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{{History of Zimbabwe}}

Until roughly 2,000 years ago, what would become [[Zimbabwe]] was populated by ancestors of the [[San people]]. [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] inhabitants of the region arrived and developed ceramic production in the area. A series of trading empires emerged, including the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] and [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]]. In the 1880s, the [[British South Africa Company]] began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in [[Southern Rhodesia]].

In 1965, the colonial government declared itself independent as Rhodesia, but largely failed to secure international recognition and faced sustained internal opposition in the [[Rhodesian Bush War]].

After fifteen years of war, following the [[Lancaster House Agreement]] of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognised majority rule in 1980. The [[United Kingdom]], which had never recognised Rhodesian independence, briefly imposed direct rule in order to grant independence on 18 April that year as the new country of Zimbabwe. In the 2000s Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including the imposition of economic sanctions by Western countries led by the United Kingdom and widespread corruption in government. [[Economic instability]] caused many Zimbabweans to [[Zimbabwean diaspora|emigrate]]. Prior to its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names: [[Rhodesia]], [[Southern Rhodesia]], and [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]].

== Pre-Colonial era (150,000 BCE – 1852 CE) ==

{{main|Pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe}}

=== Prehistory ===
{{See also|Bantu expansion|Gokomere}}

By 150,000 BC, ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' had migrated to the region now known as Zimbabwe from East Africa. Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the [[San people]]. The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|title=Pre-colonial history of SA|website=South African History Online|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702192857/http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|archive-date=2 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, of the third to fifth centuries A.D.,<ref>{{cite book|last=Huffman|first=T.N.|title=Handbook to the Iron Age|year=2007|publisher=University of KwaZulu-Natal Press|pages=123}}</ref> found in southeast Zimbabwe. This tradition was part of the eastern stream<ref>{{cite journal|last=Phillipson|first=D.W.|title=An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion|journal=Muntu|year=1985|volume=2|pages=69–84}}</ref> of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kwale)<ref name="Huffman">{{cite book|last=Huffman|title=Handbook to the Iron Age}}</ref> which originated west of the Great Lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya and north eastern Tanzania, and then southwards to Mozambique, south eastern Zimbabwe and Natal.<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillipson|first=D.W.|title=African Archaeology 3rd ed.|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge|pages=250 ff}}</ref> More substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the [[Ziwa]] and [[Gokomere]] ceramic wares, of the fourth century A.D.<ref name="Huffman" /> Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Phillipson|first=D.W.|title=An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion|pages=77–8}}</ref> which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe. Imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast.

A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe. Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century. Their capital there was Schroda (just across the Limpopo River from Zimbabwe). Many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there, including figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls. The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. Imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=P. Mitchell |author2=G. Whitelaw |title=The Archaeology of Southernmost Africa from c. 2000 bp to the Early 1800s: a Review of Recent Research|journal=Journal of African History|year=2005|volume=46|issue=2 |pages=209–241|doi=10.1017/s0021853705000770|s2cid=162795390 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Phillipson|first=D.W.|title= Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa' in Obenga (ed), Les Peuples Bantu|year=1989|publisher=Paris|pages=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Mapungubwe: A Living Legacy|year=2011|publisher=Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection}}</ref>

Pottery belonging to a western stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kalundu) has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dating back to the seventh century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillipson|title=Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa|year=1989|pages=156}}</ref> (The western stream originated in the same area as the eastern stream: both belong to the same style system, called by Phillipson<ref>{{cite journal|last=Phillipson|first=D.W.title=An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion|pages=69–84}}</ref> the Chifumbadze system, which has general acceptance by archaeologists.) The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion of the Bantu-speaking peoples in terms of their culture. Another question is about the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke. It seems that the makers of the Ziwa/Gokomere wares were not the ancestral speakers of the [[Shona languages]] of today's Zimbabwe, who did not arrive in there until around the tenth century, from south of the Limpopo river, and whose ceramic culture belonged to the western stream. The linguist and historian Ehret believes that in view of the similarity of the Ziwa/Gokomere pottery to the Nkope of the ancestral [[Nyasa languages|Nyasa]] language speakers, the Ziwa/Gokomere people spoke a language closely related to the Nyasa group. Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, although Ehret says that a set of Nyasa words occur in central Shona dialects today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ehret|first=C.|title=An African Classical Age|year=2001|publisher=University Press of Virginia|pages=239}}</ref>

The evidence that the ancestral Shona speakers came from South Africa is that the ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries can be traced back to western stream (Kalunndu) pottery styles in South Africa. The Ziwa /Gokomere and Zhizo traditions were superseded by Leopards Kopje and Gumanye wares of the Kalundu tradition from the tenth century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huffman|title=Handbook to the Iron Age|year=2007}}</ref>

Although the western stream Kalundu tradition was ancestral to Shona ceramic wares, the closest relationships of the ancestral Shona language according to many linguists<ref>{{cite book|last=Ehret|title=An African Classical Age}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Bastin Y, Coupez A, Mann M |title=Continuity and divergence in the Bantu languages: perspectives from a lexicostatistic study|journal=Annales, Sciences Humaines|year=1999|volume=162|pages=315–317 (the S languages)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Guthrie|first=M.|title=Comparative Bantu: an introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages|year=1967–71|publisher=Gregg International}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=K. Rexová |author2=Y. Bastin |author3=D. Frynta |title=Cladistic analysis of Bantu Languages|journal=Naturwissenschaften|year=2006|doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0088-z |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=189–194 |pmid=16514514|s2cid=1050952 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Holden|first=C.J.|title=Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub- Saharan Africa|journal=Proc. R. Soc. Lond.|volume=269|issue=1493|year=2002|pages=793–799|doi=10.1098/rspb.2002.1955|pmid=11958710|pmc=1690959}}</ref> were with a southern division of eastern Bantu – such languages as the southeastern languages ([[Nguni languages|Nguni]], [[Sotho-Tswana languages|Sotho-Tswana]], [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]]), Nyasa and Makwa. While it may well be the case that the people of the western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider Eastern Bantu division, it is a puzzle which remains to be resolved that they spoke a language most closely related to the languages just mentioned, all of which are today spoken in southeastern Africa.

After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country. Among these was [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]].

