.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130175341/https://www.tokyo-shoseki.co.jp/question/e/syakai.html|script-title=ja:「士農工商」や「四民平等」の用語が使われていないことについて|language=ja|website=
[[Tokyo Shoseki]] |archive-date=30 November 2023|access-date=7 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="uki300823">{{cite web|url=https://www.city.uki.kumamoto.jp/2028316|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830135959/https://www.city.uki.kumamoto.jp/2028316|script-title=ja:第35回 教科書から『士農工商』が消えた ー後編ー 令和3年広報うき「ウキカラ」8月号|language=ja|website=[[Uki, Kumamoto]]|archive-date=30 August 2023|access-date=7 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="shimonoseki">{{cite web|url=https://www.city.shimonoseki.lg.jp/uploaded/attachment/58936.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606001503/https://www.city.shimonoseki.lg.jp/uploaded/attachment/58936.pdf|script-title=ja:人権意識のアップデート|language=ja|website=[[Shimonoseki]] |archive-date=6 June 2023|access-date=7 March 2024}}</ref> Successive shoguns held the highest or near-highest [[List of Japanese court ranks, positions and hereditary titles|court ranks]], higher than most court nobles.<ref name="kakaku">{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%AE%B6%E6%A0%BC-43286#|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307120204/https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%AE%B6%E6%A0%BC-43286|script-title=ja:家格|language=ja|website=
Kotobank |archive-date=7 March 2024|access-date=7 March 2024}}</ref>]]The Tokugawa political system rested on both feudal and bureaucratic controls, so Edo lacked a unitary administration. The social order was composed of warriors, peasants, artisans, and businessmen, the latter two classes organized in guilds. Businessmen were excluded from government office, so they made their own economic center of activity.<ref name="Edo 1974">[[Gilbert Rozman]], "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society". ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' (1974) 1(1): 91–112.</ref> Edo was harsh toward outcast groups. It imposed restrictions on people known as ''kawata'', ''eta'', and ''[[hinin]]'' (nonhuman). Officials created the [[Burakumin]] outcast order for all of Japan. Fear of "pollution" and "impurity" helped determine who was discriminated against.<ref>Gerald Groemer, "The Creation of the Edo Outcaste Order". ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 2001 27#2 pp. 263–293  [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3591967 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>Timothy P.  Amos, " Portrait of a Tokugawa Outcaste Community", ''East Asian History'' (2006) Issue 32/33, pp. 83–108</ref> Even in modern Japan, many descendants of burakumin are poor, and live in [[Arakawa, Tokyo|Arakawa]], [[Sumida, Tokyo|Sumida]], and [[Taitō|Taito]].<ref name=":19">Mansfield 2016, pp. 27–28.</ref>
To assure a peaceful succession, in 1605, Ieyasu chose his successors to be his son, [[Tokugawa Hidetada]], and his grandson, [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]].<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |title=Tokugawa Hidetada {{!}} Military leader, Edo period, Japan {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tokugawa-Hidetada |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In 1616, Ieyasu died, and was succeeded by Hidetada.<ref name=":16" /> Hidetada finished the shogun government structure, and continued Ieyasu's [[Christianity in Japan|ban on Christianity]], [[Martyrs of Japan|executing the first Christians]] under this law. To enforce the law, he made it so Westerners could only contact Japan at the cities of [[Nagasaki]] and [[Hirado, Nagasaki|Hirado]], [[Sakoku|banning them from the rest of the country]].<ref name=":21" /> In 1623, Hidetada retired, and was succeeded by Iemitsu. Hidetada, however, remained in power until he died in 1632. The daimyo no longer threatened the shogun's power, and Iemitsu strengthened himself by removing the emperor's remaining duties. He established criteria regarding how his government would be run.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokugawa Iemitsu {{!}} Edo Period, Political Reforms, Buddhism {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tokugawa-Iemitsu |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Early century development ===
The 176 ''[[fudai daimyō]]'' (inside lords) that supported Ieyasu in his campaign were allocated land near Edo castle to build estates on. The 68 ''[[tozama daimyō]]'' (other lords), nobleman who were not associates, lived in "peripheral zones", where they formed allegiances to survive.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":66" /> Around 70% of Edo's land was devoted to the residencies of daimyo and samurai. Temples and shrines accounted for 14%, leaving 16% for the commoners, a much larger class than the others. The merchants grew in wealth by building shops.<ref name=":17">Mansfield 2016, pp. 23–27.</ref> The service class rented homes in the back streets and alleys. Their homes, ''ura nagaya'' (rear long-houses), were made up of units. Each unit's living area was not much larger than 3 square meters. An entire family might live there, and single men often lived there to be closer to their countryside family. Those men worked lower-class jobs. Some of them were struggling ''[[Rōnin|ronin]]'' (masterless samurai).<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":71" /> Ronin were cast out of service for misdemeanors, or their masters were disgraced and stripped of privileges.<ref name=":72" /> Lower-class areas had communal facilities contained dumps, toilets, and wells, and had problems with heat and rats.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":71">Clements 2020, p. 37.</ref> The homes of wealthy merchants, shopkeepers, and temple lottery winners were superior, located on wider streets, and their roofs were somewhat fire-resistant.<ref name=":18">Mansfield 2016, p. 28.</ref> [[File:Tokugawa Seiseiroku 001.jpg|thumb|350x350px|A scene from the ''[[Tokugawa Seiseiroku]]'', showing an aspect of the ''[[sankin-kōtai]]'' system: the festive attendance day of daimyo at Edo Castle]]There was a system called ''[[sankin-kōtai]]'' (alternative residence), in which daimyo were required to live both in Edo and their home province. As a "divide-and-rule" strategy, half of the lords were required to travel from their home province to Edo once a year, and vice versa. Their returns and departures were met with celebrations. Daimyo were also supposed to leave their family permanently in Edo. On the main roads in Edo, barriers said "no women out, no weapons in".<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 22.</ref> The system contributed to making the city a military citadel.<ref name=":15">Mansfield 2016, p. 23.</ref>

==== City planning ====
Both the ''fudai'' and ''tozama'' daimyo had to supply "labor, funds, and materials" for construction projects, which altogether were ''tenka-fushin'' (construction of the realm). The construction of water systems and roads around the city eased the movement of "officials, merchants, and goods", and allowed more people to take pilgrimages to holy sites.<ref name=":17" />[[File:Edo P.jpg|thumb|350x350px|Folding screen view of Edo in the 17th century, showing Edo Castle on the upper right corner]]
Another way Ieyasu worked to defend the city was to create steep-walled alleys between the city and surrounding moats. Earth was taken from the [[Izu Peninsula]]. 3,000 ships carried the earth to the dock, and dragged to its proper location by teams of laborers using ox carts, aided by placing the rocks on seaweed and entertainers. The moats derived from the [[Kanda River]] (which is still the case). The concentration of water channels, estates and alleys formed a protective center around Edo Castle. The city seemed impenetrable, but nobody tested its strength.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> The castle's outer enclosures were completed in 1606,<ref>Nussbaum, "''Edo-jō''" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 167|page=167}}; Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). {{Google books|18oNAAAAIAAJ|''Annales des empereurs du japon,'' pp. 167–168.|page=167}}</ref> and was wholly completed in 1640. It was the city's most important location; Buddhist temples faced the castle, and it was at the center of most maps.<ref name=":17" /> This expansion caused the moving of Ieyasu's favorite shrine [[Kanda Shrine|to Kanda]].<ref name=":67" />

Three major areas started in the early shogunate: [[Harajuku]], [[Marunouchi]], and [[Shinjuku]]. Harajuku was an area for residencies of samurai retainers set up near a new protective garrison on the western road to town.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":69">Clements 2020, pp. 28–29.</ref> It was irrigated with a waterwheel from the Sumida, but the land was not very rewarding for farmers, who became impoverished. ''Marunouchi'' (within the moat) was named after 1635, when Edo Castle was expanding and many daimyo moved to homes between the castle walls and the moat. Others moved to the village of Yotsuya, the site of a watchtower on the road into town, which eventually became Shinjuku.<ref name=":69" />

==== Religion and development ====
[[File:Ueno Kan'ei-ji Pagoda 02.JPG|thumb|The five-story pagoda of [[Kan'ei-ji]], which was constructed during the reign of [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] and required the building of the ''Kimon'' (Devil's Gate)|267x267px]]
The city plan resembled the [[Taoism|Taoist]] [[Yin and yang|yin-yang]], which was also in [[Shinto]]. Chinese [[geomancy]] determined various city features; the east, home of the [[Azure Dragon|Cyan Dragon]], required a waterway that used the Sumida. The [[White Tiger (mythology)|White Tiger]]'s west needed a major highway, but this was already the [[Tōkaidō (road)|Tokaido road]]. The [[Vermilion Bird|Vermillion Bird]]'s south needed a pond, which became a surrogate of the Edo Bay. The [[Xuanwu (god)|Dark Warrior]] and [[Black Tortoise|Gembu]]'s north needed a mountain; [[Mount Fuji]] was used, but was located to the west. The whole city was built with a rotation of 90 degrees counter-clockwise, and later, the Ote-mon main gate of the castle was moved south to east. Other notable roads were the west [[Kōshū Kaidō|Koshu-kaido]], which ran from Edo to [[Nagano (city)|Nagano]] (its first stop was Shinjuku),<ref name=":24" /> the southwest Daisendo, and the northeast [[Nakasendō|Nakasendo]].<ref name=":17" />

In 1624, Tokugawa Hidetada asked [[Tenkai]] to construct a temple in the northeast corner of [[Ueno]]; that direction was the "source of evil", so to block it, the ''Kimon'' (Devil's Gate) was constructed. The temple would be [[Kan'ei-ji]]. Later shoguns continued building barriers there, and added 36 sub-temples. The evil was supposed to flow diagonally, but southeast of Kan'ei-ji, the [[Jōdo-shū]] temple [[Zōjō-ji|Zojo-ji]] was previously built in [[Shiba, Tokyo|Shiba]] in 1598. The Zojo-ji complex was large, surrounded by 48 sub-temples and the two shoguns' mausoleums.<ref name=":17" /> Many religious sects in the city, including ''[[Shugendō|Shu-gendo]]'' devoted themselves to worshipping Mount Fuji or its deities. The mountain was considered by many to be the closest peak to heaven, and in their temples worshiping mountain deities, a miniature Fuji was created for people to scale when they were unable to climb the actual mountain. Prayers were given from the miniatures' tops to the sun every "mountain-opening day".<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 30.</ref>[[File:100 views edo 042.jpg|left|thumb|A section of the [[Tamagawa Josui]] in an 1856 painting by [[Utagawa Hiroshige|Hiroshige]]|305x305px]]

==== Water systems ====
The eastern Hibiya inlet was filled in using dirt from the northern hill [[Surugadai]]. Landfills were created with dirt from the northern and western [[Yamanote and Shitamachi|Yamanote]] hills, and the Dosanbori Canal was created to move construction materials. The canal's construction was used by Ieyasu to test his supporters' loyalty, and to deplete the resources of his suspected rivals.<ref name=":17" /> Early attempts to bore wells only drew salt water, so the [[Kanda Josui]] was built. It was a 17-kilometer water system, made up of over 3,600 sub-aqueducts. The subterranean sections used hollowed-out timber to bring water to each well. This first became operational during the [[Kan'ei|Kanei era]], and was more advanced than the European water systems. The Kanda Josui later reached capacity, so the [[Tamagawa Josui]] was built in Tama from 1652 to 1654. It was 80 kilometers long and transported water from every part of the city. To improve water quality by stopping waste disposal in rivers, huts and latrines near the rivers were removed.<ref name=":17" />

=== Health and food ===
In a regular year, the Sumida River flooded twice, creating mud in nearby districts. The water systems created mosquitoes that infested Edo in the summer.<ref name=":18" /> A large fish market operated at Shiba. Just outside of the castle, the Yokkaichi (Fourth-day market) sold fish from [[Kamakura]].<ref name=":26">Mansfield 2016, p. 44.</ref> At fish markets, insects and rodents were common. This contributed to [[measles]], [[smallpox]], and [[beriberi]]. Beriberi was caused by nutritional deficiencies in the common diet, which consisted of only white rice. It was called the "Edo disease".<ref name=":18" /> The city's largest rice granaries were at [[Kuramae Station|Kuramae]], where rice from the domains stayed before going to the shogun. Rice merchants became wealthy. Meat was not usually eaten due to [[Buddhist vegetarianism|Buddhist beliefs]], but was used as a supposed elixir, and could be bought at the [[Yotsuya]] hunter's market, or at butcher's shops near "Komadome Bridge".<ref name=":26" />

=== Death and crime ===
[[File:Nihonbashi bridge.jpg|thumb|280x280px|[[Nihonbashi Bridge]], in a c. 1838–1842 painting by Hiroshige]]
Honorable citizens were buried in family graves at temples, but criminals were executed. Generally, executions were performed at the city prison in [[Kodenmacho Station|Kodenmacho]], but crucifixions and burnings at the stake were done at [[Shinagawa]]'s [[Suzugamori execution grounds]], where 150,000 died before the practice stopped in the mid-19th century. Some execution grounds were by the Tokaido road, warning the travelers. Another location was the northeast [[Kozukappara execution grounds|Kotsukappara execution grounds]], opened in 1651 near [[Minami-Senju Station|Minami Senju]]. 200,000 heads were displayed on stakes there. The groups who disposed of bodies, honorable or dishonorable, were the ''hinin'' and ''eta''. Their descendants were burakumin.<ref name=":19" />

Built in 1603,<ref name=":68">Clemens 2020, p. 28.</ref> [[Nihonbashi Bridge]] was the starting point for the Tokaido road, and thus [[Edo Five Routes|many major trunk roads]]. It became the zero point for distance measurements. The bridge's ends had important bulletin boards. Adulterers and sexual offenders were placed in [[fetters]] at the south end. Nearby, murderers were buried with their heads protruding from the ground. A saw was placed nearby, and anyone could use the saw to sever a head, which would be placed at a pike on the bridge. These methods effectively deterred crime.<ref name=":68" /><ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 32.</ref> The nearby area would become a trade district under the [[Mitsui family]]'s leadership.<ref name=":68" />

=== Disasters ===
[[File:Meireki fire.JPG|thumb|360x360px|An 1814 handscroll depicting the [[Great Fire of Meireki]]]]
The [[Great Fire of Meireki]], started on 18 January 1657. It spread because of Japan's dry winter winds and the city's wooden structures. It started in the morning, at an [[exorcism]] at the [[Honmyō-ji|Honmyo-ji]] temple in [[Hongō, Tokyo|Hongo]], for a [[kimono]] that had been worn by three women who died prematurely. Wind brought fire from the kimono to the roof of a nearby temple. Powerful westerly winds blew the fire to [[Surugadai|Surugudai]] and [[Yushima Station (Tokyo)|Yushima]], and then Asakusa, Kobickicho, [[Nihonbashi]], and [[Tsukudajima]]. That fire burned out, but a second in [[Koishikawa]], the samurai district, went on to destroy Edo Castle and many warriors' residences. The prisoners at the Kodenmacho prison and authorities struck a deal that the prisoners would be released, and they meet up at a nearby temple. After they were released, other authorities thought the prisoners were trying to escape and loot the city. The city gates were closed, trapping civilians inside. That evening, the [[Kōjimachi|Ko-jimachi]] quarter had more fires. The fires continued for a second day. Rice was distributed to citizens from the shogun's granaries. A day later, it snowed, and many people died of starvation (despite the distribution of rice) and [[hypothermia]]. Two-thirds of the city's buildings were destroyed: 1,200 merchants' homes, 930 daimyo residencies, 350 temples and shrines, and 61 bridges. 108,000 people died.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 32–33.</ref><ref>Clements 2020, p. 33.</ref>

[[Fires in Edo|Edo's fires]] were named ''Edo no hana'' (flowers of Edo).<ref name=":23" /> In 1688, another fire in Edo lasted for 45 days,<ref>Titsingh, {{Google books|18oNAAAAIAAJ|p. 414.|page=414}}</ref> and an earthquake and fire both occurred in 1694.<ref name=":27">Mansfield 2016, p. 45.</ref>

=== Late century development ===
{{See also|Genroku period}}
Yotsuya was renamed ''Shinjuku'' (new lodge) after the fire, because it was a "new lodge" for many people who had their homes destroyed in the fire and needed to move to Yotsuya, which remained unharmed.<ref name=":69" />

The city was rebuilt with wider streets and [[firebreak]]s, and merchants were made to fireproof their homes and stores with plaster. Lumberyards were moved from [[Hatchōbori Station (Tokyo)|Hatchobori]] to the [[Fukagawa, Tokyo|Fukagawa]] marsh, seen as less incendiary. This led to land reclamation, new docks and storage yards, and the shitamachi moving further east. Burnt dirt from Meireki and other fires were used to reclaim marshes.<ref name=":23" /><ref>Clements 2020, p. 35.</ref> Rebuilding made lumber tycoons like [[Kinokuniya Bunzaemon|Bunzaemon Kinokuniya]] significant money. The [[On Top and Beneath Ryōgoku Bridge|Ryogoku Bashi]] bridge was built over the Sumida River, starting development in the city's east. Expansion meant formerly rural areas were now urban. Between Nihonbashi Bridge and the neighboring Edobashi Bridge, Edobashi Road became the site of much activity.<ref name=":23">Mansfield 2016, pp. 33–34.</ref>[[File:List of Famous Edo Places by Utagawa Hiroshige c1860.jpg|left|thumb|269px|This 1858 map shows the ''[[Yamanote and Shitamachi|yamanote]]'' western district (at top) and the ''[[Yamanote and Shitamachi|shitamachi]]'' eastern district (at bottom). [[Nihonbashi]] is at center]]

By the 1650s, Edo reached a population of 500,000, becoming Japan's largest city. Immigrants came from elsewhere in Japan. As the areas surrounding the central citadel grew, two notable communities formed: the [[Yamanote and Shitamachi]]. Two shitamachi communities were [[Nihonbashi]] and [[Kyōbashi, Tokyo|Kyobashi]]. Nihonbashi's large commodities store built in 1662, [[Shirokiya]], became [[Tokyu Department Store]].<ref name=":22">Mansfield 2016, pp. 30–31.</ref><ref>Mansfield 2009, p. 16.</ref> Some new residents in the city were foreigners. From 1660 to 1790, [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] traders, restricted to Nagasaki's [[Dejima]] island, were forced to make annual delegatory trips to Edo, and perform certain ceremonies when they arrived. After 1790, tributaries had to be sent every four years. The Dutch were also required to send an annual report on world events, which continued until the mid-19th century, when Japan [[Opening of Japan|opened themselves to foreigners]].<ref name=":22" />

One notable figure then was [[Yaoya Oshichi]], a grocer's daughter who became a folk hero. Elements of her story were fabricated over time. After a fire broke out near her parents' home in the winter of 1682, her family's shop was destroyed, and they moved to the [[Enjō-ji|Enjo-ji]] temple, which Oshichi loved. After Oshichi had to return home, she lit her house on fire, hoping to go back to Enjo-ji. She was put in jail. Unable to live apart from Enjo-it, she lied about being older to receive a death sentence, and got attention during her procession to Suzugimori.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 34–35.</ref>

=== Red light districts ===
{{Further|Yoshiwara}}{{Multiple images
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Yoshiwara Map Edo by Utagawa Hiroshige II July 1860.png
| caption1          = Tōto Shin-Yoshiwara ichiran (View of Shin-Yoshiwara in the Eastern Capital), an 1860 painting by [[Hiroshige II]]
| total_width       = 340
}}

After the Meireki Fire, the city attempted to dissolve theaters and the [[Yoshiwara]] red light district ("venues of moral degeneration") by moving them from Asakusa, east of the castle, to the northeast. However, they could be reached via ''[[Choki-bune|chokibune]]'' boat rides from Yanagibashi, and through the Kanda River and Sanya Canal. For ease and economic purposes, entrepreneurs turned Yoshiwara into an unlicensed city district. The area was open at night, which benefited brothel owners. Officials did not like how the district became a social leveler, as the class-based social codes of the time did not apply there for men. The only requirement for entry was an admission fee, and [[Kasa (hat)|amagasa]] hats were sold to hide people's identities.<ref name=":24" /><ref>Clements 2020, p. 39.</ref>

The number of prostitutes there was 4,000 by 1780, and 7,000 by 1868. There were classes of prostitutes. The lower-ranking classes were the ''jiroro'' and the ''sancha''. The higher-ranking ''tayu'' were much more skilled, fashionable and conversational. Prostitutes often received [[sexually-transmitted diseases]]. When they died, they were not widely mourned, and many were buried in an unmarked grave at the [[Jōkan-ji|Jokan-ji]] temple in [[Minowa Station|Minowa]], a northern working-class district. Their bodies were dumped over a wall into the temple by brothel staff.<ref name=":24">Mansfield 2016, pp. 35–38.</ref><ref>Clements 2020, p. 43.</ref>

At [[Fukagawa, Tokyo|Fukugawa]], east of the city and outside its jurisdiction, new warehouses and lumberyards lead men to vastly outnumber women. This created the market for shops and teahouses staffed by prostitutes. Lower-ranking prostitutes lived in the district's back streets, and displayed themselves in windows.<ref name=":24" /> Fukugawa only flourished in the 1800s decade. By then, it was associated with the lower-class and Yoshiwara, the upper-class.<ref name=":29">Mansfield 2016, pp. 53–54.</ref> A red light district in Shinjuku operated from 1698 to 1718, when it closed down. This shut down the town. It reopened 50 years later, eventually becoming one of the city's more prominent districts.<ref name=":24" />

=== Art and entertainment ===
[[File:Torii Kiyomasu - Ichikawa Danjuro I in role of Takenuki Goro.jpg|thumb|A [[Torii Kiyomasu]] painting of [[kabuki]] actor [[Ichikawa Danjūrō I|Ichikawa Danjuro I]] playing [[Soga Tokimune]]. This was likely one of the most popular ukiyo-e [[actor prints]]|342x342px]]Yoshiwara was home to young artists, and became a "center of alternative culture", creating new fashion styles. One of the artists was the early [[ukiyo-e]] artist [[Hishikawa Moronobu|Hishikawa Monorobu]]. Another artist who depicted Edo street life was [[Suzuki Harunobu]].<ref name=":25">Mansfield 2016, pp. 38–39.</ref> There was a growing literary scene in the late century, as paper was cheaper and more people could read. Major booksellers first appeared in 1650, and published many fiction and nonfiction genres, including [[Confucianism|Confucian]] works. Physicians bought books about the West's medical advancements. Two major writers were [[Matsuo Bashō|Matsuo Basho]] and [[Ihara Saikaku|Saikaku]].<ref name=":49" /><ref>Clements 2020, pp. 47–48.</ref> Books could either be bought expensive at book stores, or rented cheap by traveling salesmen. By the 1830s, when the city had over 800 book sellers, literacy rates in Edo were one of the highest in the world.<ref name=":49">Mansfield 2016, pp. 41–42.</ref>

==== Live entertainment ====
[[Kabuki]] theater became popular. Initially performed by women, associated with prostitution, and transgressive, authorities despised kabuki.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 38–39, 50.</ref> The first kabuki theater opened in Nakabashi in 1624, but was close to the castle, so it had to be moved to Negicho (modern [[Ningyocho Station|Ningyocho]]), and then Sakaicho.<ref name=":25" /> Authorities could not get rid of kabuki.<ref name=":28">Mansfield 2016, p. 50.</ref> By 1714, there were three major theaters around Sakaicho, [[Ichimura-za]], [[Morita-za]], and [[Nakamura-za]]. As it became mainstream by the early 17th century, for various reasons, men started playing every role in kabuki. ''[[Kabukimono]]'' were men who stayed in theater outfits outside the theater, which delighted commoners and offended officials.<ref name=":25" /> One of the major actors was [[Ichikawa Danjūrō I|Ichikawa Danjuro I]], who played heroic and masculine characters, and is still praised by modern actors.<ref name=":25" />

For lower-class citizens like the Yoshiwara prostitutes, more affordable entertainment was available at ''[[yose]]'' (variety halls), which had comedians, dancers, jugglers, and storytellers.<ref name=":28" /> Similar were ''Hirokoji'' (open spaces), near main streets and bridges. The most important hirokoji was at the western end of the [[Ryōgoku Bridge|Ryogoku Bridge]] over the Sumida. Two other spaces were at the southeast corner of [[Shinobazu Pond]], and at Okuyama, a patch of land behind Senso-ji.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 42–43, 51.</ref>

== Tokugawa period (18th century) ==
By 1720, Edo became the world's largest city, with an estimated 1.3&nbsp;million people. The yamanote and shitamachi both had around 650,000; this highlights the disparity between the two groups, as the shitamachi had 16% of Edo's area.<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 52.</ref> Edo's lead in social change and economic growth impacted all of Japan during the Tokugawa era, attracted immigrants, and created new markets and a higher standard of living.<ref name="Edo 1974"/><ref>Foreign Press Center. (1997). Japan: Eyes on the Country, Views of the 47 Prefectures, p. 127.</ref>

Fukugawa became dependent on its waterways, as their economy was based on its warehouses and sale of oil, food, sake, fertilizer, and other commodities that had to be moved. Merchants from the adjacent [[Kiba Station|Kiba]] received lumber from Fukugawa's wharves.<ref name=":30">Mansfield 2016, p. 55.</ref>

=== Daimyo and warriors in the 17th and 18th centuries ===
In the 17th and 18th centuries, ronin roamed the city streets. They were involved in riots and brawls, and became a problem for the shogunate. In the 1790s, the shogun's councilor, [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]], created a detention center for ronin and general vagrants on the Sumida's artificial island of [[Tsukudajima]]. Losing money due to ''sankin-kōtai'', warriors devoted less time to martial arts and more time to relaxation. Low-ranking ''[[hatamoto]]'' (bannermen) were troublesome as groups in their free time. One group was the ''Shiratsuka-Gumi'' (White Hilt Gang), who formed in the 1640s and were eliminated by authorities by the end of the 17th century.<ref name=":72">Mansfield 2016, pp. 49–50.</ref>

==== ''Forty-seven ronin'' incident ====
{{Main article|Forty-seven rōnin}}[[File:HokusaiChushingura.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Hokusai's painting of the [[Forty-seven rōnin|47 ronin]] storming [[Kira Yoshinaka]]'s mansion]]

In the early 1700s, Lord [[Kira Yoshinaka]], who lived in [[Ryōgoku|Ryogoku]] next to the Sumida River, was appointed to teach Lord [[Asano Naganori]] about court ritual. Yoshinaka disliked this appointment, and did not receive some entitled gifts from the government. He provoked Naganori until he pulled out his dagger and struck Yoshinaka. This was punishable by death, and Naganori had to commit ''[[seppuku]]'' (ritual self-disembowelment). His family was disinherited, becoming ronin, and their estates were divided up. His elder councilor, [[Oishi Kuranosuke|Oishi Koranosuke]], planned his revenge on Yoshinaka with [[Forty-seven rōnin|46 other former Asano retainers]]. On 30 January 1703, the 47 ronin stormed Yoshinaka's mansion. They gave him the chance to commit seppuku. He refused, so Koranosuke beheaded him with Naganori's sword. The head was then brought to the [[Sengaku-ji]] temple and placed before Naganori's grave. The government ordered the ronin to commit seppuku, which they did on 4 February. The incident became an element of popular culture.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 47–49.</ref>
[[File:Picture of the upper class.jpg|left|thumb|Picture of the Upper Class, a c. 1794–1795 painting by Utamaro. The woman on the left is lower in class than the woman on the right, who wears more colorful clothes|293x293px]]

=== Laws ===

[[Edo neo-Confucianism]] was a popular philosophy, which partially came from the theory of [[Hayashi Razan]], a lecturer at [[Yushima Station (Tokyo)|Yushima]]'s Shoheizaka Institute of Learning. It focused less on Confucianism's [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] aspects, and more of how people should obey the state. It dictated many aspects of how people lived, moreso the lower-class. For example, higher-class people were allowed to wear colorful clothes, while lower-class people wore muted tones, to "promote their invisibility".<ref name=":29" /> Merchants were banned from living in two-story homes, and were moved to newly constructed [[mezzanine]] units. The lower-class were banned from owning certain luxury items. The ruling class pretended to have merchant-class wealth to suppress dissent, the merchant class pretended to have lower-class wealth to avoid punishment, and the lower classes ignored their restrictions as rebellion.<ref name=":31">Mansfield 2016, pp. 55–56.</ref>

Some freedoms were afforded to Edo's lower classes not afforded in other big cities. One example is how a person absent from the Census Register could live as a laborer in Edo, fitting in with outcasts.<ref name=":29" /> Class-based social structure started to break down by the mid-century. It was then possible for a lower-class samurai to marry a merchant-class woman.<ref name=":32">Mansfield 2016, p. 57.</ref>

The city then had two types of land ownership: ''bukechi'' and ''chochi''. Bukechi, the samurai system, was used for residential property. Sales and purchases were not allowed, so the value of a parcel of land was indeterminable. Chochi was the system used by merchants and craftsmen for both residential and commercial purposes. Chochi recognized private ownership, so land had a known value.<ref name="Andrew Fraser 1983 pp 131">Andrew Fraser, "Town-Ward Administration in Eighteenth-Century Edo", ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' (1983), Issue 27, pp. 131–141.</ref> Regarding administration, here was no central authority in Tokyo, but rather a complex system of local districts. Decision-making in each district was headed by two men, [[Machi-bugyō|''machi bugyo'']]. They issued orders to the next level of three full-time hereditary administrators, called ''toshiyori.<ref name="Andrew Fraser 1983 pp 131" />''

=== Disasters ===
[[File:The Big Fire of 1772, picture scroll from 1869, 1 of 3 - Edo-Tokyo Museum - Sumida, Tokyo, Japan - DSC06683.jpg|thumb|280x280px|An 1869 picture scroll of the 1772 [[Great Meiwa Fire]]]]
In 1703, there was [[1703 Genroku earthquake|an earthquake and fire]] in the city. A year later, there was flooding which led to disease outbreaks. In 1707, Mount Fuji [[Hōei eruption|erupted]]. The ash made it hard to see, so people used lanterns to move around. They protected themselves from embers by wearing wet cloths. Those in the shitamachi found it "almost impossible" to evacuate. Other were able to go to religious sites to pray for [[divine intervention]].<ref name=":27" /> In the year 1742, 4,000 died from storms and floods.<ref name=":30" /> In 1772, the [[Great Meiwa Fire]] killed an estimated 6,000.<ref>Iwao, Seiichi et al. (2002). Dictionnaire historique du Japon, p. 507.</ref> In 1791, typhoons and high tides destroyed the Fukugawa red light district.<ref name=":30" />

The city alternated between food abundance and scarcity. The lower classes rioted whenever rice was unavailable, and broke into rice granaries. A riot in the 1780s started after Nagano's [[Mount Asama]] erupted, which brought thousands of peasants into Edo. Starvation drove many people in Edo to commit suicide. During the Tempo era of 1830 to 1844, there was a distribution of emergency rice stock, which averted greater disorder.<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 59.</ref><ref name="Andrew Fraser 1983 pp 131" />

=== Art and entertainment ===
{{Multiple images
| image1            = Hokusai as an old man.jpg
| caption1          = [[Katsushika Hokusai]]
| image2            = Memorial Portrait of Utagawa Hiroshige (5765350019).jpg
| caption2          = [[Utagawa Hiroshige]]
| total_width       = 280
}}

One notable book was the Confucian text ''Kogiroku'' (Record of [[Filial piety]] and Ethical Righteousness), and a notable genre was [[Kibyōshi|''kibyoshi'']], adult comic books written mostly in [[hiragana]].<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 56.</ref> Laws like the [[Kansei Reforms|Kansai reforms]] censored certain books and disallowed commoners from writing fiction.<ref name=":49" />