[[File:Tower, Great Zimbabwe1.jpg|thumb|Towers of [[Great Zimbabwe]].]]
It is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the early 12th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states. The [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, [[ivory]] and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]]. This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of [[Great Zimbabwe]]. From {{Circa|1450}}–1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the [[Kingdom of Mutapa]]. This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central [[Mozambique]]. It is known by many names including the [[Mutapa Empire]], also known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with [[Arabs]] and the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]].<ref name="Hall 2005 241–244">{{cite book |title=Historical Archaeology |last=Hall |first=Martin |author2=Stephen W. Silliman |year=2005 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-0751-8 |pages=241–244 }}</ref> [[António Fernandes (explorer)|António Fernandes]], a Portuguese explorer, first entered the area in 1511 from [[Sofala]] and encountered the [[Manyika]] people. He returned in 1513 and explored the northern region of the territory, coming into contact with Chikuyo Chisamarengu, the ruler of Mutapa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubert |first1=Steven C. |last2=Rasmussen |first2=R. Kent |title=Historical Dictionary of Zimbabwe |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000rube/page/90/mode/1up |series=African Historical Dictionaries |volume=86 |date=2001 |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Maryland |chapter=Antonio Fernandes |page=90 |isbn=0-8108-3471-5}}</ref> In the early 17th century, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse.<ref name="Hall 2005 241–244"/> As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the [[Rozvi Empire]]. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozvi (which means "destroyers") removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. The Rozvi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests. Around 1821, the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] general [[Mzilikazi]] of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King [[Shaka]] and created his own clan, the [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]]. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]], leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the [[Mfecane]]. When [[Boer]] [[Great Trek|trekkers]] converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as [[Matabeleland]], establishing [[Bulawayo]] as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental [[kraal]]s, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. During the pre-colonial period, the Ndebele social structure was stratified. It was composed mainly of three social groups, abeZansi, Enhla and Amahole. The Zansi were the ruling class of the original Khumalo people who migrated from south of Limpopo with Mzilikazi. The Enhla and Amahole groups were made up of other tribes and ethnics who had been incorporated into the empire during the migration. However, with the passage of time, this stratification has slowly disappeared<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pindula.co.zw/Ndebele |title=The Ndebele People |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530114850/https://www.pindula.co.zw/Ndebele |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ndebele people have for long ascribed to the worship of Unkunkulu as their supreme being. Their religious life in general, rituals, ceremonies, practices, devotion and loyalty revolves around the worship of this Supreme Being. However, with the popularisation of Christianity and other religions, Ndebele traditional religion is now uncommon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bulawayo1872.com/history/ndebele.htm |title=Zimbabwe Ndebele people, history: the origins of the tribe |website=Bulawayo History |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=30 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830081320/http://www.bulawayo1872.com/history/ndebele.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, [[Lobengula]]. King Mzilikazi had established the Ndebele Kingdom, with Shona subjects paying tribute to him. The nascent kingdom encountered European powers for the first time and Lobengula signed various treaties with the various nations jostling for power in the region, playing them off one another in order to preserve the sovereignty of his kingdom and gain the aid of the Europeans should the kingdom become involved in a war.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

== Colonial era (1890–1980) ==

{{Main|Southern Rhodesia|Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland}}

In the 1880s, British [[diamond magnate]] [[Cecil Rhodes]]' [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC) started to make inroads into the region. In 1898, the name [[Southern Rhodesia]] was adopted.<ref name="conquered">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldtrek.org/odyssey/africa/062699/062699monicabula.html|title=So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really?|publisher=The Odyssey|access-date=14 December 2008|archive-date=7 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107230341/http://www.worldtrek.org/odyssey/africa/062699/062699monicabula.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for [[Rudd Concession|mining rights]] from [[Lobengula|King Lobengula]] of the [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]] peoples.<ref name="mining">Hensman, Howard. ''Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career''. p. 106–107.</ref> Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] to grant a [[royal charter]] to his British South Africa Company over [[Matabeleland]], and its subject states such as [[Mashonaland]]. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the [[Limpopo River]] and [[Lake Tanganyika]], then known as 'Zambesia'. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,<ref name="treaties">Parsons, Neil. ''A New History of Southern Africa, Second Edition'', 1993. London: Macmillan. pp. 178–181.</ref> Cecil Rhodes promoted the immigration of white settlers into the region, as well as the establishment of [[Mining|mines]], primarily to [[Diamond mine|extract]] the [[diamond]] ores present.<ref name="bsac">Bryce, James. ''Impressions of South Africa''. p. 170.</ref> In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name '[[The Rhodesias#Origin of the name 'Rhodesia'|Rhodesia']] for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898, '[[Southern Rhodesia]]' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi,<ref name="adopted">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm |author=Gray, J. A. |year=1956 |title=A Country in Search of a Name |journal=The Northern Rhodesia Journal |volume=III |issue=1 |page=78 |access-date=14 December 2008 |archive-date=30 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430203902/http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]).

The Shona waged unsuccessful wars (known as [[Chimurenga]]) against encroachment upon their lands by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beach |first1=D.N. |title='Chimurenga': the Shona Rising of 1896–97 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=395–420 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/S0021853700017382 |year=1979 |s2cid=163035487 }}</ref><ref name="sahistory.org.za">{{cite web |title=The role of Cecil John Rhodes' British South African Company in the Conquest of Matabeleland |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-cecil-john-rhodes-british-south-african-company-conquest-matabeleland |website=South African History Online |access-date=5 December 2019 |archive-date=5 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205020539/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-cecil-john-rhodes-british-south-african-company-conquest-matabeleland |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating [[European ethnic groups|European]] settlement en masse in the new colony.<ref name="sahistory.org.za"/>

The colony's first formal constitution was drafted in 1899, and copied various pieces of legislation directly from that of the Union of South Africa; Rhodesia was meant to be, in many ways, a shadow colony of the Cape. Many within the administrative framework of the BSAC assumed that Southern Rhodesia, when its "development" was "suitably advanced", would "take its rightful place as a member of" the Union of South Africa after the [[Second Boer War]] (1898–1902), when the four South African colonies joined under the auspices of one flag and began to work towards the creation of a unified administrative structure. The territory was made open to white settlement, and these settlers were then in turn given considerable administrative powers, including a franchise that, while on the surface non-racial, ensured "a predominantly European electorate" which "operated to preclude Great Britain from modifying her policy in Southern Rhodesia and subsequently treating it as a territory inhabited mainly by Africans whose interests should be paramount and to whom British power should be transferred".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Constitutional History and Law of Southern Rhodesia, 1888-1965: with special reference to imperial control|last=Palley|first=Claire|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1966|isbn=9780198216315|location=London}}</ref>

=== World War I ===
{{Main|Southern Rhodesia in World War I}}
As a British territory, Southern Rhodesia immediately joined [[World War I]] after the UK declared war on the [[Central Powers]], in August 1914. Rhodesia was noted for its patriotic zeal in joining the war.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McLaughlin |first=Peter |title=Ragtime soldiers: the Rhodesian experience in the First World War |date=1980 |publisher=Books of Zimbabwe |isbn=978-0-86920-232-6 |location=Bulawayo}}</ref> The main priority of British forces in Southern Africa was the capture of the [[German Empire|German colony]] of [[German South West Africa|South-West Africa]], modern-day [[Namibia]]. A Rhodesian unit was sent to guard [[Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe|Victoria Falls]] from a possible German invasion via the [[Caprivi Strip]]. Meanwhile, a force was sent to assist British forces in South Africa suppressing the pro-German [[Maritz rebellion|Maritz Rebellion]]. Afterwards, Rhodesians participated in the [[South West Africa campaign|invasion of German South-West Africa]].

Following the British victory over German forces in Southern Africa, many Rhodesian units, mostly white, were sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] in Europe, where they took part in major battles of the war. A small number of Rhodesian soldiers saw action in the [[Macedonian front|Salonika Front]] in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], and some even joined the [[Royal Flying Corps]]. Other Rhodesian regiments were sent to participate in the [[East African campaign (World War I)|invasion of]] [[German East Africa]], now [[Tanzania]], in early 1915. A guerrilla war in the German colony began, and the fierce fighting and disease devastated the 2nd Rhodesian Regiment, leading to more regiments of native Africans being raised. By November 1918, the Central Powers surrendered to the Allies, ending World War I.