Famous paintings of Edo by artists like [[Hokusai]], [[Hiroshige]], and [[Kuniyoshi]] were made in the 18th and 19th centuries. Hokusai painted landscapes, as well as the erotic ''[[shunga]]'' (spring pictures).<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 60–61.</ref><ref>Clements 2020, pp. 49–50.</ref> Various artists at the time criticized city society with their works. These included theater performers, the writer Napa Oto, popular novels with satirical prose called [[Senryū|''sen-ryu'']], and painters like Hokusai.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 55–60.</ref>

An annual celebration was the Festival of the River God, at the Sumidagawa Shrine by the Sumida's east bank. Near the end of May, a fireworks display known as ''kawa-biraki'' (river opening) was held on the river, initially intended somehow to cleanse the city of cholera.<ref name=":30" />

== Tokugawa period (19th century) ==
At Mukojima, on the Sumida's east bank, "private gardens, teahouses and temples" were visited by the era's leading artists, including [[Kameda Bōsai|Kameda Hosai]], [[Sakai Hōitsu|Sakai Hoitsu]], and [[Tani Bunchō|Tani Buncho]]. They also visited Sahara Kiky's [[Mukōjima-Hyakkaen Garden|Mukojima's Hyakka-en garden]]. Kiku and his artist friends, made a garden that associated itself with Japanese and Chinese literature. They enscribed stones that can still be read. By the end of the century, Mukojima would be packed with factories which ruined the local plants and water.<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 58.</ref>

City officials tried to combat the defiance of class-based social structure. The [[Tenpō Reforms|Tenpo Reforms]] were issued multiple times over to arrest non-compliant "writers, reformists, and liberal political figures".<ref name=":32" /> They banned many things, including displays of luxury, and female musicians and headdressers. The number of variety halls was reduced from over 500 to 15.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 61–62.</ref>[[File:Commodore Perry's second fleet.jpg|thumb|280x280px|[[Commodore (United States)|Commodore]] [[Matthew C. Perry]]'s fleet during his second visit to Tokyo in 1854|left]]

=== Perry Expedition and the opening of Japan ===
{{Main article|Perry Expedition}}
On 8 July 1853, American [[Commodore (United States)|Commodore]] [[Matthew C. Perry]] and his four [[Black Ships|steam-powered metal ships]] [[Perry Expedition|sailed into Edo Bay]], and demanded Japan open their port for trade. Japan responded with fear. In Ukiyo-e portraits, Americans were [[karasu-tengu]] (crow goblins). Nonetheless, Perry convinced them by presenting American goods like the telegraph and sewing machines, and the Japanese responded by showed the Americans good like lacquer boxes and teapots. After Perry visited again in 1854, the shogun opened Japan to foreigners, and give American control of Japanese tariffs to Western countries.<ref name=":37">Mansfield 2016, pp. 63–65.</ref>

The opening led to instability throughout the country. Mobs and "cultish" groups formed in Edo, causing unrest. In 1866, a sudden increase in rice prices caused riots. Rice was distributed to the people, but it did not stop ''yaonoshi'' ("reform the world") beliefs, which theorized a systematic attempt by outsiders to destroy Japan. To combat more Western influence, guns and [[odaiba]] forts were built at Edo Bay.<ref name=":37" /> In 1858, the [[Unequal treaty|Unequal Treaties]] were signed, which allowed the America, Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Russia, to be able to trade at Japanese ports. In 1859, [[Townsend Harris]] opened an American consulate at [[Hiroo Station|Hiro-o]]'s [[Zenpuku-ji]] temple, which was burned to the ground by imperialists who wanted to restore the monarchy's power. Harris was murdered. In 1861, the British consulate was attacked, and two years later, it was blown up.<ref name=":39">Mansfield 2016, p. 66.</ref>

=== Disasters ===
[[File:Kawaraban-of-1855-Ansei-Edo-earthquake.png|thumb|320x320px|A ''kawaraban'' (news broadsheet) depicting the damage of the [[1855 Edo earthquake|1855 earthquake]]]]
A tidal wave in 1854 destroyed most Fukugawa homes.<ref name=":30" /> There were two major earthquakes in 1854 and 1855;<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 65.</ref> the [[1855 Edo earthquake|1855 earthquake]]'s magnitude was 6.9 to 7.0M. There was significant damage, mostly at wealthier areas. "Daimyo Lane", near Edo Castle and containing major ''fudai daimyō'' mansions and government buildings, was severely damaged. Also damaged was Yoshiwara, and the recently built bayside guns (a sign of the shogun's power). Deaths were from 8,000 to 10,000. Government relief to the city's laborers was fast and generous, which art portrayed as a redistribution of wealth from the city's wealthy to the city's laborers. Because Yoshiwara was destroyed, the bakufu allowed to construction of brothels across Edo.<ref name="tegg1870">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofchro00over |title=Dictionary of Chronology |publisher=William Tegg |year=1870 |editor=William Henry Overall |editor-link=William Henry Overall |location=London |chapter=Jeddo |hdl=2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t9m32q949 |via=Hathi Trust}}</ref><ref name=":38">{{Cite web |title=The Ansei Edo Earthquake and Catfish Prints {{!}} Meiji at 150 Digital Teaching Resource |url=https://meijiat150dtr.arts.ubc.ca/essays/smits/#p0z-6r0f: |access-date=13 February 2024 |website=meijiat150dtr.arts.ubc.ca |language=en-US}}</ref> Fear there would be more disasters led to popularity of [[talisman]]s, and [[Namazu|''namazu-e'']] woodblock prints which featured catfish and were commentaries on the fear.<ref name=":37" /><ref>Smitts, Gregory. "Shaking up Japan: Edo Society and the 1855 Catfish Picture Prints", ''Journal of Social History'', No 39, No. 4, Summer 2006.</ref>

=== Fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate ===
{{Further|Boshin War}}{{Multiple images
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 320
| image1            = Sakuradamon incident 1860.jpg
| caption1          = The [[Sakuradamon Incident (1860)]]
| image2            = Battle of Ueno 4 July 1868.jpg
| caption2          = The [[Battle of Ueno]] in 1868
}}
On 24 March 1860, ''[[rōnin]]'' ''[[samurai]]'' of [[Mito Domain|Mito]] and [[Satsuma Domain|Satsuma]] assassinated [[Ii Naosuke]], ''[[Tairō]]'' (Chief Minister) of the shogunate. He was beheaded outside the [[Sakurada Gate]] of [[Edo Castle]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Ii Naosuke summary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Ii-Naosuke |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Ii had favored the opening of Japan, and signed the Unequal Treaties. This outraged many [[daimyo]], and Ii silencing them caused the assassination. His death led to instability in the shogunate.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>Cullen, Louis. (2003). ''A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds'', p. 184.</ref>

[[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]] became shogun in 1866. He attempted to get French military aid by surrendering his powers, expecting he would be present in a new Western-influenced power structure. On 3 January 1868, middle- and lower-ranking samurai from [[Chōshū Domain|Chōshū]], [[Satsuma Domain|Satsuma]], and [[Tosa Province|Tosa]] seized the palace in Kyoto and declared an Imperial restoration, ending the shogunate. Yoshinobu accepted the coup, but his advisers did not, which created a small civil war. [[Fall of Edo|Imperial forces marched to Edo]], and Yoshinobu told his troops to surrender to the coup.<ref>Nussbaum, "Tokugawa Yoshinobu" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|pp. 979–980|pages=979–980}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 January 2024 |title=Tokugawa Yoshinobu {{!}} Last Shogun of Japan, Meiji Restoration Leader {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tokugawa-Yoshinobu |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Despite this peaceful negotiation, at Ueno Hill, [[Shōgitai|Shogitai]] Tokugawa loyalists held a final stand against soldiers siding with the emperor. The [[Battle of Ueno|Shogitati were massacred]], mostly near the [[Kuromon (Tokyo)|Kuromon]] (Black Gate). The Kanei-ji temple, a symbol of the shogunate, was burned.<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 67.</ref>

==Meiji era==
{{Further|Meiji era|Empire of Japan}}[[File:MeijiJoukyou.jpg|thumb|260x260px|[[Emperor Meiji]], moving from [[Kyoto]] to Tokyo after the [[fall of Edo]] in 1868]] [[Emperor Meiji]] was brought from Kyoto to lead the [[Meiji Restoration]], which formed a new imperial government.<ref name=":40">{{cite journal |last=Steele |first=William |year=1990 |title=Edo in 1868: The View from Below |journal=[[Monumenta Nipponica]] |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=127–155 |doi=10.2307/2384846 |jstor=2384846}}</ref> In practice, he answered to reformist politicians like [[Itō Hirobumi|Ito Hirobumi]] and [[Ōkubo Toshimichi|Okubo Toshimichi]]. Japan had to decide how much tradition would carry over to a modernizing country.<ref name=":42">Mansfield 2016, p. 72.</ref> Edo was renamed Tokyo in July 1868, and Edo Castle became Tokyo Castle. The emperor moved there in 1869. Samurai were abolished, and they became servants. Meiji made government officials wear Western-style clothing in public. Buddhist ceremonies were removed from the palace.<ref name=":41">Mansfield 2016, pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1874, the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department]] was established.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2024 |title=Tokyo police mark 150th anniversary of founding |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/01/15/japan/crime-legal/tokyo-police-150-years/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> The poor played little role in the upheaval, but their cynical commentary on the transition appeared in writing.<ref name=":40" /> {{Historical populations|1870|590268|1880|712259|1890|1389684|1900|1580124|1910|2202079}}Artistocratic estates were turned into government buildings.<ref name=":41" /> Kanda Left Gate, a declining area of daimyo estates, was destroyed in an 1869 fire. The city tried to ward off future fires by placing the Akiba Jinja (Autumn Leaf Shrine) there. This led to the area being named [[Akihabara]] (Plain of Autumn Leaves).<ref>Clements 2020, pp. 63–64.</ref>

In Meiji's first few years, 50 to 60,000 ''shosei'' students, young and poor men, arrived in Tokyo, and many worked as servants to pay for school.<ref name=":43">Mansfield 2016, p. 73.</ref> ''Sankin-kōtai'' ended, so daimyo, their assistants, and other workers left the city, an estimated 360,000 people. This, and the warfare surrounding the Restoration, brought the population down from 1.3&nbsp;million in the early 19th century to about 500,000 in 1869. In the 1880s, there was a demographic resurgence from former samurai returning to Tokyo to work as servants, patrolmen, and teachers.<ref name=":41" /><ref name="Fujitani1996">{{cite book |last=Fujitani |first=Takashi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rX8HlYCd7_gC&pg=PA39 |title=Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-92098-9 |page=39}}</ref> New developments were made to house the peasants moving in from the countryside.<ref name=":41" /> The population reached two million in 1905.<ref name="David Peter Phillips 1888">David Peter Phillips, "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868–1888)." (PhD U. of Pennsylvania 1996; ''Dissertation Abstracts International'' (1996) 57#4 pp. 1879–1879.)</ref>

In 1877, [[Saigō Takamori|Saigo Takamori]], a leader of the shogunate's overthrow, tried to overthrow the Meiji government he considered weak. His army left for Tokyo from a city on the island of [[Kyushu]], but they were stopped before they could leave the island. He lost the ensuing war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saigō Takamori – Samurai, Meiji Restoration, Rebellion {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saigo-Takamori/Rebellion-against-the-imperial-government |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kagoshima {{!}} Satsuma Peninsula, Sakurajima, Shimazu Clan {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kagoshima-prefecture-Japan |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1878, the city was consolidated into 15 wards, which extended beyond the actual city into farmland.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 120.</ref>[[File:Tokio1896.jpg|thumb|A German map of Tokyo from 1896|left|293x293px]]

=== Meiji development ===

==== Urban planning ====

In the 1870s, the Meiji reformers dissolved the bukechi system, putting bukechi land under the chochi rules and thereby ending a large class division.<ref name="Andrew Fraser 1983 pp 131" />

In 1869 to 1871, officials experimented with the Fifty-Ward System to end the control of machi bugyo and toshiyori.<ref name="David Peter Phillips 1888" /> In 1871, the [[Abolition of the han system|feudal domain system was replaced]] by a [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectural system]], and Tokyo Prefecture was established out of parts of former Musashi Province.<ref name="Planet2015">{{cite book |title=Tokyo |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-74360-032-0 |edition=10th |chapter=Timeline |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3KMXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT490}}</ref> The Large and Small Ward System gave officials control over local decisions. Beautification and improving the infrastructure and services were emphasized. City planners spoke the language of progress. Japan's new commitment to modernization transformed older notions of cities and city planning practices.<ref name="David Peter Phillips 1888" /> The first Meiji decades revealed a lack of elite consensus about the proper path to modernity, but there was ultimately a marriage of the political motivations of the country's leaders with the modern urban needs for improved transportation networks and zoning mechanisms. Public opinion also mattered, and had a certain impact on how the planners put their theories and practice.<ref name="David Peter Phillips 1888" /> [[Oyatoi gaikokujin|''Oyatoi-gaikokujin'']] (foreign experts) were also used as advisors.<ref name=":46">Mansfield 2016, pp. 77–78.</ref>

==== Westernization ====
Elements of Western architecture were inserted into most Meiji architecture, first at the [[Tsukiji foreign settlement]]. It was the designated living space for foreigners in Edo, and contained [[Keio Gijuku (Gakkō Hōjin)|Keio Gijuku]], a school for Western studies created by [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]]. Yukichi would influence the Japanese government to become an "imperial power exercising regional hegemony at the expense of its subject peoples". The Edo Hotel opened there in 1868. It was mostly Japanese-style, but had European and [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|British Raj]] architectural influence. Many buildings of the time were shrunken to fit limited spaces, which gave them a "toy model appearance". Many foreigners left Tsukiji for [[Yokohama foreign settlement|Yokohama]] after the [[Ginza]] fire of 1872, leaving mostly Japanese consulate employees. After 1899, foreigners could live wherever they wanted. The foreigners at Tsukiji helped construct multiple schools that later evolved into universities in the area: [[Aoyama University|Aoyama]], [[Jochi University|Joshi]], [[Meiji Gakuin University|Meiji Gakuin]], and [[Rikkyo University|Rikkyo]], among others.<ref name=":45">Mansfield 2016, pp. 74–75, 83.</ref>[[File:Rokumeikan.jpg|left|thumb|280x280px|[[Rokumeikan]], a club mixing Japanese and European styles]]

Two of the important Western architects in the city were [[Charles Alfred Chastel de Boinville|Charles de Boinville]], who made the [[Imperial College of Engineering|Engineering College]], and [[Josiah Conder (architect)|Josiah Conder]], who made the hotel [[Rokumeikan]], [[Holy Resurrection Cathedral|Nikolai Cathedral]], and London Block, the new headquarters of [[Mitsubishi]].<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 78–79.</ref><ref>Clements 2020, pp. 65–66.</ref> The [[Ryōunkaku|Ryounkako]] was a shopping and entertainment center in Asakusa from 1890 until its destruction during the [[1923 Great Kantō earthquake|Great Kanto Earthquake]]. Designed by Scottish civil engineer [[W. K. Burton|W.K. Burton]], it was considered Tokyo's first skyscraper at 12 stories, and had Japan's first elevators.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 68, 81.</ref><ref name=":70">Clements 2020, pp. 72–73.</ref>

Modeled after European cities, Tokyo was made repository of cultural treasures from across Japan. For example, the [[Tokyo National Museum]] displayed representative items from the [[Hōryū-ji|Horyu-ji]] temple in [[Nara Prefecture]]. Museum creator [[Machida Hisanari]] used it to promote the monarchy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McDermott |first=Hiroko T. (Hiroko Takahashi) |date=1 January 2006 |title=The Hōryūji Treasures and Early Meiji Cultural Policy |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=339–374 |doi=10.1353/mni.2006.0033 |issn=0027-0741 |s2cid=143040238}}</ref>

Western standards also influenced two notable parks: a hill in the northern district was used for celebrations, and a parade ground next to the palace was turned into a recreational space. They were models for other parks around the city.<ref>Paul Waley, "Parks and Landmarks: Planning the Eastern Capital along Western Lines." ''Journal of Historical Geography'' (2005) 31#1 pp. 1–16.</ref> In 1882, [[Ueno Zoo]] opened.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 April 2018 |title=Ueno Zoo |url=https://www.timeout.com/tokyo/attractions/ueno-zoo |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Time Out Tokyo |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The Mitsui family's [[Mitsukoshi]] store took inspiration from American store [[Wanamaker's]] by promoting seasonal exhibitions. It inspired the stores Shirokiya and [[Takashimaya]], which opened in Ginza and Kyobashi, making those districts major retailing areas.<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 84–85.</ref>

==== Modernization ====
In 1869, telegraph lines between Shinbashi and [[Yokohama]] started operating.<ref name=":42" /> A telephone service started in 1877, and telephone-exchange operators were the first working women in the country.<ref name=":42" /> The [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]] opened in [[Kabutocho]] in 1878.<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 194.</ref> A new port was constructed in 1880.<ref name=":42" />

In 1872, a rail line opened between Shinagawa and Yokohama, which was an important innovation in a city mostly using horse-drawn carriages.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hornyak |first=Tim |date=10 October 2022 |title=Empire of steel: Where Japan's railways stand after 150 years of evolution |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/10/10/national/history/japan-railways-150-anniversary/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> 60 to 100,000 people were present at its opening ceremony. The line was extended to Shinbashi later that year.<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 85.</ref> In 1885, the first section of what was to become the [[Yamanote Line|Yamanote]] railway line opened between [[Akabane Station|Akabane]] and [[Shinagawa Station]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 March 2020 |title=How Tokyo's Yamanote Train Line Inspired a Unique Art Poster Project |url=https://www.tokyoweekender.com/art_and_culture/arts/how-tokyos-yamanote-train-line-inspired-a-unique-art-poster-project/ |website=Tokyo Weekender |language=en  |access-date=18 February 2024 }}</ref> In 1902, as the railway reached the site of Azuma Bridge, the area around it named itself Asakusa to associate it with the local Asakusa entertainment district.<ref name=":70" /> [[Ikebukuro Station]] opened on the Yamanote Line in 1903.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Koseki |first=Mari |date=10 September 2000 |title=Quake of '23 gave Ikebukuro its Bohemian roots |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2000/09/10/national/quake-of-23-gave-ikebukuro-its-bohemian-roots/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> In 1903, the first tram lines opened.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gilhooly |first=Rob |date=24 September 2000 |title=Otsuka goes to beat of a different drum |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2000/09/24/national/otsuka-goes-to-beat-of-a-different-drum/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

In 1872, the castle at the Army Headquarters complex caught on fire, and spread eastward, destroying thousands of buildings in Ginza. They used the rebuilding as an opportunity to modernize and westernize, which was important as it was located between Nihonbashi and the rail depot, [[Shinbashi]]. It eventually had "gas lamps, paved sidewalks, [[willow trees]], and telegraph poles", and was the home of the Ginza Black Quarter, a thousand buildings between Ginza and Kyobashi designed by architect [[Thomas James Waters|Thomas Walters]] to deter fires. However, poor ventilation meant the area was unbearable during summer heat. Many people left, returning once the government offered them subsidies.<ref name=":47">Mansfield 2016, pp. 75–76.</ref> Ginza became home to [[geisha house]]s (66 by 1912) and offices of the newspapers ''[[Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun]]'' and ''Yubin Hochi Shinbun'', who were advocates for democracy and criticized the government.<ref name=":46" />
[[File:Tokyo Imperial Palace pic 08.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A painting of the new [[Imperial Palace, Tokyo|Tokyo Imperial Palace]]]]
The new [[Imperial Palace, Tokyo|Imperial Palace]] was completed in 1889, which notably was in a classical Japanese style. The site was made up of wooden pavilions linked by covered passages and broken up by courtyard gardens. The emperor's residence was the first place in Japan to have electric light. The Meiji emperor built a grand image for himself. He would often appear to the public wearing a field marshal outfit. Worshipping him was mandated (a part of increasing [[Japanese nationalism]]), and at Shinto shrines, people listened to rites that linked his ancestors to the [[Son of Heaven]].<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 72, 82.</ref>

In 1897, the opening of freight wards in Sumida meant lodgings for its workers needed to be built. This led to the creation of the [[San'ya|Sanya]] ''[[Doyagai|doya-gai]]'' slums, the most famous slums in Tokyo.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 679–680.</ref>

=== Education ===
[[File:University of Tokyo. Faculty of law. Before 1902.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[University of Tokyo|Tokyo Imperial University]]'s law building before 1902]]
Tight control over education was exercised by the Ministry of Education.<ref name="M. Pierce Griggs 1997" /> In 1877, multiple government schools were merged into the [[University of Tokyo]], which led in Western-style study of science and technology. Consultants were brought in from Europe and the United States. [[Kikuchi Dairoku]], a mathematician educated in Britain, became president. By the 1880s, the university also became a political instrument of the government bureaucracy. Its scholars began to enter public debate as experts in many areas. Study of law developed rapidly at the school, and many of its alumni became bureaucrats.<ref name="M. Pierce Griggs 1997">M. Pierce Griggs, "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era".  (PhD U. of Chicago 1997.)</ref> Tokyo Vocational School, which later became the [[Tokyo Institute of Technology]], opened in 1881.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokyo Institute of Technology |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/tokyo-institute-of-technology-504950 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=[[US News & World Report]]}}</ref>

=== Art and entertainment ===
[[File:Dai-ichi no Gekijō Shintomi-za from Tōkyō Meisho by Hiroshige Utagawa III.jpg|thumb|300x300px|The [[Shintomi-za]] theater, as painted by [[Utagawa Hiroshige III]] in 1881]]
Two notable painters of the time were [[Utagawa Kuniteru II]]<ref name=":44">Mansfield 2016, p. 74.</ref> and [[Hiroshige III]].<ref name=":43" /> Many Western writers became popular. Maruzen, a top bookstore, sold titles in Japanese and foreign languages when it opened in Nihonbashi in 1869.<ref name=":48">Mansfield 2016, pp. 85–86.</ref> Noh plays were revived in this time, and many Noh theaters were constructed.<ref name=":48" /> Kabuki performers wanted more respect for the artform, so it was relocated to prestigious districts. It was reformed, partially by the Society for Theatre Reform, and was viewed by Meiji and American president [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. A notable performer was [[Ichikawa Danjūrō IX|Ichikawa Danjuro IX]], who wanted to "sanitize" the artform. The government allowed women to be theater performers in 1877; they created ''gidayu'', which was musical theater involving puppetry. Authorities worried gidayu corrupted men, and banned them from viewing it in 1900. [[Shorin Hakuen]] and [[Henry James Black]] were notable ''kodanshi'' (narrative storytellers).<ref>Mansfield 2016, pp. 87–88.</ref> Many clubs started in Meiji Tokyo, home to many different trades and demographics.<ref name=":46" />

=== Meiji Tokyo earthquake ===
{{Main article|Meiji Tokyo earthquake}}

=== Hibiya incendiary incident ===
{{Main article|Hibiya incendiary incident}}
The [[Hibiya incendiary incident]] of 1905 started in response to Japan's negotiations with Russia after Japan won the [[Russo-Japanese War]]. Concessions were made to Russia, including giving them control of Sakhalin, the island Japan had taken during the war. Some Japanese people interpreted the negotiations as meaning Japanese people had died in the war for nothing. On 5 September, 30,000 protesters in [[Hibiya Park]] held a short rally, and nearby, 2,000 marched towards the Imperial Palace, causing damage and committing violence. Police were limited in their ability to control the riot, so the military had to stop it, after it had gone on for three days. By the end, 14 had died, 311 were arrested, and 70% of Tokyo's [[police box]]es were destroyed. It intensified social unrest for the next decade.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kahan |first=Kim |date=23 March 2023 |title=Riot: 6 Times Japan Got Mad |url=https://www.tokyoweekender.com/art_and_culture/japanese-culture/japan-riots/ |access-date=6 March 2024 |website=Tokyo Weekender |language=en}}</ref>

== Taishō era ==
{{Historical populations|1920|3699428|1925|4485144}}{{Further|Taishō era}}Notable constructions from this were the [[Tokyo Station]],<ref name="Planet2015" /> [[Kyū-Furukawa Gardens]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Enbutsu |first=Sumiko |date=21 November 2002 |title=Marriage of East and West |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2002/11/21/travel/marriage-of-east-and-west/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> [[Meiji Shrine]],<ref name="JapanSociety-religion">{{cite web |title=Timeline of Religion and Nationalism in Meiji and Imperial Japan |url=http://aboutjapan.japansociety.org/content.cfm/timeline_of_religion_and_nationalism |access-date=19 July 2015 |work=About Japan: A Teacher's Resource |publisher=[[Japan Society (Manhattan)|Japan Society]] |location=New York}}</ref> and [[Daito Bunka University]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

In 1918, there were [[Rice riots of 1918|riots in many parts of the city]] over the high price of rice, a part of the inflation caused by [[World War I]].<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 331.</ref>

In 1921, the [[Prime Minister of Japan]], [[Takashi Hara]], was assassinated. He made political parties a primary institution of Japan, and, notable to his death, wanted to reduce the military's size, and opposed the [[Japanese intervention in Siberia]]. On 4 November 1921, he was killed by a young rightist at Tokyo Station.<ref name="Cybriwsky2011-chronology">{{cite book |author=Roman Adrian Cybriwsky |title=Historical Dictionary of Tokyo |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8108-7489-3 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chronology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9pePrUSs7kMC&pg=PR17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hara Takashi {{!}} Political leader, Japanese statesman {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hara-Takashi |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Disasters===
The [[Spanish flu|1918 Spanish flu]] affected Tokyo by 2 February 1919.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 February 2019 |title=Japan Times 1919: Tokyo gripped by dread disease |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/02/02/national/history/japan-times-1919-tokyo-gripped-dread-disease/ |access-date=25 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Metropolitan Police Office after Kanto Earthquake.jpg|thumb|The Metropolitan Police Department burning at [[Marunouchi]], near [[Hibiya Park]] during the 1923 earthquake|270x270px]]At noon on Saturday 1 September 1923, the Great Kanto earthquake registered 8.3 on the Richter scale. Seismologists found the epicenter was in Sagami Bay, about 80&nbsp;km south of Tokyo, where a 100- by 100-kilometer segment of the Philippine oceanic plate broke against the Eurasian continental plate, releasing a massive amount of tectonic energy. Minutes later came the dreaded huge tsunami, with a height of 12 meters. As fires swept across Tokyo, 75% of all buildings suffered severe structural damage. The quake cut most of the water mains. Of the population of 4.5&nbsp;million, 2% to 3% were killed. Two million people were homeless. Two percent of Japan's total national wealth was destroyed.<ref>Joshua Hammer, "Aftershocks," ''Smithsonian,'' (2001) 42#2 pp. 50–53</ref><ref>Joshua Hammer, '' Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Yokohama-Burning-Deadly-Earthquake-Helped/dp/0743264657/ excerpt and text search]</ref> Nihonbashi, Ginza, and Marunouchi were some of the less devastated areas.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 375.</ref> 

Angry survivors took blame and revenge on resident Koreans, [[Kantō Massacre|killing several thousand]] out of hatred of Korean identity. The [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation of Korea]] influenced racial prejudice that led to the massacre.<ref>J.  Michael Allen, "The Price of Identity: The 1923 Kanto Earthquake and its Aftermath," ''Korean Studies'' (1996) 20#1 pp. 64–93.</ref> Japanese commentators interpreted the disaster as an act of divine punishment against the immoral and degenerate Japanese people. It led to the feeling that Japan needed to return to its traditional values.<ref>J. Charles Schencking, "The Great Kanto Earthquake and the Culture of Catastrophe and Reconstruction in 1920s Japan," ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' (2008) 34#2 pp. 295–331. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v034/34.2.schencking.html online in project MUSE]</ref> The earthquake created unsanitary conditions that caused increased rates in [[typhoid fever]]. During previous urbanization, traditional waste disposal methods in the northern and western districts of the city collapsed, and the earthquake exaggerated those conditions. This led to new antityphoid measures and infrastructure.<ref>Takeshi Nagashima, "Sewage Disposal and Typhoid Fever: the Case of Tokyo 1912–1940." ''Annales De Démographie Historique'' (2004) 2#1 pp. 105–117.</ref>

=== Post-earthquake history ===
On 27 December 1923, in the [[Toranomon incident]], there was an attempted assassination of Crown Prince [[Hirohito]], when shots were fired at this car.<ref name=":76">{{Cite web |date=9 September 2014 |title=Chronology of key events in the life of Emperor Showa |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/09/09/national/chronology-of-key-events-in-the-life-of-emperor-showa/ |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

Taishō died on 25 December 1926, and was succeeded by Hirohito.<ref name=":76" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 February 2024 |title=Taishō {{!}} Emperor, Japan, 1912–1926 {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Taisho |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Early Shōwa era==
{{Historical populations|1930|5408678|1935|6369919|1940|7354971|1945|3488284}}{{Further|Shōwa era}}In 1930, the city held a ceremony celebrating their rebuilding from the earthquake. In 1932, the city limits grew, and the number of wards increased from 15 to 35.<ref name=":76" /><ref name=":58" />

=== Early Shōwa development ===
In 1920, the Tokyo Underground Railway Company was established, which would create the first line of the [[Tokyo Metro]] [[rapid transit]] network in 1927, when its [[Tokyo Metro Ginza Line|first subway line]] opened between Asakusa and Ueno. It was expanded in 1934 and named the Ginza Line in 1953. The Metro served 3&nbsp;billion annual passengers in 2010.<ref name="JapanSociety-Modern">{{cite web |title=Timeline of Modern Japan (1868–1945) |url=http://aboutjapan.japansociety.org/content.cfm/timeline_modern |access-date=19 July 2015 |work=About Japan: A Teacher's Resource |publisher=[[Japan Society (Manhattan)|Japan Society]] |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=Tokyo Metro, Kantō Region |url=https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/tokyo-metro-kanto-japan/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Railway Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Metro operations would be operated by Tokyo Rapid Transit Authority starting in 1940, and then the Tokyo Metro Co. in 2004.<ref name=":52"/>

Notable buildings from this era were the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum]], [[Toshimaen]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} [[National Diet Building]],<ref>Mansfield 2009, p. 275.</ref> and Haneda Airfield.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsukimori |first=Osamu |date=28 March 2020 |title=Flying low: The battle over Tokyo's airspace |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/03/28/national/flights-routes-tokyo/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> The dog [[Hachikō|Hachiko]], who lived in Tokyo in the 1920s and 30s, became a part of Japanese popular culture and was immortalized as the [[Statue of Hachikō|Statue of Hachiko]].<ref>Clements 2020, pp. 76–77.</ref>

=== 1930s civil conflict ===
{{Main article|15 May incident|26 February incident}}
{{Multiple images
| image1            = Tsuyoshi Inukai May 15 Incident Asahi Shimbun.png
| caption1          = Tokyo's [[Asahi Shimbun]] in 1932 describing the [[May 15 incident]] and assassination of Prime Minister [[Inukai Tsuyoshi]]
| image2            = 226 Attacks.svg
| caption2          = A map of military rebels' initial attacks in the 1936 [[February 26 incident]] in downtown Tokyo
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 260
}}

On 8 January 1932, in the [[Sakuradamon incident (1932)]], there was another attempted assassination on Hirohito, when a grenade was thrown at his car.<ref name=":76"/>