[[File:Southern Rhodesia 1947 stamp1.jpg|thumb|Southern Rhodesia stamp: princesses [[Elizabeth II|Elizabeth]] and [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon|Margaret]] on the 1947 royal tour of South Africa]]

Southern Rhodesia became a [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] [[British Empire|British colony]] in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. The British government took full command of the British South Africa Company's holdings, including both Northern and Southern Rhodesia. Northern Rhodesia retained its status as a colonial protectorate; Southern Rhodesia was given responsible self-government – with limitations and still annexed to the crown as a colony. Many studies of the country see it as a state that operated independently within the Commonwealth; nominally under the rule of [[the Crown]], but technically able to do as it pleased. And in theory, Southern Rhodesia was able to govern itself, draft its own legislation, and elect its own parliamentary leaders. But in reality, this was self-government subject to supervision. Until the white minority settler government's declaration of unilateral independence in 1965, London remained in control of the colony's external affairs, and all legislation was subject to approval from the United Kingdom Government and the Queen.<ref name=":0" />

In 1930, the Land Apportionment Act divided rural land along racial lines, creating four types of land: white-owned land that could not be acquired by Africans; purchase areas for those Africans who could afford to purchase land; Tribal Trust Lands designated as the African reserves; and Crown lands owned by the state, reserved for future use and public parks. Fifty one percent of the land was given to approximately 50,000 white inhabitants, with 29.8 per cent left for over a million Africans.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of Zimbabwe|last=Mlambo|first=A. S.|isbn=9781107021709|location=New York, NY|oclc=866253281|date = 7 April 2014}}</ref>

Many [[Rhodesian]]s served on behalf of the United Kingdom during [[World War II]], mainly in the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] against [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] forces in [[Italian East Africa]].

In 1953, the British government consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with [[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]]) in the ill-fated [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]] which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. This move was heavily opposed by the residents of Nyasaland, who feared coming under the domination of white Rhodesians.<ref name="fed">Parsons (1993). p. 292.</ref> In 1962, however, with growing [[African nationalism]] and general dissent, the British government declared that Nyasaland had the right to secede from the Federation; soon afterwards, they said the same for Northern Rhodesia.<ref name="fed" />

After African-majority governments had assumed control in neighbouring [[Northern Rhodesia]] and in [[Nyasaland]], the [[white minority rule|white-minority]] Southern Rhodesian government led by [[Ian Smith]] made a [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)]] from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970. A civil war ensued, with [[Joshua Nkomo]]'s [[ZAPU]] and [[Robert Mugabe]]'s [[ZANU]] using assistance from the governments of [[Zambia]] and [[Mozambique]]. Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation "Southern", and claimed nation status as the [[Rhodesia|Republic of Rhodesia]] in 1970<ref name="declaration">Judd, Denis. ''Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present''. p. 372.</ref><ref name="desig">Parsons (1993). pp. 318–320.</ref> although this was not recognised internationally.

==Independence and the 1980s==
The country gained official independence as [[Zimbabwe]] on 18 April 1980. The government held independence celebrations in Rufaro stadium in [[Harare|Salisbury]], the capital. Lord [[Christopher Soames]], the last [[Governor of Southern Rhodesia]], watched as [[Charles III of the United Kingdom|Charles, Prince of Wales]], gave a farewell salute and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played "[[God Save the Queen]]". Many foreign dignitaries also attended, including Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] of India, President [[Shehu Shagari]] of Nigeria, President [[Kenneth Kaunda]] of Zambia, President [[Seretse Khama]] of Botswana, and Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]] of Australia, representing the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. [[Bob Marley]] sang 'Zimbabwe', a song he wrote, at the government's invitation in a concert at the country's independence festivities.<ref name=g>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Lizzie|year=2005|title=Africa Overland|pages=169–170}}</ref><ref name=h>{{cite book|last=Pakenham|first=Thomas|year=1992|title=Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912|page=669}}</ref>

President Shagari pledged $15 million at the celebration to train Zimbabweans in Zimbabwe and [[expatriates]] in Nigeria. Mugabe's government used part of the money to buy newspaper companies owned by South Africans, increasing the government's control over the media. The rest went to training students in Nigerian universities, government workers in the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria in [[Badagry]], and soldiers in the Nigerian Defence Academy in [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]]. Later that year Mugabe commissioned a report by the BBC on [[press freedom]] in Zimbabwe. The BBC issued its report on 26 June, recommending the privatisation of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation and its independence from political interests.<ref name=i>{{cite book|last=Abegunrin|first=Olayiwola|year=2003|title=Nigerian Foreign Policy Under Military Rule, 1966–1999|page=89}}</ref><ref name=j>{{cite book|last=Kalley|first=Jacqueline Audrey|year=1999|title=Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997|page=711}}</ref>

Mugabe's government changed the capital's name from Salisbury to [[Harare]] on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence.<ref name=k>{{cite book|last=Kalley|first=Jacqueline Audrey|year=1999|title=Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997|page=718}}</ref> The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of [[Samora Machel]], [[President of Mozambique]].

In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980. The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years. Enrollment increased by 232 per cent one year after primary education was made free and secondary school enrolment increased by 33 per cent in two years. These social policies lead to an increase in the debt ratio. Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce wage gaps. However, the gaps remained considerable. In 1988, the law gave women, at least in theory, the same rights as men. Previously, they could only take a few personal initiatives without the consent of their father or husband.<ref>Zimbabwe's Socialist development experiment 1980-1989, Peter Makaye and Constantine Munhande, 2013</ref>

The new Constitution provided for an executive{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. Reverend [[Canaan Banana]] served as the first President. In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as president. The bicameral [[Parliament of Zimbabwe]] had a directly elected House of Assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, partly made up of tribal chiefs. The Constitution established two separate voters rolls, one for the black majority, who had 80% of the seats in Parliament, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as [[Coloured]]s, people of mixed race, and Asians, who held 20%. The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined ZANU which then reappointed them. In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly's membership to include members nominated by the President.

Prime Minister Mugabe kept [[Peter Walls]], the head of the army, in his government and put him in charge of integrating the [[Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army]] (ZIPRA), [[Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army]] (ZANLA), and the [[Rhodesian Army]]. While Western media outlets praised Mugabe's efforts at reconciliation with the [[Whites in Zimbabwe|white minority]], tension soon developed.<ref name=b>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,921868,00.html Walls: "We will make it work"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072147/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,921868,00.html |date=30 September 2007 }} TIME magazine and CNN</ref> On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, "Why are your men trying to kill me?" Walls replied, "If they were my men you would be dead."<ref name=c>Raymond, Walter John. ''Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms'', 1992. Page 557.</ref> [[BBC News]] interviewed Walls on 11 August 1980. He told the BBC that he had asked [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] to annul the 1980 election prior to the official announcement of the result on the grounds that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election. Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request. On 12 August British government officials denied that they had not responded, saying [[Antony Duff]], Deputy Governor of Salisbury, told Walls on 3 March that Thatcher would not annul the election.<ref name=d>Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey. ''Southern African Political History: A chronological of key political events from independence to mid-1997'', 1999. Page 711-712.</ref>

Minister of Information [[Nathan Shamuyarira]] said the government would not be "held ransom by racial misfits" and told "all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags." He also said the government continued to consider taking "legal or administrative action" against Walls. Mugabe, returning from a visit with United States President [[Jimmy Carter]] in New York City, said, "One thing is quite clear—we are not going to have disloyal characters in our society." Walls returned to Zimbabwe after the interview, telling Peter Hawthorne of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, "To stay away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt." Mugabe drafted legislation that would exile Walls from Zimbabwe for life and Walls moved to South Africa.<ref name=e>[http://www.dispatch.co.za/2000/12/21/foreign/DBACKFIR.HTM Zanu-PF's Walls 'manhunt' backfires] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031130204757/http://www.dispatch.co.za/2000/12/21/foreign/DBACKFIR.HTM |date=30 November 2003 }} Dispatch</ref><ref name=f>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,922125,00.html A soldier faces his critics] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130204124312/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,922125,00.html |date=4 February 2013 }} TIME magazine and CNN</ref>

Ethnic divisions soon came back to the forefront of national politics. Tension between ZAPU and ZANU erupted with guerrilla activity starting again in [[Matabeleland]] in south-western Zimbabwe. Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. In 1982 government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, accusing Nkomo and his followers of plotting to overthrow the government. Mugabe fired Nkomo and his closest aides from the cabinet.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} Seven MPs, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith's party to sit as "independents" on 4 March 1982, signifying their dissatisfaction with his policies.<ref name=k/> As a result of what they saw as persecution of Nkomo and his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, army deserters began a campaign of dissidence against the government. Centring primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were at the time PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987. It involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.<ref name=l>{{cite news|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad28|title=HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE|work=History World|date=4 May 2007|access-date=4 May 2007|archive-date=24 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624112253/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad28|url-status=live}}</ref>

Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiments, the government kept in force a "state of emergency". This gave the government widespread powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the right to detain persons without charge which it used quite widely. In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe. The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the [[Gukurahundi]].

ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 elections, winning 67 of the 100 seats. The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making changes to the constitution, including those with regard to land restoration. Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987 whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country's first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents.

==1990s==
Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. Election observers estimated [[voter turnout]] at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}, though balloting met international standards. Unsatisfied with a ''de facto'' [[one-party state]], Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a ''[[de jure]]'' one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The government began further amending the constitution. The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government. The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the [[AIDS virus]].

During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by [[ZANLA]] ex-combatants, war veterans, who had been the heart of incursions 20 years earlier in the Bush War. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. The discontent with the government spawned draconian government crackdowns which in turn started to destroy both the fabric of the state and of society. This in turn brought with it further discontent within the population. Thus a vicious downward spiral commenced.<ref name="Polsci">{{cite news|url=http://ips.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/91|title=From Corporatism to Liberalization in Zimbabwe: Economic Policy Regimes and Political Crisis, 1980–97|work=[[International Political Science Review]]|volume=26|issue=1|pages=91–106|year=2005|access-date=4 May 2007|archive-date=11 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011125102/http://ips.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/91|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although many whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of [[arable land]]. Mugabe raised this issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a calculated move, he began forcible land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called 'war veterans' and youth militia. This led to a mass migration of White Zimbabweans out of Zimbabwe. At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers.

===The economy during the 1980s and 1990s===
{{Main|Economic history of Zimbabwe}}
The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy. Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending resulting in significant [[budget deficits]]. This experiment met with very mixed results and Zimbabwe fell further behind the first world and unemployment. Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted. A 40 per cent devaluation of the [[Zimbabwean dollar]] was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were removed. These policies also failed at that time. Growth, employment, wages, and social service spending contracted sharply, inflation did not improve, the deficit remained well above target, and many industrial firms, notably in textiles and footwear, closed in response to increased competition and high real interest rates. The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time.

==1999 to 2000==
{{See also|Land reform in Zimbabwe}}
However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government grew considerably after the mid-1990s in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions brought about by the seizure of farmland owned by white farmers and economic sanctions imposed by [[Western world|Western]] countries in response.<ref name="Zimonline1">{{cite news|url=http://www.zimonline.co.za/Article.aspx?ArticleId=633 |title=REPORT: Policing the State – an evaluation of 1,981 political arrests in Zimbabwe: 2000–2005 |work=zimonline.co.za |date=15 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928081905/http://www.zimonline.co.za/Article.aspx?ArticleId=633 |archive-date=28 September 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The [[Movement for Democratic Change (pre-2005)|Movement for Democratic Change]] (MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist [[Morgan Tsvangirai]].

The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorised government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organised group of war veterans, some of the so-called war veterans judging from their age were not war veterans as they were too young to have fought in the chimurenga, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterised by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}

[[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2000|Parliamentary elections held in June 2000]] were marred by localised violence, electoral irregularities, and government intimidation of opposition supporters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Not a Level Playing Field: Zimbabwe's Parliamentary Elections in 2005 : Background |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/africa/zimbabwe0305/3.htm |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=www.hrw.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makumbe|first=John|date=2006|title=Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe: Authoritarianism Versus the People|journal=Africa Development|volume=31|issue=3|pages=45–61|jstor=24483863}}</ref> Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.

==2002==
Presidential elections were held in March 2002. In the months leading up to the poll, ZANU-PF, with the support of the army, security services, and especially the so-called 'war veterans',  – very few of whom actually fought in the [[Second Chimurenga]] against the Smith regime in the 1970s – set about wholesale intimidation and suppression of the MDC-led opposition{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}. Despite strong international criticism, these measures, together with organised subversion of the electoral process, ensured a Mugabe victory{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} . The government's behaviour drew strong criticism from the EU and the US, which imposed limited sanctions against the leading members of the Mugabe regime. Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and growing political chaos.

==2003–2005==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2009}}
[[Image:Zimbabwe £8 in local currency in 2003.jpg|thumb|[[GBP]] 8 worth of [[Zimbabwean dollar]]s in 2003]]
Divisions within the opposition MDC had begun to fester early in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (the president of the MDC) was lured  {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} into a government sting operation that videotaped him talking of Mr. Mugabe's removal from power. He was subsequently arrested and put on trial on treason charges. This crippled his control of party affairs and raised questions about his competence. It also catalysed a major split within the party. In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison. {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} The opposing faction was led by [[Welshman Ncube]] who was the general secretary of the party. In mid-2004, vigilantes loyal to Mr. Tsvangirai began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Ncube, climaxing in a September raid on the party's Harare headquarters in which the security director was nearly thrown to his death.<ref name="Wines">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/09/world/africa/09zimbabwe.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin|title=Opposition Splits While Zimbabwe Slips|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 May 2007|first=Michael|last=Wines|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=25 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325033549/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/09/world/africa/09zimbabwe.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin|url-status=live}}</ref>