In 1931, the Japanese army [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria]] without approval of the Japanese cabinet in Tokyo, which was a major step towards the beginning of World War II. In December, [[Inukai Tsuyoshi]] became Prime Minister, and tried to stop the military from acting without the approval of the cabinet. He prepared to send a representative to meet with China and stop the conflict there, but he was [[May 15 incident|assassinated by nationalist naval officers]] in Tokyo on 15 May 1932.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inukai Tsuyoshi {{!}} Meiji Restoration, Assassination & Education {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Inukai-Tsuyoshi |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Afterwards, martial law was not declared, and the military said it would not accept a new cabinet. A new prime minister was suggested, retired Admiral [[Saitō Makoto]], but the office went to [[Keisuke Okada]] in 1934. During Okada's reign, Tokyo University professor [[Minobe Tatsukichi]] popularized a theory that the emperor should be an organ of the state. Right-wing military members who believed in the emperor's ultimate blamed Okada for Tatsukichi's theory and censured him. On 26 February 1936, notable statesmen, including Makoto, were [[February 26 incident|assassinated by military members]] about to leave for Manchuria. Keisuke Okada escaped, as the assassins mistakenly shot his brother-in-law. For three days, rebels held downtown Tokyo, before they were stopped on the 29th. Their ringleaders were arrested and executed. In the army, the young nationalist rebels who wanted both domestic and foreign policy changes were replaced by conservative generals and officers who only focused on foreign policy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japan – Militarism, Imperialism, WWII {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":57">{{Cite web |date=16 January 2024 |title=Okada Keisuke {{!}} Japanese Politician, Liberal Party, Diplomat {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Okada-Keisuke |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Okada resigned, blaming himself for the troubles that occurred under his administration, but he continued as a politician who had a major influence on Japanese politics until the end of World War II.<ref name=":57" /> Tatsukichi was forced to resign, and his books were banned until the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minobe Tatsukichi {{!}} Constitutionalism, Meiji Era, Pragmatism {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Minobe-Tatsukichi |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The surge of nationalism in the 30s bent popular culture towards nationalism, including the city's music industry promoting military anthems. By 1936, cafes, dance halls, and revues in Asakusa and Ginza were under surveillance by the government to stop potential insurrection.<ref>Mansfield 2009, pp. 266–267.</ref> In 1940, the city closed down Tokyo dance halls and banned jazz performances. Most large cinemas were banned by 1944.<ref>Mansfield 2009, p. 276.</ref>

== World War II ==
{{Further|Japan during World War II}}
Japan went to war with China in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] in 1937, though it was undeclared until December 1941. That month, after the [[Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire|Japanese declaration of war on America]] and the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], the Second Sino-Japanese War was subsumed into World War II. Following Pearl Harbor, Japan expanded their invasion of Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 January 2024 |title=Second Sino-Japanese War {{!}} Summary, Combatants, Facts, & Map {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Sino-Japanese-War |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World War II – Japanese Policy, 1939–41 {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II/Japanese-policy-1939-41 |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Japan – WWII, Defeat, Pacific {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1943, the "city of Tokyo" as an administrative unit was dissolved, being subsumed within the larger Tokyo Metropolis, which includes [[western Tokyo]].<ref name=":58" />

=== Doolittle Raid ===
[[File:Doolittle Raid Over Tokyo.ogv|thumb|1943 U.S. [[newsreel]] about the Dolittle Raid]]{{Main article|Doolittle Raid}}
Tokyo became the first Japanese city to be bombed in World War II on 18 April 1942, in the [[Doolittle Raid]]. The American [[Jimmy Doolittle|James H. Doolittle]] and 16 [[B-25 bomber]]s from the U.S. aircraft carrier ''[[USS Hornet (CV-8)|Hornet]]'' made a surprise attack on Tokyo that boosted Allied morale. At the time, the Americans had been losing the Pacific War. The bombing did little physical damage, but it had an enormous psychological effect in America and Japan. Japan had considered potential strikes on mainland Japan, but this new reality forced them to grow their defenses. The raid led to the [[Battle of Midway]] and the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doolittle Raid {{!}} Date, Casualties, Summary, Facts, Map, Video, & Plane {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Doolittle-Raid |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The sensitive issue of how to defend the capital from air attack became a pressing concern for Tokyo. Japan told Tokyo's citizens to protect themselves, until devastating American [[firebombing]] raids showed that was impossible.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Lee Karacas|title=Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y_YwrsRsI7MC|series=abstract in ''Dissertation Abstracts International'' 2007, Vol. 67 Issue 8, p. 3111.|year=2006|publisher=PhD dissertation, U. of California, Berkeley|isbn=978-0-542-82524-8}}</ref>

=== Greater East Asia Conference ===
{{Main article|Greater East Asia Conference}}
In November 1943, Tokyo hosted the [[Greater East Asia Conference]], where leaders from Japan's puppet governments from the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]] (Japan's conquered Asian and Pacific territories) discussed multiple topics. They were: cooperation to assure stability in the sphere, respecting the sovereignty and independence of the regions in the sphere, respecting each other's culture and traditions, cooperation for economic prosperity, and cooperation to have greater relations with countries in the rest of the world. Japan dominated discussion during the conference, and did not follow through with their resolutions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2024 |title=Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (GEACPS) {{!}} Definition, Summary, History, Purpose, & Japan {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Greater-East-Asia-Co-prosperity-Sphere |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Bombing of Tokyo and the Battle of Iwo Jima ===
[[File:After Bombing of Tokyo on March 1945 19450310.jpg|thumb|Tokyo from the air after the [[Bombing of Tokyo|firebombing of the city]], 1945|270x270px]]

Tokyo was bombed repeatedly after November 1944, as the Americans opened air bases in the [[Mariana Islands]] that were in range. In January 1945, the [[United States Army Air Forces|U.S. Army Air Forces]]' Major General [[Curtis LeMay]] was tasked with revitalizing the bombing campaign. His boss, General [[Hap Arnold|"Hap" Arnold]], urged him to stop precision bombing and adopt incendiary bombings.<ref name=":7" />

On 19 February 1945, the U.S. stormed [[Iwo Jima]], an island in Tokyo prefecture, and won the [[Battle of Iwo Jima|ensuing battle]] on 16 March. The battle killed 18,500 Japanese and 6,800 Americans. The U.S. used the island for two new airfields which would be important for the rest of the war.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 February 2024 |title=Battle of Iwo Jima {{!}} Facts, Significance, Photos, & Map {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Iwo-Jima |access-date=21 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>Clements 2020, p. 83.</ref>

During [[Operation Meetinghouse|Operation Meethinghouse]] on 9–10 March 1945, LeMay sent pathfinder aircraft ahead of an armada of [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29 bombers]] to mark the target area in Tokyo with [[napalm]] bombs. The armada of 334 B-29s from the [[Mariana Islands]] followed. 279 of the bombers dropped 1,665 tons of [[incendiary bomb]]s. Dry and windy conditions allowed an unstoppable [[conflagration]] to burn 45 square kilometers. Over 100,000 people were killed in minutes. Most of the victims suffocated in bomb shelters when the fires consumed their oxygen. One fourth of city's buildings were destroyed.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":7" /> U.S. military analysts found the operation did not deliberately target civilians, but civilians died because the Japanese often put military factories in residential areas to disguise them.<ref name=":7" />[[File:Firebombing tokyo leaflet.jpg|thumb|A leaflet dropped by the U.S. over Tokyo during the bombings, urging civilians to leave the city|left|293x293px]]After the raid, the strategy was to use [[Area bombardment|area raid]]s that used incendiary bombing to burn Japanese cities and kill the workers who kept the war machine going. Leaflets were dropped by the millions to order civilians to evacuate to the towns and rural areas which were not bombed. Half of Tokyo's 7.4&nbsp;million residents fled. The strategy was similar to the air war against German cities and reflected prewar Air Force strategic planning, which focused on the burning of Tokyo and other industrial and command centers as a way to destroy the enemy's military capability.<ref name=":8">Thomas R. Searle, "'It Made a Lot of Sense to Kill Skilled Workers': the Firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945." ''Journal of Military History'' (2002) 66(1): 103–133. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2677346 in JSTOR]</ref> By the end of the firebombings, 60 percent of Tokyo had been on fire at some point.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=4 January 2024 |title=Bombing of Tokyo (1945) {{!}} WWII Firebombing, Casualties & Legacy {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Bombing-of-Tokyo |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2002, the [[Center of the Tokyo Raids and War Damage]] museum was built.<ref>Cary Karacas, " Place, Public Memory, and the Tokyo Air Raids," ''Geographical Review'' (2010) 100#4 pp. 521–537.</ref>

=== Japan's surrender ===
{{Main|Surrender of Japan}}
On 6 and 9 August, respectively, America used [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], and the 8th, [[Soviet–Japanese War|Soviet Union declared war on Japan]].<ref name=":59">{{Cite web |title=World War II – Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Atomic Bombs {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II/Hiroshima-and-Nagasaki |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Japan agreed to sign the [[Potsdam Declaration]]'s terms of surrender on 10 August, if their emperor was allowed to stay in power. America agreed to those terms, and [[Surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]] on the 14th.<ref name=":59" /> That day, there was an [[Kyūjō incident|incident at the Imperial Palace]], where conspirators tried to seize the [[Hirohito surrender broadcast|recording of Hirohito's surrender message]] that would be broadcast to the country the following day. Two men were killed, and others killed themselves.<ref>Clements 2020, pp. 84–85.</ref> Hirohito urged the Japanese people to accept the surrender. There was an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Prime Minister [[Kantarō Suzuki]] on 2 September, during the surrender proceedings. Japan surrendered to China on 9 September.<ref name=":59" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 January 2024 |title=Danshaku Suzuki Kantarō {{!}} Japanese statesman, diplomat, reformer {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Suzuki-Kantaro |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Late Shōwa era ==
{{Historical populations|1950|6277500|1955|8037084|1960|9683802|1965|10869244|1970|11408071|1975|11673554|1980|11618281|1985|11829363}}{{Further|Postwar Japan|Japanese economic miracle}}In 1947, the number of wards was reduced from 35 to [[Special wards of Tokyo|23]], though the Metropolis limits stayed the same.<ref name=":58" />
[[File:Japanese children Tokyo 1945 SLNSW FL9537385.jpg|thumb|Japanese children in ruins, Tokyo, 1945]]

=== Occupation of Japan ===
{{Main article|Occupation of Japan}}

Douglas MacArthur's American forces [[Occupation of Japan|occupied Japan]] starting in 1945.<ref name=":55" /> Americans headquarters were established at Marunouchi,<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 547.</ref> and American soldiers stayed in temporary housing at former military grounds in Harajuku.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 88.</ref> Arms industries were dismantled, political prisoners were released, and Japanese soldiers and civilians from abroad were repatriated to Japan. In 1947, [[Constitution of Japan|a new constitution]], creating a democratic government, replaced the Meiji Constitution. It reduced the emperor's status to a symbolic one, removed Japan's right to declare war, and let women vote.<ref name=":55" /> The [[Supreme Court of Japan]] was established, modeled after the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 February 2024 |title=Supreme Court of Japan {{!}} Japanese Judiciary System & Reforms {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Supreme-Court-of-Japan |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Education was reformed, the numbers of farmers who were tenants were reduced, and ''[[zaibatsu]]'' business conglomerates were broken up. Labor unions were encouraged until the [[Cold War]] intensified.<ref name=":55" />

The occupation encourage economic stimulation, and by the mid- or late-50s, Tokyo was essentially the same as in 1940, economically.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 568–569.</ref> Profits from America's [[Korean War]] (1950 to 1953) were used for rebuilding.<ref name=":58">{{Cite web |title=Tokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area – Urbanization, Expansion, Growth {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tokyo-Yokohama-Metropolitan-Area/History |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. tried to end the occupation in 1947, but the Soviet Union rejected a peace treaty with Japan. A treaty was signed in 1951, and the U.S. left in 1952.<ref name=":55">{{Cite web |date=2 February 2024 |title=Occupation of Japan {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/occupation-of-Japan |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Afterwards, American military bases stayed in Japan, for use in the Korean, Cold, and [[Vietnam War]]s. Japan was involved in military manufacturing, and repurposed their old surplus.

=== International Military Tribunal for the Far East ===
[[File:IMTFE court chamber.jpg|thumb|280x280px|A view of the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East|IMTFE]] in session]]{{Main article|International Military Tribunal for the Far East}}
In the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]], 25 Japanese leaders were tried for [[war crime]]s. The tribunal was established by a charter from Douglas MacArthur on 19 January 1946, basing it off the [[Nuremberg trials]] charter. It convened in April 1946, and was held in the former [[Army Ministry|Ministry of War]] Building in [[Ichigaya]]. In May, the prosecution opened its case, and charged the defendants with "[[crimes against peace]], conventional war crimes, and [[crimes against humanity]]". Prosecutors argued the crimes were systemic and widespread, and that the defendants knew of the crimes and did not attempt to stop them. Many American [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] testified. The defense argued Japan was acting in self-defense, and that war crimes had not been established as [[international law]]. 25 defendants were convicted; 16 were given life imprisonment, seven were sentenced to death by hanging, and two were given lesser terms. Those convicted for a life sentence did not serve it, except those who died naturally in prison. The rest were pardoned or paroled by 1958.<ref>{{Cite web |title=War crime {{!}} History, Examples, & International Rules {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/war-crime |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokyo War Crimes Trial |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/tokyo-war-crimes-trial |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=The National WWII Museum {{!}} New Orleans |language=en}}</ref> [[Hideki Tojo|Hideki Tōjō]] was sentenced to hanging; he died in Tokyo in 1948.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 December 2023 |title=Tojo Hideki {{!}} Biography, Early Years, World War II, Facts, & Death {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tojo-Hideki |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Post-war development ===
{{Multiple images
| direction         = horizontal
| image1            = Tokyo Tower 1961.jpg
| caption1          = [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]]'s [[Tokyo Tower]] in 1961
}}

In the 50s, power in Tokyo was spread from the center to around the city, as the fukutoshin (salellite cities) of Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro were promoted.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 627.</ref> The Seibu department store chain started in Ikebukuro.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 637–638.</ref> American-style supermarkets opened in Tokyo, at first in the richer southwestern districts. They grew in the 60s when more people were wealthy.<ref>Siedensticker 2010, pp. 701–702.</ref> As rail and road networks expanded into rural areas, the former farming towns of Nerima, Kita, and Itabashi were repurposed as retail estate.<ref name="Clements 2020, p. 103">Clements 2020, p. 103.</ref> In 1963, it was made illegal to keep a family automobile in the street space in front of a family home. This led to a massive replacement of front green spaces with parking spaces.<ref>Siedensicker 2010, p. 701.</ref>

The [[Tokyo Tower]], a 333-meter tall steel tower resembling the [[Eiffel Tower]], was built to transmit television signals, and symbolized Japan's future when it opened in 1958.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gilhooly |first=Rob |date=17 March 2002 |title=The tower and the story |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2002/03/17/general/the-tower-and-the-story/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fackler |first=Martin |date=30 December 2008 |title=Tokyo Tower goes from futuristic hope to symbol of the good old days |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/30/world/asia/30iht-tokyo.1.18997227.html |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref name=":62">Mansfield 2016, pp. 161–162.</ref> Other notable buildings from this era were the [[National Diet Library]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 February 2024 |title=National Diet Library {{!}} Research, Collection, Preservation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Diet-Library |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[National Museum of Western Art]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saval |first=Nikil |date=8 August 2018 |title=How Le Corbusier Became Big in Japan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/08/t-magazine/le-corbusier-japan-modernism.html |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> [[Tokyo Bunka Kaikan]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Ueno Became a Museum Mecca |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/how-ueno-became-a-museum-mecca/ZQXRBYXeDS8WIw |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> [[Hotel New Otani Tokyo]],<ref>Mansfield 2009, p. 319.</ref> and the [[Hotel Okura Tokyo]].<ref name=":56">{{Cite web |last=Iyer |first=Pico |date=11 August 2015 |title=In Japan, History Has No Place |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/t-magazine/hotel-okura-tokyo.html |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mckean |first=Cameron Allan |date=6 June 2015 |title=Refusing to check out of the Hotel Okura |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2015/06/06/style/refusing-check-hotel-okura/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> A [[trolleybus]] system operated in the 50s and 60s, and was replaced by buses and taxicabs.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 640–641.</ref> New Metro lines, the [[Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line|Marunouchi Line]] and [[Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line|Hibiya Line]], opened.<ref name=":52" /> The second Tokyo rapid transit system, the [[Toei Subway]], started in 1960 with the opening of the [[Toei Asakusa Line]].<ref name=":51">{{Cite web |title=Toei Subway, Tokyo, Kanto region |url=https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/toei-subway-tokyo-kanto-japan/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Railway Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Japan's [[Shinkansen]] high-speed railway opened in 1964, in time for the [[1964 Summer Olympics]]. The first line was the [[Tokaido Shinkansen|Tōkaidō Shinkansen]], which ran from Tokyo to [[Osaka]].<ref name="Sugimoto2009">{{cite book |title=Cambridge Companion to Modern Japanese Culture |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-107-49546-3 |editor=Yoshio Sugimoto |chapter=Chronology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s80AAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Inoue |first=Hirofumi |date=25 June 2014 |title=Tokaido Shinkansen Line gears up for 50th anniversary in October |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/06/25/national/tokaido-shinkansen-line-gears-50th-anniversary-october/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