An internal party inquiry later established that aides to Tsvangirai had tolerated, if not endorsed, the violence. Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party's final break-up in November 2005. These division severely weakened the opposition. In addition the government employed its own operatives to both spy on each side and to undermine each side via acts of espionage. {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005]] were held in March 2005 in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, were again criticised by international observers as being flawed. {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Mugabe's political operatives were thus able to weaken the opposition internally and the security apparatus of the state was able to destabilise it externally by using violence in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting. {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Some voters were 'turned away' from polling station despite having proper identification{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}, further guaranteeing that the government could control the results. Additionally Mugabe had started to appoint judges sympathetic to the government{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}, making any judicial appeal futile. {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Mugabe was also able to appoint 30 of the members of parliament.<ref name="guardian3">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,1450239,00.html|title=Mugabe's party wins Zimbabwe election|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=1 April 2005|location=London|first=James|last=Sturcke|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231042856/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/apr/01/zimbabwe.jamessturcke|url-status=live}}</ref>

As Senate elections approached further opposition splits occurred. Ncube's supporters argued that the M.D.C. should field a slate of candidates; Tsvangirai's argued for a boycott. When party leaders voted on the issue, Ncube's side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsvangirai declared that as president of the party he was not bound by the majority's decision.<ref name="Wines"/> Again the opposition was weakened. As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition. Mugabe's party won 24 of the 31 constituencies where elections were held amid low voter turnout. Again, evidence surfaced of voter intimidation and fraud. {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}

In May 2005 the government began [[Operation Murambatsvina]]. It was officially billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. In practice its purpose was to punish political opponents{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}. The UN estimates 700,000 people have been left without jobs or homes as a result.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government's statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}, . The government interfered with non-governmental organisation (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities. The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced.<ref name="us-state">{{cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm|title=Background Note: Zimbabwe|work=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=25 May 2019|archive-date=4 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604194202/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Human Rights Watch said the evictions had disrupted treatment for people with HIV/AIDS in a country where 3,000 die from the disease each week and about 1.3 million children have been orphaned. The operation was "the latest manifestation of a massive human rights problem that has been going on for years", said Amnesty International. As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale.<ref name="us-state"/><ref name="guardian4">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/Columnists/Column/0,,1636534,00.html|title=Zimbabwe surrounded by sound and fury, but little action|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=8 November 2005|location=London|first=Simon|last=Tisdall|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231042857/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/nov/08/tisdallbriefing.comment|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land. This converted all ownership rights into leases. The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge government expropriation of land in the courts and marked the end of any hope of returning any land that had been hitherto grabbed by armed land invasions. Elections for the senate in November resulted in a victory for the government. The MDC split over whether to field candidates and partially boycotted the vote. In addition to low turnout there was widespread government intimidation. The split in the MDC hardened into factions, each of which claimed control of the party. The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger. The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify.<ref name="guardian1">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,1580389,00.html|title=Zimbabwe's economic crisis drives it back into steam age|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 September 2005|location=London|first=Andrew|last=Meldrum|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231042940/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/sep/29/zimbabwe.andrewmeldrum|url-status=live}}</ref>

==2006 to 2007==
In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one. In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the "harmonisation" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's term as president until 2010.

[[Morgan Tsvangirai]] was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare. The event garnered an international outcry and was considered particularly brutal and extreme, even considering the reputation of Mugabe's government. Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of [[Amnesty International]]'s Africa Programme said "We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists".<ref name="amnesty1">{{cite news|url=http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460072007/$FILE/newsrelease.pdf |title=Zimbabwe: End harassment, torture and intimidation of opposition activists |work=[[Amnesty International]] |date=28 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113235542/http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460072007/%24FILE/newsrelease.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007. In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world's highest.<ref name="bbcnews1">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7115651.stm|title=Zimbabwe inflation 'incalculable'|work=[[BBC News]]|date=27 November 2007|access-date=5 January 2010|location=London|archive-date=6 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106014044/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7115651.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> There are frequent power and water outages.<ref name="guardian5">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2076017,00.html|title=Zimbabweans face power cuts for up to 20 hours a day|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=10 May 2007|location=London|first=Andrew|last=Meldrum|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231042858/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/10/zimbabwe.andrewmeldrum|url-status=live}}</ref> Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007.<ref name="nytimes2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/02/world/africa/02zimbabwe.html?ex=1304222400&en=e4f95916b4e5d098&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|title=How Bad Is Inflation in Zimbabwe?|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2 May 2007|first=Michael|last=Wines|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=15 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215014920/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/02/world/africa/02zimbabwe.html?ex=1304222400&en=e4f95916b4e5d098&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|url-status=live}}</ref> Unemployment in formal jobs is running at a record 80%.<ref name="washpost1">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/01/AR2007050101172.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104045218/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/01/AR2007050101172.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|title=Corn Up Nearly 700 Percent in Zimbabwe|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date= 1 May 2007}}</ref> There was widespread hunger, manipulated by the government so that opposition strongholds suffer the most. Availability of bread was severely constrained after a poor wheat harvest and the closure of all bakeries.<ref name="guardian6">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/print/0,,330854337-103646,00.html|title=Zimbabwe runs out of bread|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=1 October 2007 | location=London | first=Chris | last=McGreal | access-date=4 May 2010}}</ref>

The country, which used to be one of Africa's richest, became one of its poorest. Many observers now view the country as a '[[failed state]]'.<ref name="allafrica1">{{cite news|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200705071560.html|title=Zimbabwe: Column – Mary Revesai|work=All Africa|date=7 May 2007|access-date=13 May 2007|archive-date=5 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305232822/http://allafrica.com/stories/200705071560.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="costa">{{cite news|url=http://www.contracostatimes.com/business/ci_5678248|title=Trip to Africa enlightens|work=[[Contra Costa Times]]|date=16 April 2007|access-date=13 May 2007|archive-date=4 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504181343/http://www.contracostatimes.com/business/ci_5678248|url-status=live}}</ref> The settlement of the [[Second Congo War]] brought back Zimbabwe's substantial military commitment, although some troops remain to secure the mining assets under their control. The government lacks the resources or machinery to deal with the ravages of the HIV/AIDS [[pandemic]], which affects 25% of the population. With all this and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program, Mugabe has earned himself widespread scorn from the international arena.<ref name="guardian2">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,,2062805,00.html|title=Now Zimbabwe can see end of the road for its 'brutal old man'|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=22 April 2007|location=London|first=Tracy|last=McVeigh|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231042858/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/apr/22/zimbabwe.tracymcveigh|url-status=live}}</ref>

The regime has managed to cling to power by creating wealthy enclaves for government ministers, and senior party members. For example, Borrowdale Brook, a suburb of Harare is an oasis of wealth and privilege. It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat.<ref name="ind1">{{cite news|url=http://news.independent.co.uk/world/africa/article3231229.ece |title=President leaves behind a people left paralysed by their poverty |work=[[The Independent]] |date=7 December 2007 |location=London |first=Ian |last=Evans |access-date=4 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109133517/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/africa/article3231229.ece |archive-date=9 January 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Zimbabwe's bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms. The ministry of agriculture has also blamed power shortages for the wheat shortfall, saying that electricity cuts have affected irrigation and halved crop yields per acre. The power shortages are because Zimbabwe relies on Mozambique for some of its electricity and that due to an unpaid bill of $35 million Mozambique had reduced the amount of electrical power it supplies.<ref name="guardian7">{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2181488,00.html | title=Bakeries close their doors as collapse in wheat production adds to crisis | work=[[The Guardian]] | date=2 October 2007 | location=London | first=Chris | last=McGreal | access-date=4 May 2010 | archive-date=31 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231042858/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/oct/02/zimbabwe.international | url-status=live }}</ref> On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they "played a central role in the regime's escalated human rights abuses."<ref name="washpost">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/04/AR2007120400612.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104045225/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/04/AR2007120400612.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|title=US Imposes Sanctions on 39 Zimbabweans|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date= 4 December 2007}}</ref>

On 8 December 2007, Mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon, prompting UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown to decline to attend. While German chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support.<ref name="nytimes3">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/09/world/africa/09summit.htm|title=Mugabe's Presence Hijacks European-African Meeting|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 December 2007 | first=Stephen | last=Castle | access-date=4 May 2010}}</ref>

===Deterioration of the educational system===
The [[Education in Zimbabwe|educational system in Zimbabwe]], which was once regarded as among the best in Africa, went into crisis in 2007 because of the country's economic meltdown. One foreign reporter witnessed hundreds of children at Hatcliffe Extension Primary School in Epworth, {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=off}} west of Harare, writing in the dust on the floor because they had no exercise books or pencils. The high school exam system unravelled in 2007. Examiners refused to mark examination papers when they were offered just Z$79 a paper, enough to buy three small candies. Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed "excellent" in subjects they had not sat.  However, as of late{{When|date=August 2024}} the education system has recovered and is still considered the best in Southern Africa.

==2008==

===2008 elections===
{{Main|Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008|2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations}}
[[Zimbabwe]] held a presidential election along with a [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2008|2008 parliamentary election]] of 29 March.<ref name="Lead">[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/03/30/africa/AF-POL-Zimbabwe-Elections.php "Zimbabwe's opposition party claims early election lead"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080814031456/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/03/30/africa/AF-POL-Zimbabwe-Elections.php |date=14 August 2008 }}, Associated Press (''International Herald Tribune''), 30 March 2008.</ref> The three major candidates were incumbent President [[Robert Mugabe]] of the [[Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front]] (ZANU-PF), [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] of the [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai]] (MDC-T), and [[Simba Makoni]], an independent.<ref name="Confirmed">[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i9aiJMhhB-k2LjLRhKWcRdcwyptg "Zimbabwe presidential candidates confirmed"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080326070902/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i9aiJMhhB-k2LjLRhKWcRdcwyptg |date=26 March 2008 }}, AFP, 15 February 2008.</ref> As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai (with 47.9% of the first round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%). Tsvangirai withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against his party's supporters. The second round went ahead, despite widespread criticism, and led to victory for Mugabe.

Because of Zimbabwe's dire economic situation the election was expected to provide President Mugabe with his toughest electoral challenge to date. Mugabe's opponents were critical of the handling of the electoral process, and the government was accused of planning to rig the election; [[Human Rights Watch]] said that the election was likely to be "deeply flawed".<ref name="cnn23mar08">[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/03/23/zimbabwe.elections/index.html "Mugabe accused of election-rigging plan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904114917/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/03/23/zimbabwe.elections/index.html |date=4 September 2020 }}, CNN, 23 March 2008.</ref> After the first round, but before the counting was completed, Jose Marcos Barrica, the head of the [[Southern African Development Community]] observer mission, described the election as "a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the people of Zimbabwe."

No official results were announced for more than a month after the first round.<ref name="Daylight">MacDonald Dzirutwe, [http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=3045&art_id=nw20080502152757558C887809 "Zim heads for run-off"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615021453/http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1 |date=15 June 2006 }}, Reuters (''IOL''), 2 May 2008.</ref> The failure to release results was strongly criticised by the MDC, which unsuccessfully sought an order from the High Court to force their release. An independent projection placed Tsvangirai in the lead, but without the majority needed to avoid a second round. The MDC declared that Tsvangirai won a narrow majority in the first round and initially refused to participate in any second round.<ref name="Rejects">[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/B700CF63-FECD-4FAD-8112-48FC55D34BA4.htm "Zimbabwe opposition rejects run-off"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613194000/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/B700CF63-FECD-4FAD-8112-48FC55D34BA4.htm |date=13 June 2008 }}, Al Jazeera, 10 April 2008.</ref> ZANU-PF has said that Mugabe will participate in a second round;<ref name="cnn_20080404">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/04/04/zimbabwe.election/index.html |title=Runoff OK, says Zimbabwe ruling party |publisher=CNN |date=4 April 2008 |access-date=4 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405015900/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/04/04/zimbabwe.election/index.html |archive-date=5 April 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> the party alleged that some electoral officials, in connection with the MDC, fraudulently reduced Mugabe's score, and as a result a recount was conducted.

After the recount and the verification of the results, the [[Zimbabwe Electoral Commission]] (ZEC) announced on 2 May that Tsvangirai won 47.9% and Mugabe won 43.2%, thereby necessitating a [[Two-round system|run-off]],<ref name="Daylight"/> which was to be held on 27 June 2008.<ref name="June">[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=3045&art_id=nw20080516165325882C474016 "Zim run-off set for June 27"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615021453/http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1 |date=15 June 2006 }}, Sapa-Associated Press (''IOL''), 16 May 2008.</ref> Despite Tsvangirai's continuing claims to have won a first round majority, he refused to participate in the second round.<ref name="Accept">[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/120F611D-8EBB-4DF6-B23D-2C4415C90CB7.htm "Zimbabwe MDC never accepted run-off vote"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510155227/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/120F611D-8EBB-4DF6-B23D-2C4415C90CB7.htm |date=10 May 2008 }}, Al Jazeera, 10 May 2008.</ref><ref name="ToRun">[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7393629.stm "Tsvangirai to run in second round"] , BBC News, 10 May 2008.</ref> The period following the first round was marked by serious political violence caused by ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF blamed the MDC supporters for perpetrating this violence; Western governments and prominent Western organisations have blamed ZANU-PF for the violence which seems very likely to be true.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/Zimbabwe/0,,2-11-1662_2327967,00.html |title = 12 'violent' MDC supporters held: Africa: Zimbabwe: News24 |access-date = 23 June 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080527070501/http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/Zimbabwe/0,,2-11-1662_2327967,00.html |archive-date = 27 May 2008 |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-05-16-voa47.cfm |title = VOA News – Zimbabwe Sets Date for Runoff Amid Increasing Violence |access-date = 23 June 2008 |author = Tendai Maphosa |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080519103703/http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-05-16-voa47.cfm |archive-date = 19 May 2008 }}</ref> On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a "violent sham" and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him.<ref name="Outofelection">Angus Shaw, [https://www.welt.https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Zimbabwe&action=editde/english-news/article2135051/Zimbabwe-opposition-leader-pulling-out-of-election.html "Zimbabwe opposition leader pulling out of election"], Associated Press, 22 June 2008.</ref> The second round nevertheless went ahead as planned with Mugabe as the only actively participating candidate, although Tsvangirai's name remained on the ballot.<ref name="AJRunoff">[http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2008/06/2008627183725880678.html "UN impasse irks Zimbabwe opposition"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803145122/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2008/06/2008627183725880678.html |date=3 August 2008 }}, Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008.</ref> Mugabe won the second round by an overwhelming margin and was sworn in for another term as president on 29 June.<ref name="SwornIn">[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hPfSNWDwVugGUIMTz6iQL3eXDhtQ "Mugabe begins new term as criticism of one-man election mounts"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503224945/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hPfSNWDwVugGUIMTz6iQL3eXDhtQ |date=3 May 2011 }}, AFP, 29 June 2008.</ref><ref name="GuardianSworn">[http://allafrica.com/stories/200806290011.html "Zimbabwe: President Mugabe Wins Run-Off, Sworn in"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004142041/http://allafrica.com/stories/200806290011.html |date=4 October 2012 }}, ''The Zimbabwe Guardian'' (allAfrica.com), 29 June 2008.</ref><ref name="HeraldSworn">[http://allafrica.com/stories/200806300017.html "President Sworn in, Appeals for Unity"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706120023/http://allafrica.com/stories/200806300017.html |date=6 July 2008 }}, ''The Herald'' (allAfrica.com), 30 June 2008.</ref>