The Yoshiwara and Susaki red light districts were both destroyed in 1945. Yoshiwara turned back into a red light district, with 200 [[soapland]]s in 1990. Susaki rebuilt to be a quiet, conservative place. It was removed from the shoreline by landfills, losing one of its notable features. A new red light district opened at Hatonomachi, and was closed in 1958. That was when prostitution was outlawed, leading to protests, but the business survived.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 689–694.</ref>

=== Art and entertainment ===
Occupation censorship rules were "almost as harsh" as imperial censorship; a new strategy was to remove cultural references to some elements of traditional culture, though kabuki and martial arts stayed.<ref name=":74">Clements 2020, p. 87.</ref> Some elements of culture still were opposed to occupation, [[Teruko Akatsuki]]'s hit song "[[Tokyo Shoeshine Boy]]" is one example.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 91.</ref>

Postwar, Akhibara capitalized on incoming freight trains by shifting to selling appliances and electronics.<ref name=":74" /><ref name=":75">Seidensticker 2010, pp. 612–614.</ref> By 1990, it became known as the "Electric Town", and became home to the [[Akiba-kei]] style of [[otaku]] nerd culture.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 95.</ref> However, by 1990, Chiyoda sold the most electronics in the city.<ref name=":75" /> [[Toei Company]] studios for film and animation were made in Nerima and Suginami.<ref name="Clements 2020, p. 103"/>

=== Social movements ===
[[File:1960 Protests against the United States-Japan Security Treaty 07.jpg|thumb|298x298px|1960 protests against the [[United States-Japan Security Treaty]]]]The violent [[Sunagawa Struggle]] from 1955 to 1957 protested the expansion of the U.S. Air Force's [[Tachikawa Airfield|Tachikawa Air Base]] into the nearby village of Sunagawa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wright |first=Dustin |date=3 May 2015 |title='Sunagawa Struggle' ignited anti-U.S. base resistance across Japan |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2015/05/03/issues/sunagawa-struggle-ignited-anti-u-s-base-resistance-across-japan/ |access-date=23 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> During the [[Anpo protests]] of 1959 and 1960, the [[New Left in Japan|Japanese New Left]] protested the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|United States-Japan Security Treaty]], which led to a controversial new treaty. Later, protests occurred in response to American military bases in Japan being used for the Vietnam War, and [[Kadena Air Base|American military presence]] in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Japanese Left Has a Complex and Turbulent History |url=https://jacobin.com/2022/07/japan-new-old-left-jcp-long-60s |access-date=23 February 2024 |website=jacobin.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

During the [[1968–1969 Japanese university protests]], students at Tokyo University seized the school's main hall, the [[Yasuda Auditorium|Yasuda Hall]]. They expelled the president and other administrators and took hold of the building. It was named the "Yasuda Castle" by the media. They were expelled in the summer of 1968, and attempted to recapture the building in January 1969. The students failed to take it after a battle with 10,000 policemen, which was viewed nationwide on television. Protests over the United States-Japan Security Treaty reoccurred in 1970, but were less successful.<ref name=":64">Siedensticker 2010, pp. 715–716.</ref>

In 1978, [[Yasukuni Shrine]] in [[Kudanshita Station|Kudanshita]] became a memorial to Imperial Japan, including 2.5&nbsp;million Japanese soldiers of World War II, and 12 major convicted war criminals, including Hideki Tojo. The shrine said those dead needed to be honored as they served their country. It also contains exhibits suggesting Japanese imperialism was a heroic liberation of Asia from Western colonialism. Visits to the shrine by right-wing government officials have [[Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine|caused controversy]] in countries affected by Japanese imperialism during the war.<ref name=":61">Mansfield 2016, pp. 175–176.</ref>

=== Governorship of Ryotaro Azuma ===
{{Main article|Ryotaro Azuma}}

[[File:Tokyo Olympic Closing Ceremony 19641024.jpg|thumb|280x280px|The [[1964 Summer Olympics closing ceremony]]|left]]

=== 1964 Summer Olympics ===
{{Main article|1964 Summer Olympics}}
Tokyo's population reached ten million as the 1964 Summer Olympics left a deep impact on Japan's national identity. The nation's wounded psyche and reputation from the war were significantly healed. Rapid social changes, thematically staged in the Olympic ceremonies, let Japan display a new national pride, their re-entry into the circle of developed industrial countries, and their disavowment of imperialist militarism. Although Japan's foreign policy was closely linked to the United States during the Cold War, the city of Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics in the spirit of peaceful engagement with the entire world, including Communist states. Enormous expense was devoted to upgrading the city's physical infrastructure and making new businesses. A new satellite facilitated live international broadcasts. The Tokyo National Museum's coinciding ancient art exhibition promoted Japan's traditional culture to foreigners and the Japanese themselves. Two buildings made for the games were the [[Yoyogi National Gymnasium]] and [[National Stadium (Tokyo)|National Olympic Stadium]]. The event proved a great success for the city and for Japan. Japan's foreign policy expanded to include [[sports diplomacy]], as Japanese teams visited international competitions.<ref name=":56" /><ref>Noriko Aso, "Sumptuous Re-past: the 1964 Tokyo Olympics Arts Festival". ''Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique'' 2002 10(1): 7–38. {{ISSN|1067-9847}} Fulltext: [[Project MUSE]]</ref><ref>Jessamyn R. Abel, "Japan's Sporting Diplomacy: The 1964 Tokyo Olympiad", ''international History Review'' (2012) 24#2 pp. 203–220.</ref> Harujuku grew after being adjacent to the Olympic Village.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 661.</ref> The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' states that while the games had positive effects on the city, their effort in the rebuilding is exaggerated, using America's funds from the Korean War as an example of other avenues of rebuilding.<ref name=":58" />

=== 1960s elections ===
In March 1965, the city's prefectural council elected a new president. It was a corrupt election, involving intimidation and bribery. The president and other members were arrested. The law was amended so the council was forced to dissolve itself. A new election was called. When the election occurred in July, conservatives lost half their seats, an indictment of Ryotaro Azuma that partially stemmed from an incident in June and July, in which a large swarm of flies descended onto a garbage fill, [[Yumenoshima|Dream Island]], east of the Sumida. The army removed them by lighting Dream Island on fire, leading to garbage disposal issues. This led to socialist and communists promoting television personality [[Ryokichi Minobe]] in preparation for the 1967 gubernatorial elections.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 685–686.</ref>

In the early 1960s, heavy smog forced citizens to wear face masks, and buy oxygen from vending machines. Toxic air required the construction of first aid stations, and the covering of plastic drapes over pavement cafes. Ryokichi Minobe was elected governor, serving three terms until 1979. He was elected by a populace who felt the government focused on financial growth "at the expense of welfare reform and environmental concerns". He froze funding for some highway construction, built traffic-free pedestrian malls, and limited pollution by putting pressure on heavy industry to move outside city limits. Smog would be "almost entirely eliminated" by 1980.<ref name=":62" />

=== Crime ===
[[File:Tokyo Stabbing.jpg|thumb|[[Otoya Yamaguchi]] preparing to stab [[Inejirō Asanuma|Inejiro Asanuma]] a second time]]

On 13 January 1960, the leader of the [[Japan Socialist Party]], [[Inejirō Asanuma]], was [[Assassination of Inejirō Asanuma|assassinated at a political rally]] in Tokyo's Hibiya Hall. A 17-year-old rightist named [[Otoya Yamaguchi]] stabbed Asanuma on stage, in front of 1,000 people (including Prime Minister [[Hayato Ikeda]]).<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=13 October 2016 |title=Japan Socialist Party leader assassinated at political rally – archive |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/13/inejiro-asanuma-japan-politician-assassinated-1960 |access-date=11 February 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Yamaguchi had a note in his pocket explaining he killed Asanuma for his left-wing policies, remarks he made during a speech in China, and for his supporters [[Anpo protests|storming the National Diet building]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Webmaster |date=2 November 2020 |title=山口二矢烈士御命日墓参 {{!}} 大日本愛国党 青年隊 |url=http://aikokutou.net/?p=3843 |access-date=11 February 2024 |language=ja}}</ref> 15,000 leftist demonstrators marched on the police headquarters demanding the police chief, Kameyoshi Teramoto, resign. 2,000 policemen beat them back, and 60 were injured.<ref name=":3" /> Before trial, Yamaguchi committed suicide at the Tokyo Juvenile Rehabilitation Center.<ref name=":4" />

In 1960, ''Chuo Karan'' magazine published a satire story in which left-wing revolutionaries storm the Imperial Palace and behead Crown Prince [[Akihito]] and [[Empress Michiko|Princess Michiko]]. The story was meant to be a satire of the far-left, but it angered rightists and nationalists instead. The Imperial Household Agency disliked it, and right-wing nationalists protested daily outside the Chuo offices in Tokyo. On 1 February 1961, a [[Shimanaka incident|rightist broke into the home]] of Chuo's president, [[Hōji Shimanaka|Hoji Shimanaka]], killed his maid, and injured his wife. Shimanaka apologized, the author, [[Shichirō Fukazawa|Shichiro Fukazawa]], went into hiding, and it [[Chrysanthemum taboo|created a taboo]] where publishers refused to publish similar satires thereafter.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mcneill |first=David |date=26 January 2015 |title=Nous ne sommes pas Charlie: Voices that mock authority in Japan muzzled |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2015/01/26/issues/nous-ne-sommes-pas-charlie-voices-mock-authority-japan-muzzled/ |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Mishima Yukio 1970.jpg|thumb|Yukio Mishima giving a speech during his 1970 coup attempt at the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force]] building]]
[[Yukio Mishima]] was a writer who is regarded by many critics as the most important Japanese novelist of the century. In the 1960s, he became attached to Japanese nationalism, and wished to restore the emperor's power. On 25 November 1970, Mishima seized the commanding general's office at a military headquarters in downtown Tokyo, with four members of the [[Shield Society]] student army. On the building's balcony, Mishima gave a 10-minute speech to a thousand servicemen, in which he urged them to overthrow the post-war Japanese constitution. The soldiers were unsympathetic. Mishima committed seppuku with a sword, and was decapitated by a co-conspirator.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 January 2024 |title=Mishima Yukio {{!}} Biography, Books, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Yukio-Mishima |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1973, South Korean opposition leader [[Kim Dae-jung]] was [[Kidnapping of Kim Dae-jung|kidnapped by Korean intelligence]] in Tokyo and sent back to Korea by boat, almost being murdered at sea.<ref name=":762">Seidensticker 2010, pp. 765–767.</ref>

Multiple bombs were set off in the 1970s by groups protesting against Japanese imperialism, and the construction of Narita Airport in Chiba Prefecture. In 1974, a [[1974 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries bombing|bomb was detonated]] at the Mitsubishi office of [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]], which killed eight people. It was done by the anti-imperialist group, [[East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front|Anti-Japanese Armed East Asian Front]].<ref name=":762" />

=== Late Shōwa development ===
The [[Kasumigaseki Building]] opened in 1968. It was notable for its earthquake-resistant design and height, being the tallest building Tokyo and considered its first "super high-rise building".<ref name=":50">Seidensticker 2010, p. 720.</ref> At the site of the former [[Yodobashi]] reservoir in Shinjuku, a new plaza was created in 1966, the Shinjuku Westmouth. The [[Keio Plaza Hotel]] was the plaza's first super high-rise.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 721–722.</ref> The [[World Trade Center (Tokyo)|World Trade Center]], [[Shinjuku Sumitomo Building]], [[Shinjuku Mitsui Building]], and [[Sunshine 60]], were all the tallest buildings in Japan at one point.<ref name="skyscraperpage.com">{{Cite web |title=Shinjuku Mitsui Building, Tokyo - SkyscraperPage.com |url=https://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=6951 |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=skyscraperpage.com}}</ref><ref name=":63">Seidensticker 2010, pp. 720, 738.</ref>

Other notable constructions were the [[Shinjuku Center Building]],<ref name="Cybriwsky 2011, p. 150">Cybriwsky 2011, p. 150.</ref> [[National Theatre of Japan]],<ref>Cybriwsky 2011, p. 149.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring the History of the New National Theatre, Tokyo |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/exploring-the-history-of-the-new-national-theatre-tokyo/yQXBz66hhvvYtA |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> [[National Archives of Japan]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} [[United Nations University]],<ref>Cybriwsky 2011, p. 209.</ref> [[Nakagin Capsule Tower]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dismantling work begins on iconic Nakagin Capsule Tower {{!}} The Asahi Shimbun: Breaking News, Japan News and Analysis |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14596520 |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Asahi Shimbun |language=en}}</ref> [[University of Tsukuba]],<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 788.</ref> [[109 (department store)|109]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bull |first=Brett |date=22 January 2009 |title=Decades as Tokyo's tower of girl power |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2009/01/22/lifestyle/decades-as-tokyos-tower-of-girl-power/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> [[Tokyo Disneyland]],<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 782.</ref> and the [[Tokyo Dome]].<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 772.</ref> Notable transportation projects from this time were the [[Tokyo Metro Tozai Line]],<ref name=":52" /> [[Toei Mita Line]],<ref name=":51" /> [[Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line]],<ref name=":52" /> [[Tokyo Metro Yūrakuchō Line]],<ref name=":52" /> [[Tokyo Metro Hanzōmon Line]],<ref name=":52" /> [[Toei Shinjuku Line]],<ref name=":51" /> [[Jōetsu Shinkansen]],<ref name=":53">{{Cite web |title=Shinkansen, Japan |url=https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/shinkansen-bullet-train/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=Railway Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> and the [[Tōhoku Shinkansen]].<ref name=":53" />[[File:017 Shinjuku, Jan 82 (52349689045).jpg|thumb|The [[Kabukichō|Kabukicho]] district of [[Shinjuku]] in 1982, before police cracked down on its illegal activities]]Various "new town" housing development projects were built in the late 1960s and 1970s to house communities on the outskirts of Japan's major cities. The most "celebrated" was [[Tama New Town]] opened in 1971. Its 50-square meter apartments sold for about ¥5&nbsp;million each.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tsubuku |first1=Masako |last2=Brasor |first2=Philip |date=1 November 2011 |title=Japan's 'new towns' are finally getting too old |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/11/01/how-tos/japans-new-towns-are-finally-getting-too-old/ |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> In Ginza, the [[Yurakucho Mullion]] business center opened in 1984, quickly receiving 200,000 daily visitors. It eventually became headquarters of [[The Asahi Shimbun|''The Asahi Shinbun'']].<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 728–729.</ref> Ikebukuro remained one of the busiest districts in the city, getting its own "Westmouth" plaza which has Sunshine 60, but it did plateau in activity, compared to Shinjuku or Ginza.<ref name=":63" /> Asakusa declined due to their diminishing theater scene, but rebounded by 1990.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 739–741.</ref> The Sanya slums did not match the city's initial economic boost after occupation. They had slow improvement in the following decades, but were still slums by 1990. Another famous slum from this time was [[Omoide Yokocho|Piss Alley]] at the Shinjuku Westmouth.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 681.</ref>

The [[Shinjuku Golden Gai|Golden Block]] and [[Kabukichō|Kabukicho]] districts became important parts of Shinjuku. Kabukicho was home to various illegal activities, including prostitution, that police cracked down on in 1984 and 1985. At the crackdown's beginning, there were about 132 illegal sex work businesses there. Afterwards, those activities were not advertised, and they were sought out by decrypting various codes.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, pp. 723–727</ref> The district then tried to become a center for performing arts, and somewhat failed.<ref>Seidensticker 2010, p. 729.</ref>