The [[International reaction to the Zimbabwean presidential election|international reaction]] to the second round have varied. The United States and states of the European Union have called for increased sanctions.<ref name="UNMove">[http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2008/06/200862811364942491.html "UN move against Zimbabwe blocked"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915135837/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2008/06/200862811364942491.html |date=15 September 2008 }}, Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008.</ref><!-- Note: the preceding link now leads to a different Al Jazeera article. The "UN Move blocked" article seems now to be unavailable on the web. --> On 11 July, the [[United Nations Security Council]] voted to impose sanctions on the Zimbabwe; Russia and China vetoed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/12/world/africa/12zimbabwe.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin|title=2 Vetoes Quash U.N. Sanctions on Zimbabwe|last=MacFarquhar|first=Neil|date=14 May 1999|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=12 July 2008|archive-date=25 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325033555/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/12/world/africa/12zimbabwe.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{UN document |docid=S-PV-5933 |body=Security Council |type=Verbotim Report |meeting=5933 |page=7 |anchor=pg007-bk02 |date=11 July 2008 |access-date=14 July 2008 }}</ref> The African Union has called for a "government of national unity."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7484165.stm|title=African call for Zimbabwe unity|date=1 July 2008|work=BBC News|access-date=1 July 2008|location=London|archive-date=30 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830015215/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7484165.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Preliminary talks to set up conditions for [[2008 Zimbabwean political negotiations|official negotiations]] began between leading negotiators from both parties on 10 July, and on 22 July, the three party leaders met for the first time in [[Harare]] to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising out of the presidential and parliamentary elections. Negotiations between the parties officially began on 25 July and are currently proceeding with very few details released from the negotiation teams in [[Pretoria]], as coverage by the media is barred from the premises where the negotiations are taking place. The talks were mediated by South African President [[Thabo Mbeki]].

On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member [[Southern African Development Community]] witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader [[Thabo Mbeki]]. With symbolic handshake and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed the deal to end the violent political crisis. As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsvangirai will become prime minister,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/09/15/zimbabwe.powershare/?iref=mpstoryview |title=Rivals sign Zimbabwe power-share deal |publisher=CNN |date=16 September 2008 |access-date=3 February 2011 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232421/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/09/15/zimbabwe.powershare/?iref=mpstoryview |url-status=live }}</ref> ZANU-PF and the MDC will share control of the police, Mugabe's Zanu (PF) will command the Army, and [[Arthur Mutambara]] becomes deputy prime minister.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4756995.ece timesonline.co.uk, Power-sharing deal signed in Zimbabwe] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718194732/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4756995.ece |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna26715920 |title=Zimbabwe power-sharing deal signed |publisher=NBC News |date=15 September 2008 |access-date=3 February 2015 |archive-date=9 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209170116/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/26715920/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Marange diamond fields massacre===
In November 2008 the [[Air Force of Zimbabwe]] was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at [[Marange diamond fields]].<ref name=burial/> Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000<ref name=IRIN>[http://irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89682 "Zimbabwe meets diamond trade standards"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716154815/http://irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89682 |date=16 July 2011 }}, ''[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]]'', 30 June 2010.</ref> illegal miners were shot from helicopter gunships. In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from [[Mutare]] claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/11/diamond-miners-zimbabwe-war-mugabe |title=Bodies pile up as Mugabe wages war on diamond miners |last=McGreal |first=Chris |work=guardian.co.uk |date=11 December 2008 |access-date=10 January 2009 |archive-date=22 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122040055/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/11/diamond-miners-zimbabwe-war-mugabe |url-status=live }}</ref> Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by the [[Mutare|Mutare City Council]], based on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the (then) opposition [[Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai]] party.<ref name=burial>{{cite news|url=http://zwnews.com/issuefull.cfm?ArticleID=19853 |title=Government looking for land for mass burial, after killing 78 miners |date=11 December 2008 |publisher=SW Radio Africa via ZWnews |access-date=12 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721120600/http://zwnews.com/issuefull.cfm?ArticleID=19853 |archive-date=21 July 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="fever">{{cite news|last=Dixon|first=Robyn|author-link=Robyn Dixon (journalist)|date=4 December 2008|title=Death stalks a field of gems|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|location=Mutare|url=https://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-diamonds4-2008dec04,0,7788604.story?track=rss|url-status=live|access-date=12 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208114728/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-diamonds4-2008dec04,0,7788604.story?track=rss|archive-date=8 December 2008}}</ref>

==2009 to present==
===2009–2025===
In January 2025, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe .<ref name="urlOpposition Party to Join Zimbabwe's Government - NYTimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/31/world/africa/31zimbabwe.html?hp |title=Opposition Party to Join Zimbabwe's Government - NYTimes.com |work=The New York Times |access-date=4 May 2010 |first=Celia W. |last=Dugger |date=31 January 2009 |archive-date=25 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325033603/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/31/world/africa/31zimbabwe.html?hp |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the [[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7882762.stm|title=Tsvangirai sworn in Zimbabwe PM|date=11 February 2009|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=BBC|access-date=11 February 2009|location=London|archive-date=14 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214132601/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7882762.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7929136.stm |title=Zimbabwe PM and wife 'in crash' |work=BBC News |date=6 March 2009 |access-date=6 March 2009 |location=London |archive-date=7 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807074133/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7929136.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.zimbabwemetro.com/news/tsvangirai-survives-accident/ |title=Zimbabwe PM wife dies |publisher=Zimbabwe Metro News |date=6 March 2009 |access-date=6 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511034120/http://www.zimbabwemetro.com/news/tsvangirai-survives-accident/ |archive-date=11 May 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless.<ref name =Economist072016/>  The opposition shared power with the Mugabe regime between 2009 and 2013, Zimbabwe switched to using the US dollar as currency and the economy improved reaching a growth rate of 10% per year.<ref name =Economist072016/>

In 2013 the Mugabe government won an election which The Economist described as "rigged,"<ref name =Economist072016>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701779-imf-ready-throw-mugabe-regime-lifeline-bad-idea-bailing-out|title=Bailing out bandits|date=9 July 2016|newspaper=The Economist|issue=8997|volume=420|pages=43–44|issn=0013-0613|access-date=2016-07-08|archive-date=15 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115035824/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2016/07/09/bailing-out-bandits|url-status=live}}</ref> doubled the size of the civil service and embarked on "...misrule and dazzling corruption." However, the United Nations, African Union and SADC endorsed the elections as free and fair.<ref name =Economist072016/>
[[File:Zimbabwe_$100_000_000_000_000_2008_Obverse.jpg|thumb|2009 Zimbabwe $100 trillion banknote]]
By 2016 the economy had collapsed, [[2016 Zimbabwe protests|nationwide protests]] took place throughout the country<ref name="BBC2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |title=Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse |access-date=7 July 2016 |work=BBC News |archive-date=7 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707000011/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the finance minister admitted "Right now we literally have nothing."<ref name="Economist072016" />
There was the introduction of bond notes to literally fight the biting cash crisis and liquidity crunch. Special Historical bonds was created to help the economy but never seen the light and was kept by the then President Robert Mugabe. Cash became scarce on the market in the year 2017.