==== Economy ====
Japan's economic miracle slowed after the [[1973 oil crisis]].<ref>Siedensticker 2010, p. 714.</ref> In the mid-70s, Tokyo experienced significant inflation. 1975 prices in the Tokyo ward were four times what they had been 25 years prior. This made manufacturing more expensive, but the economy still grew, as Japan survived importing expensive raw materials.<ref name=":64" />[[File:Nikkei 225(1970-).svg|thumb|300x300px|The [[Nikkei 225]] stock market index from 1970 to 2024]]
Japan in the 1980s experienced a "bubble" economy, as the stock market index soared from 6000 in 1980 to 40,000 in 1989. Tokyo experienced a huge increase in urban land prices. This "land bubble" led to new strategies in urban development. to preserve the profitability of real estate schemes, developers used several means of action to increase building density, such as urban renewal. They experimented with new methods of avoiding land purchase, such as land deposit and short-term lease contracts.<ref name="A. Sorensen, 2000">A. Sorensen, ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000)</ref> High-rise buildings were built, huge department stores flourished, and modern concrete buildings progressively replaced wooden houses within residential zones. This process was not closely controlled by authorities, and it produced many high-rise buildings that increased road traffic and worsened parking problems.<ref name="A. Sorensen, 2000" /> On 31 December 1989, the Bank of Japan raised interest rates, which brought the inflated land prices down.<ref>Clements 2020, p. 105.</ref> The bubble collapsed in the 1990s, and the nation entered [[Lost Decades|decades of economic stagnation]].<ref name=":60" />

=== Governorship of Shunichi Suzuki ===
{{Main article|Shunichi Suzuki (governor)}}
[[File:Funeral of the Emperor Showa.jpg|thumb|Funeral procession for Hirohito (by then renamed ''Showa'') on 24 February 1989|240x240px]]

=== Death of Hirohito ===
{{Main article|Death and state funeral of Hirohito}}
On 7 January 1989, Hirohito died in Tokyo, and his son, Akihito, became the emperor. This ended the Showa era and began the Heisei era.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 January 2024 |title=Hirohito {{!}} Biography, Full Name, World War II, Surrender, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hirohito |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2024 |title=Akihito {{!}} Biography, Reign, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akihito |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> His death was announced by the [[Grand Steward]] of Japan's [[Imperial Household Agency]], [[Shōichi Fujimori]], who revealed details about his cancer for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2015 |title=From the archives: Japan's Hirohito, 87, Dies After a Reign of 62 Years – LA Times |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-japan-archive-1989jan07-story.html#page=3 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222123927/http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-japan-archive-1989jan07-story.html#page=3 |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> On 24 February, his body was transferred from the Imperial Palace to the Shinjuku Gyoen Imperial Garden, where his funeral was held.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 November 2015 |title=World Leaders Bid Hirohito Farewell – tribunedigital-chicagotribune |website=[[Chicago Tribune]] |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1989/02/24/world-leaders-bid-hirohito-farewell/ |access-date=11 February 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021908/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-02-24/news/8903080209_1_emperor-hirohito-emperor-akihito-imperial-palace |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}</ref> His controversies led to the funeral being high-security, and was boycotted by socialist and communist leaders. 100,000 people took part in rallies denouncing him as a war criminal. Multiple explosions were detonated across the city.<ref name=":60">Mansfield 2016, p. 170.</ref>

==Heisei era ==
{{Historical populations|1990|11855563|1995|11773605|2000|12064101|2005|12576601|2010|13159388|2015|13515271}}{{Further|Heisei era}}Defined by United Nations estimates, Tokyo was the [[List of largest cities|world's largest city]] in 2018 with 37,468,000 people. Judged by [[city proper]], it was the 12th largest with 13,515,271.<ref>{{Cite web  |url=https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Highlights.pdf |title=World Urbanization Prospects 2018 |date=2019 |website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division |access-date=16 February 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211222646/https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Highlights.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2020 }}</ref>

=== Early Heisei development ===
The [[Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building]], a new capitol building for the city, opened in 1991 in [[Nishi-Shinjuku]]. Built for 156.9&nbsp;billion yen, it was the tallest building in Japan until 1993.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building 1, Tokyo - SkyscraperPage.com |url=https://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=210 |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=skyscraperpage.com}}</ref><ref name=":54">{{Cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Kenzō Tange's Buildings Will Make You Believe In A Better Future |url=https://gizmodo.com/kenzo-tanges-buildings-will-make-you-believe-in-a-bette-1691121878 |access-date=19 February 2024 |website=Gizmodo |language=en}}</ref> The Rainbow Bridge opened in 1993, and spurred new development in [[Odaiba]],<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 186.</ref> a district on an artificial island in Tokyo Bay.<ref name=":61" /> [[Naikaku Sōri Daijin Kantei]], the official residence of the Prime Minister, opened in 2002.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Other notable constructions were the [[Shinjuku Park Tower]],<ref>Cybriwsky 2011, p. 151.</ref> [[Tokyo Opera City Tower|Tokyo Opera City Center]],<ref name="Cybriwsky 2011, p. 150"/> [[Fuji Broadcasting Center]],<ref name=":54" /> [[Tokyo Big Sight]],<ref>Clements 2020, p. 107.</ref> [[NTT Docomo Yoyogi Building]],<ref>Cybriwsky 2011, p. 256.</ref> [[Ajinomoto Stadium|Aijnomoto Stadium]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2022 |title=Ajinomoto Stadium |url=https://www.timeout.com/tokyo/sport-and-fitness/ajinomoto-stadium |access-date=25 February 2024 |website=Time Out Tokyo |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Ghibli Museum]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghibli Museum to close from Feb. 25 to March 17 due to virus fears {{!}} The Asahi Shimbun: Breaking News, Japan News and Analysis |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13158577 |access-date=25 February 2024 |website=The Asahi Shimbun |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Roppongi Hills Mori Tower]].<ref>Cybriwsky 2011, p. 180.</ref> Notable transportation projects were the [[Tokyo Metro Namboku Line]]<ref name=":52" /> and the [[Toei Ōedo Line|Toei Oedo Line]].<ref>Mansfield 2009, p. 343.</ref><ref name=":51" />

=== Art and entertainment ===
As Japan's manufactured exports declined post-bubble-collapse, it has focused more on its popular culture exports, like movies, literature, and video games, which is the impetus of the "[[Cool Japan]]" marketing strategy that advertises places like Akihabara.<ref>Clements 2020, pp. 99–105.</ref> In the 1990s, Shibuya was the origin of the [[Shibuya-kei]] music genre, which combined pop, electronic, and hip-hop.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cunningham |first=Ed |date=31 March 2020 |title=A Complete Guide to Shibuya-kei: Tokyo's '90s Music Revival |url=https://www.tokyoweekender.com/entertainment/music/complete-guide-shibuya-kei/ |access-date=23 February 2024 |website=Tokyo Weekender |language=en}}</ref>

=== 1995 subway sarin attack ===
{{Main article|Tokyo subway sarin attack}}
[[File:【地下鉄サリン事件】除染を行う自衛隊員と警察官.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Police officers and Japan Defense Force troops responding to the scene of the [[Tokyo subway sarin attack|1995 subway sarin attack]]]]
On 20 March 1995, the [[doomsday cult]] [[Aum Shinrikyo]] coordinated a [[Tokyo subway sarin attack|multiple-point terrorist attack]] in the Tokyo subway. Five members on five different lines heading towards [[Tsukiji Station]] dropped bags containing a large of amount of [[sarin]], an "odourless, colourless and highly toxic [[Nerve agent|nerve gas]]", in different subway cars. The fumes started sickening passengers, and were spread at each stop when passengers left different stations. The attacks killed 13 and injured 5,500. Police raided Aum Shinrikyo headquarters in Tokyo and its laboratory in [[Yamanashi Prefecture|Yamanashi]], and seized the toxic chemicals used to create the sarin. Later that year, a dozen of the cult's highest figures were arrested in nationwide raids, including the leader [[Asahara Shoko|Shoko Asahara]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=17 May 1995 |title=Tokyo Still on Alert in Wake of Guru's Arrest |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-05-17-mn-2818-story.html |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=9 October 1995 |title=Doomsday Cult Official Arrested in Japan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/09/world/doomsday-cult-official-arrested-in-japan.html |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> He and six other members were executed in 2018.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Tokyo subway attack of 1995 {{!}} Facts, Background, & AUM Shinrikyo {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokyo-subway-attack-of-1995 |access-date=13 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="bbcTimeline">{{cite news |author=BBC News |date=7 October 2011 |title=Japan Profile: Timeline |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15219730 |access-date=19 July 2015 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

=== Governorship of Yukio Aoshima ===
{{Main article|Yukio Aoshima}}[[Yukio Aoshima]], Tokyo's governor from 1995 to 1999, was previously an entertainer and Diet member. As an independent, he won the 1995 gubernatorial election. He fulfilled his campaign promise of canceling the [[World City Expo '96]] in Odaiba, which disrupted several large construction projects, and was opposed by the city assembly. The expo was planned to make permanent housing for 50,000 residents, and 2.6&nbsp;million tickets had been sold in advance at the time of cancellation.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=21 December 2006 |title=Ex-Tokyo Gov. Aoshima dies of blood disorder at 74 |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2006/12/21/national/ex-tokyo-gov-aoshima-dies-of-blood-disorder-at-74/ |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokyo leader scraps world expo – UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/05/31/Tokyo-leader-scraps-world-expo/3541801892800/ |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref> In May 1995, Aum Shinrikyo tried to kill Aoshima at his Tokyo City Hall office. They sent a mail bomb there, hidden in a book which exploded days later and injured his secretary, Masaaki Utsumi. Aoshima was not present, as he won the election in April and had not moved in yet.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mail Bomb Injured Aide In Tokyo Cult Accused Of Gas Attack Claims Responsibility For Blast {{!}} The Spokesman-Review |url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/jun/12/mail-bomb-injured-aide-in-tokyo-cult-accused-of/ |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=www.spokesman.com}}</ref><ref name=":12" /> He resigned in 1999 and continued being an entertainer.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=26 March 1999 |title=Seeking to Be Tokyo Governor, Politician Attacks U.S. Presence |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/26/world/seeking-to-be-tokyo-governor-politician-attacks-us-presence.html |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref name=":10" />

=== Governorship of Shintaro Ishihara ===
{{Main article|Shintaro Ishihara}}
[[File:Shintarō Ishihara 2003.jpg|thumb|225x225px|Tokyo governor [[Shintaro Ishihara]] in 2003]]
[[Shintaro Ishihara]], the governor of Tokyo from 1999 to 2012, was described as a nationalist. Originally a writer, in March 1999, he announced he would run for Governor of Tokyo as an independent. He easily outdistanced his rivals, [[Yasushi Akashi]] and [[Koji Kakizawa]], in the 1999 gubernatorial election. During the election season, Ishihara called for the American [[Yokota Air Base|Yokoto Air Base]] to return to Japan, which was a sensitive issue for Japan-U.S. relations.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> He also criticized China's policies. He dealt with Tokyo's debt by cutting government spending and implementing new revenue sources, like a hotel occupancy tax. He also backed [[Tokyo bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics|Tokyo's failed 2016 Olympics bid]]. He won re-election in 2003, 2007, and 2011. In 2012, he resigned to successfully run for a set in the Diet's lower house.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=28 January 2024 |title=Ishihara Shintaro {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ishihara-Shintaro |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 February 2022 |title=Japan's nationalist firebrand Shintaro Ishihara dies at 89 |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-japan-tokyo-beijing-shintaro-ishihara-47c472adbce863f855c9e9ddfe87cb78 |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Jesse |date=1 February 2022 |title=Former Tokyo Gov. Shintaro Ishihara, known for controversial views, dies at 89 |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/01/national/shintaro-ishihara-dies/ |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Disasters ===
[[File:Soil-liquefaction at Shinkiba after 2011 Tohoku Pacific Ocean offshore earthquake.jpg|thumb|280x280px|[[Soil liquefaction]] in [[Kōtō]] after the [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|2011 Tōhoku earthquake]]]]In 2001, the Meisei 56 building in Kabukicho [[Myojo 56 building fire|caught fire]], and 44 people were killed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 February 2003 |title=Victims' families sue over Kabukicho fire deaths in 2001 |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2003/02/23/national/victims-families-sue-over-kabukicho-fire-deaths-in-2001/ |access-date=23 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adelstein |first=Jake |date=3 August 2019 |title=Re-examining 2001's fatal Kabukicho blaze in the wake of the Kyoto Animation attack |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/08/03/national/media-national/re-examining-2001s-fatal-kabukicho-blaze-wake-kyoto-animation-attack/ |access-date=23 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

The [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|2011 Tōhoku earthquake]] that devastated much of the northeastern coast of Honshu was felt in Tokyo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 January 2024 |title=Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011 {{!}} Facts & Death Toll {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Japan-earthquake-and-tsunami-of-2011 |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anai |first1=M. |last2=Mihara |first2=T. |last3=Yamanaka |first3=M. |last4=Shibata |first4=T. |last5=Takagi |first5=Y. |date=July 1975 |title=A nucleoside triphosphate-dependent deoxyribonuclease from Bacillus laterosporus. Purification and characterization of the enzyme |journal=Journal of Biochemistry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=105–114 |issn=0021-924X |pmid=373}}</ref> The seismic intensity in Tokyo was 5+ on the [[Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale|JMA seismic intensity scale]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=震度データベース検索 |url=https://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqdb/data/shindo/index.html#20110311144618 |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=www.data.jma.go.jp}}</ref> [[Soil liquefaction]] was evident in areas of [[reclaimed land]] around the city. Approximately 30 homes or buildings were destroyed and 1,046 other buildings were damaged.<ref>''[[Yomiuri Shimbun]]'', "Liquefaction Damage Widespread", 10 April 2011.</ref><ref>"Japan issues top tsunami warning after major quake", Media Corp Channel NewsAsia, 11 March 2011.</ref> Power shortages caused [[rolling blackout]]s in Tokyo, beginning on 14 March.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2011 |title=Utilities' monopoly on power backfires {{!}} The Japan Times Online |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110330a4.html |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110331005057/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110330a4.html |archive-date=31 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2011 |title=2011/03/14 04:34 – Power Outage To Deal Further Blows To Industrial Output |url=http://e.nikkei.com/e/fr/tnks/Nni20110313D13JFF08.htm |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316123233/http://e.nikkei.com/e/fr/tnks/Nni20110313D13JFF08.htm |archive-date=16 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2011 |title=計画停電のグループ分けと実施時間 - 社会ニュース : nikkansports.com |url=http://www.nikkansports.com/general/news/f-gn-tp0-20110313-748042.html |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315214413/http://www.nikkansports.com/general/news/f-gn-tp0-20110313-748042.html |archive-date=15 March 2011 }}</ref> Radioactivity was later detected in Tokyo's tap water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2011 |title=１都５県の水道水から放射性物質、国基準下回る |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110319-OYT1T00743.htm |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407005105/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110319-OYT1T00743.htm |archive-date=7 April 2011 }}</ref> All of Japan's ports were shut down after the earthquake, though the ones in Tokyo and southwards re-opened sooner.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2011 |title=Status of Japanese ports 5 days after devastating quake and tsunami {{!}} The Manila Bulletin Newspaper Online |website=[[Manila Bulletin]] |url=http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/309623/status-japanese-ports-5-days-after-devastating-quake-and-tsunami |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407005150/http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/309623/status-japanese-ports-5-days-after-devastating-quake-and-tsunami |archive-date=7 April 2011 }}</ref>

=== Late Heisei development ===
[[File:Tokyo Skytree 2014 Ⅲ.jpg|thumb|276x276px|The [[Tokyo Skytree]] in 2014]]The [[Midtown Tower]], a mixed-use skyscraper in Akasaka, was the tallest building in Tokyo when construction was completed in January 2007.<ref name=":77">Mansfield 2016, p. 177.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2012 |title=Mid-Town Tower, Tokyo - SkyscraperPage.com |url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=9017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516011100/http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=9017 |archive-date=16 May 2012 |access-date=14 February 2024}}</ref> In 2011, Japan's tallest structure, the [[Tokyo Skytree]], was completed. It is 634 meters high, and surpassed the [[CN Tower]] in Toronto as the world's tallest free-standing structure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2012 |title=Tokyo Sky Tree {{!}} Buildings {{!}} EMPORIS |url=http://www.emporis.com/building/tokyo-sky-tree-tokyo-japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603121034/http://www.emporis.com/building/tokyo-sky-tree-tokyo-japan |archive-date=3 June 2012 |url-status=usurped |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2011 |title=Tokyo Sky Tree tops 600 meters, becoming world's tallest tower ‹ Japan Today: Japan News and Discussion |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/tokyo-sky-tree-tops-600-meters-becoming-worlds-tallest-tower |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629170014/http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/tokyo-sky-tree-tops-600-meters-becoming-worlds-tallest-tower |archive-date=29 June 2011 |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref>

During Tokyo's 2016 bid, Japan considered building a new National Stadium. The stadium would have cost $1.3&nbsp;billion, and it never came to fruition; the [[International Olympic Committee]] criticized the plan as being a source for potential disaster, as the stadium was surrounded on three sides by water. In 2011, Japan's sports ministry started considering renovating the National Stadium if the city were to win the bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 February 2014 |title=GamesBids.com – Tokyo 2020 Bid Venue Could Be Renovated |url=http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/olympic_bids/2020_bid_news/1216135899.html |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203110842/http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/olympic_bids/2020_bid_news/1216135899.html |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref> In 2013, the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) voted Tokyo to host the [[2020 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2013 |title=2020 Host City Election |url=https://olympics.com/ioc/2020-host-city-election |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=[[International Olympic Committee]]}}</ref> The old National Stadium was demolished in 2015,<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2015 |title=Tokyo stadium razed, paving way for Olympic venue |url=https://www.espn.com/olympics/story/_/id/12877070/demolition-tokyo-old-olympic-stadium-completed-clearing-way-new-2020-olympic-venue |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=ESPN.com |language=en}}</ref> and a [[Japan National Stadium|different version]] of a new stadium was built from 2016 to 2019 for ¥157&nbsp;billion ($1.4&nbsp;billion).<ref>{{Cite web |title=技術提案等審査委員会 |url=https://www.jpnsport.go.jp/newstadium/tabid/474/Default.aspx |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=www.jpnsport.go.jp |language=ja}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2019 |title=New National Stadium declared finished nearly eight months ahead of Tokyo Olympics |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2019/11/30/olympics/new-national-stadium-declared-finished-nearly-eight-months-ahead-olympics/ |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

Other notable constructions were [[Sumitomo Fudosan Roppongi Grand Tower]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 October 2016 |title=Sumitomo Fudosan Roppongi Grand Tower, Tokyo {{!}} 1212101 {{!}} EMPORIS |url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/1212101/sumitomo-fudosan-roppongi-grand-tower-tokyo-japan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002071852/https://www.emporis.com/buildings/1212101/sumitomo-fudosan-roppongi-grand-tower-tokyo-japan |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=usurped |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> [[Shibuya Scramble Square]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=渋谷スクランブルスクエア第I期(東棟)、2019年11月1日(金)に開業決定 日本初上陸を含む全212店のショップ&レストラン発表! |url=https://www.tokyu.co.jp/image/news/pdf/20190704-1.pdf |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=tokyu.co.jp}}</ref> [[The National Art Center, Tokyo|National Art Center]],<ref name=":77" /> [[Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower]],<ref>Mansfield 2016, p. 178.</ref> and [[Toranomon Hills|Toranoman Hills]].<ref name=":77" /> The [[Tokyo Metro Fukutoshin Line|Tokyo Metro Fuktoshin Line]] opened in 2008.<ref>Cybriwsky 2011, p. 201.</ref>

== Reiwa era ==
{{See also|Reiwa era}}[[File:Broadcast message asking people to stay home during Covid19 outbreak.webm|thumb|An April 2020 broadcast in Tokyo calling for people to stay home during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Tokyo|COVID-19 pandemic]]|250x250px|left]]The 2020 [[COVID-19 pandemic]] greatly [[COVID-19 pandemic in Tokyo|affected Tokyo]].<ref name=":73" /> There was large jump in cases in July. Japan warned that citizens have risk of infection in "3C" settings: "close spaces with poor ventilation, crowded areas, and close conservation areas". Offices, public transit, and shops were considered to be low-risk. For the month of August, bars, restaurants, and karaoke parlors were asked to close at 10 p.m. Those that complied with the request were eligible for compensation of $1,900. The city announced a local version of the American [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Center for Disease Control]], which coordinated a citywide pandemic response.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Craft |first=Lucy |date=31 July 2020 |title=Coronavirus cases in Tokyo hit new high as city prepares to launch its own "CDC" – CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-cases-tokyo-new-high-today-2020-07-31/ |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

After the [[World Health Organization]] [[World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic|declared the coronavirus a global public health emergency]] in January, there were fears it would affect the 2020 Olympics, which were planned for that summer.<ref name=":73">{{Cite web |last=NEWS |first=KYODO |title=Japan's Diet gives Abe power to declare emergency amid viral fears |url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/03/57cfa56d5ecc-urgent-japans-diet-gives-abe-power-to-declare-emergency-amid-viral-fears.html |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=Kyodo News+}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |first= |date=8 July 2021 |title=Tokyo's delayed and disrupted 2020 Games |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/tokyo-2020-timeline-2021-06-22/ |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> In February, Olympic qualifying tournaments were cancelled. A Tokyo 2020 official said the games would continue as usual. In March, the International Olympic Committee announced the games would be postponed by a year.<ref name=":0" />[[File:Drones durante a abertura das Olimpíadas de Tóquio.jpg|thumb|A scene of the [[2020 Summer Olympics opening ceremony|2020 Summer Olympics' opening ceremony]], where 1,824 drones formed the Games' logo.|250x250px]]By January 2021, the Japanese government was still preparing for the games, despite national polls showing a majority of the country wanted them to be postponed again or cancelled. The government announced international spectators would not be allowed to enter Japan for the games. In May, the Tokyo Practitioners' Medical Association and a majority of Japanese firms wanted the games to be cancelled or postponed. In June, a summit of wealthy nations in [[Cornwall]], England, announced their support for holding the games. In July, spectators were banned from the games.<ref name=":0" /> On 23 July, the games were declared open at the [[2020 Summer Olympics opening ceremony|opening ceremony]] by Naruhito,<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Ingle |first=Sean |date=23 July 2021 |title=Naomi Osaka provides spark at subdued opening of Tokyo Olympics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/jul/23/naomi-osaka-provides-spark-tentative-opening-ceremony-tokyo-2020-olympics |access-date=10 February 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and the closing ceremony was on 8 August.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokyo Olympics close as Paris prepares – DW – 08/08/2021 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/tokyo-olympics-close-as-paris-starts-to-prepare-for-2024/a-58797600 |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref> The United States received the most medals, at 113. Japan, in third place behind China, received 58.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokyo 2020 Medal Table |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/tokyo-2020/medals |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=[[International Olympic Committee]]}}</ref> The 2020 games were the most expensive Olympics at the time, costing $15.4&nbsp;billion. Different sources say the Olympics either helped Tokyo's economy,<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=11 August 2021 |title=Even With No Tourists or Fans, Japan Is Already Seeing Economic Benefits From the $15.4 Billion Tokyo Olympics |url=https://time.com/6089274/tokyo-olympics-economic-benefits/ |access-date=22 February 2024 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref> or worsened it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ben Dooley, Hikari Hida and Hisako Ueno |date=11 August 2021 |title=Tokyo Was Promised Glory and Riches. It Got an Olympics in a Bubble. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/06/business/tokyo-olympics.html |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

In 2024, there was a [[2024 Haneda Airport runway collision|collision on a Haneda Airport runway]] between two planes, a [[Japan Airlines]] commercial flight and a [[Japan Coast Guard]] rescue plane. The collision ignited destroyed both aircraft; five of the six Coast Guard crew died, with only the captain surviving, and everyone on board the Japan Airlines flight survived.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 January 2024 |title=Five dead on coastguard plane after collision with jet on Haneda Airport runway |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-asia-67862184 |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=BBC News |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Rich |first1=Motoko |last2=Ueno |first2=Hisako |last3=Soto |first3=Kaly |last4=Bubola |first4=Emma |date=2 January 2024 |title=A 'Miracle': Plane Erupts in Flames Landing in Tokyo, but All Aboard Survive |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/02/world/asia/tokyo-haneda-plane-fire.html |access-date=10 February 2024 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Notable buildings from the Reiwa era so far are the [[Tokyo Midtown Yaesu]] complex (and its centerpiece, Yaesu Central Tower),<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2023 |title=三井不動産 {{!}}「東京ミッドタウン八重洲」竣工・2023年3月10日開業決定 |url=https://www.mitsuifudosan.co.jp/corporate/news/2022/0915_01/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308135416/https://www.mitsuifudosan.co.jp/corporate/news/2022/0915_01/ |archive-date=8 March 2023 |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 December 2022 |title=三井不動産 {{!}} 「八重洲二丁目北地区第一種市街地再開発事業」の街区名称「東京ミッドタウン八重洲」に決定 |url=https://www.mitsuifudosan.co.jp/corporate/news/2021/0408/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209011117/https://www.mitsuifudosan.co.jp/corporate/news/2021/0408/ |archive-date=9 December 2022 |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> and the [[Azabudai Hills]] complex in [[Toranomon|Toranoman]], which includes Japan's current tallest building, Mori JP Tower,<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2019 |title=Pelli Clarke Pelli reveals Japan's tallest skyscraper |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2019/08/27/pelli-clarke-pelli-japan-tallest-building-tokyo/ |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=Dezeen |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=麻布台ヒルズ Azabudai Hills |url=https://project.azabudai-hills.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124025950/https://project.azabudai-hills.com/ |archive-date=24 January 2023 |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Azabudai Hills Complex – The Skyscraper Center |url=https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/complex/4004 |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=www.skyscrapercenter.com}}</ref> and the [[Tokyu Kabukicho Tower]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2023 |title=New 225-meter-tall skyscraper unveiled in Tokyo's Kabukicho nightlife district |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/04/07/business/kabukicho-tower-skyscraper/ |access-date=13 February 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref> Two notable projects under construction are the [[Torch Tower (Japan)|Torch Tower]] and the [[Nihonbashi 1-Chome Central District Redevelopment]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Torch Tower, Tokyo - SkyscraperPage.com |url=https://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=106870 |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=skyscraperpage.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nihonbashi 1-Chome Central District Redevelopment, Tokyo - SkyscraperPage.com |url=https://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=114031 |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=skyscraperpage.com}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Tokyo}}
*[[Edo period]]
*[[History of Japan]]
* [[Timeline of Tokyo]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* Clements, Johnathan (2020). ''A Short History of Tokyo'', Haus Publishing ISBN 9781913368005 
* [[Louis Cullen|Cullen, Louis M.]] (2003). ''A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds,'' [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|9780521821551}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50694793 OCLC 50694793]
* Cybriwsky, Roman. ''Historical Dictionary of Tokyo'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Dictionaries-Cities-Regions/dp/0810872382/ excerpt and text search]
* [[Seiichi Iwao|Iwao, Seiichi]], Teizō Iyanaga, Susumu Ishii, Shōichirō Yoshida ''et al.'' (2002). ''Dictionnaire historique du Japon,'' Maisonneuve & Larose. {{ISBN|978-2-7068-1632-1}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/isbn/2706816325  OCLC 51096469]
* [[Stephen Mansfield|Mansfield, Stephen]] (2009). ''Tokyo: A Cultural History'', Tuttle Publishing. Google Ebook version
* Mansfield, Stephen (2016). ''Tokyo: A Biography,'' Tuttle Publishing.
* Noel Nouet, and John and Michele Mills (1990). ''The Shogun's City: A History of Tokyo'', Haus Publishing. Google Ebook version
* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC  ''Japan encyclopedia.''] [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-674-01753-5}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58053128?referer=di&ht=edition  OCLC 58053128]
* [[Richard Ponsonby-Fane|Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon]]. (1956). ''Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869,'' Ponsonby Memorial Society. {{OCLC|182637732}}
* Seidensticker, Edward (2010). ''Tokyo from Edo to Showa 1867–1989: The Emergence of the World's Greatest City'', Tuttle Publishing. Google Ebook version [https://www.amazon.com/Tokyo-Edo-Showa-1867-1989-Emergence/dp/4805310243/ excerpt and text search]
* [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh, Isaac.]] (1834). ''[[Nihon Odai Ichiran]]''; ou, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&q=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran  ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.'']  Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5850691 OCLC 5850691].

==Further reading==
{{See also|Timeline of Tokyo#Bibliography}}
* Borland, Janet (2020). "Small parks, big designs: Reconstructed Tokyo's new green spaces, 1923–1931", ''Urban History''
* Chong, Doryun, et al (2012). ''Tokyo, 1955–1970: A New Avant-garde,'' The Museum of Modern Art
* Cybriwsky, Roman (1998). ''Tokyo: The Shogun's City at the Twenty-first Century''
* Edoin, Hoito (1987). ''The Night Tokyo Burned''
* Fiévé, Nicolas and Paul Waley, eds (2003). ''Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo''
* Hastings, Sally Ann (1995). ''Neighborhood and Nation in Tokyo, 1905–1937''
* Jones, Sumie et al. eds (2017). ''A Tokyo Anthology: Literature from Japan's Modern Metropolis, 1850–1920''; primary sources [https://www.amazon.com/Tokyo-Anthology-Literature-Metropolis-1850-1920/dp/0824855906/ excerpt]
* Kumagai, Yoichi, Robert B. Gibson, and Pierre Filion (2015). "Evaluating long-term urban resilience through an examination of the history of green spaces in Tokyo''", Local Environment''
* McClain, James L., John M. Merriman and Ugawa Kaoru (1997). ''Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State in the Early Modern Era'' [https://www.amazon.com/Edo-Paris-Urban-State-Modern/dp/080148183X/ excerpt and text search]
* Masai, Y (1990). "Tokyo: From a feudal million city to a global supercity," ''Geographical Review of Japan''
* Naito, Akira, and Kazuo Hozumi (2003). ''Edo, the City that Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History''
*Nishiyama, Matsunosuke (1997). ''Edo Culture: Daily Life and Diversions in Urban Japan, 1600–1868''
* Perez, Louis G (2019). ''Tokyo: Geography, History, and Culture,'' ABC-CLIO
* Rozman, Gilbert (1974). "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society", ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' {{ISSN|0095-6848}} [https://www.jstor.org/pss/133438 in JSTOR]
* Sand, Jordan (2013). ''Tokyo vernacular: Common spaces, local histories, found objects'', University of California Press
* Siebert, Loren (2008). "Using GIS to Document, Visualize, and Interpret Tokyo's Spatial History", ''Social Science History''. {{ISSN|0145-5532}} [http://writingwiki.org//html/24.3siebert.html online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015182624/http://writingwiki.org//html/24.3siebert.html |date=15 October 2008 }}
* Smith, Henry D., II (1978). "Tokyo as an Idea: an Exploration of Japanese Urban Thought until 1945", ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' {{ISSN|0095-6848}} [https://www.jstor.org/pss/132072 in Jstor]
* Weisenfeld, Gennifer (2012). ''Imaging Disaster: Tokyo and the visual culture of Japan's Great Earthquake of 1923'', University of California Press

===Dissertations===
* Brown, Arlo Ayres, III (1986).  "The Great Tokyo Riot: The History and Historiography of the Hibiya Incendiary Incident of 1905", Columbia University. Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]
* Freedman, Alisa D (2002).  "Tracking Japanese Modernity: Commuter Trains, Streetcars, and Passengers in Tokyo Literature, 1905–1935", University of Chicago. Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]
* Goddard, Timothy Unverzagt (2013). "Teito Tokyo: Empire, Modernity, and the Metropolitan Imagination", UCLA online.
* Griggs, M. Pierce (1998). "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era", University of Chicago Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]
* Karacas, Cary Lee (2006).  "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis", UC Berkeley  Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]
* Miller, Ian Jared (2004). "The Nature of the Beast: The Ueno Zoological Gardens and Imperial Modernity in Japan, 1882–1945", Columbia University Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]
* Phillips, David Peter (1996). "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868–1888)", University of Pennsylvania Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]
* Takenaka-O'Brien, Akiko (2004). "The Aesthetics of Mass-Persuasion: War and Architectural Sites in Tokyo, 1868–1945", Yale University Fulltext: [[ProQuest]]

{{Tokyo}}
{{Years in Japan}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Tokyo| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]