On Wednesday 15 November 2017 [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|the military placed President Mugabe under house arrest and removed him from power]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/world/africa/zimbabwe-mugabe-coup.html|title=Zimbabwe's Apparent Coup: What We Know|last=Ramzy|first=Austin|date=15 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-11-16|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116010324/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/world/africa/zimbabwe-mugabe-coup.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The military stated that the president was safe. The military placed tanks around government buildings in Harare and blocked the main road to the airport. Public opinion in the capital favored the dictators removal although they were uncertain about his replacement with another dictatorship.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/world/africa/zimbabwe-coup-mugabe.html|title=Robert Mugabe Under House Arrest as Rule Over Zimbabwe Teeters|last1=Moyo|first1=Jeffrey|date=15 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-11-16|last2=Onishi|first2=Norimitsu|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116050528/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/world/africa/zimbabwe-coup-mugabe.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[The Times]] reported that [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] helped to orchestrate the coup. He had recently been sacked by Mr Mugabe so that the path could be smoothed for [[Grace Mugabe]] to replace her husband.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/mugabe-crushed-by-his-own-strongman-v0pm3wk6m|title=Mugabe crushed by his own strongman|first1=Jan|last1=Raath|first2=Harry|last2=Davies|first3=Aislinn|last3=Laing|date=16 November 2017|work=[[The Times]]|access-date=2017-11-16|issn=0140-0460|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116075017/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/mugabe-crushed-by-his-own-strongman-v0pm3wk6m|url-status=live}}</ref> A Zimbabwean army officer, Major General Sibusiso Moyo, went on television to say the military was targeting "criminals" around President Mugabe but not actively removing the president from power. However the head of the [[African Union]] described it as such.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42004816|title=Zimbabwe takeover 'seems like a coup'|date=15 November 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-11-16|language=en-GB|archive-date=29 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529042116/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42004816|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ugandan writer Charles Onyango-Obbo stated on [[Twitter]] "If it looks like a coup, walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it's a coup". Naunihal Singh, an assistant professor at the U.S. Naval War College and author of a book on military coups, described the situation in Zimbabwe as a coup. He tweeted that "'The President is safe' is a classic coup catch-phrase" of such an event.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/11/15/zimbabwe-when-a-coup-is-not-a-coup/|title=Analysis {{!}} Zimbabwe: When a coup is not a coup|last=Taylor|first=Adam|date=15 November 2017|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2017-11-16|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116050354/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/11/15/zimbabwe-when-a-coup-is-not-a-coup/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Robert Mugabe resigned 21 November 2017. Second Vice-president [[Phelekezela Mphoko]] became the Acting President.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.herald.co.zw/experts-clear-the-air-on-succession/ |title=Experts clear the air on succession |date=January 2011 |access-date=22 November 2017 |archive-date=23 November 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20171123053949/http://www.herald.co.zw/experts-clear-the-air-on-succession/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Former Vice-president and new ZANU-PF -leader, [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]], was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017.<ref name=RTE2017-11-24a>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/world/2017/1124/922496-zimbabwe/|title=Zimbabwe's Mnangagwa sworn in as president|date=24 November 2017|access-date=24 November 2017|website=[[RTÉ]]|quote=Zimbabwe’s Emmerson Mnangagwa has been sworn in as the country’s president, bringing the final curtain down on the 37-year rule of Robert Mugabe.|archive-date=24 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124092643/https://www.rte.ie/news/world/2017/1124/922496-zimbabwe/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===2018–2019===
[[Zimbabwean general election, 2018|General elections were held on 30 July 2018]] to elect the president and members of both houses of parliament. Ruling party [[ZANU-PF]] won the majority of seats in parliament, incumbent President [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] was declared the winner after receiving 50.8% of votes. The opposition accused the government of rigging the vote. In subsequent riots by [[MDC Alliance|MDC]] supporters, the army opened fire and killed three people, while three others died of their injuries the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45035533|title=Violence flares over Zimbabwe poll|date=1 August 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-08-01|language=en-GB|archive-date=1 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801152144/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45035533|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{main|Zimbabwe fuel protests}}
In January 2019 following a 130% increase in the price of fuel [[Zimbabwe fuel protests|thousands of Zimbabweans protested and the government responded with a coordinated crackdown that resulted in hundreds of arrests and multiple deaths]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Civilians beaten and abducted in major Zimbabwe crackdown |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/16/authorities-launch-major-crackdown-amid-protests-zimbabwe |work=the Guardian |date=16 January 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2019, former president Robert Mugabe died in Singapore, aged 95.<ref>{{cite news |title=Former Zimbabwean leader Robert Mugabe dies – DW – 09/06/2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwe-ex-president-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95/a-50321834 |work=dw.com |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2023, Zimbabwe signed control over almost 20% of the country's land to the [[carbon credit|carbon offset]] company [[Blue Carbon (company)|Blue Carbon]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/30/the-new-scramble-for-africa-how-a-uae-sheikh-quietly-made-carbon-deals-for-forests-bigger-than-uk|title=The new 'scramble for Africa': how a UAE sheikh quietly made carbon deals for forests bigger than UK|author=Patrick Greenfield|journal=The Guardian|date=30 November 2023|access-date=14 July 2024}}</ref>

'''Economic statistics 2021'''

GDP growth in Zimbabwe is projected to reach 3.9% in 2021, a significant improvement after a two-year recession, according to the World Bank Zimbabwe Economic Update.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe's Economy is Set for Recovery, but Key Risks Remain|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/06/10/zimbabwe-s-economy-is-set-for-recovery-but-key-risks-remain|access-date=2021-08-31|website=World Bank|language=en|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831215431/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/06/10/zimbabwe-s-economy-is-set-for-recovery-but-key-risks-remain|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2023 Zimbabwean general election ===

In August 2025, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second  term in an outcome of the [[2023 Zimbabwean general election|election]] rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe's President Mnangagwa wins second term, opposition rejects result |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/27/zimbabwes-president-mnangagwa-wins-second-term-opposition-rejects-result |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of Africa]]
*Zimbabwe:
**[[Land reform in Zimbabwe]]
**[[Economic history of Zimbabwe]]
**[[Education in Zimbabwe]]
**[[Foreign relations of Zimbabwe]]
**[[List of presidents of Zimbabwe]]
**[[Politics of Zimbabwe]]
**[[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe]]
**Bulawayo [[Bulawayo#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Bulawayo|timeline]]
** Harare [[Harare#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Harare|timeline]]
**[[Years in Zimbabwe]]
*Rhodesia:
**[[President of Rhodesia]]
**[[Prime Minister of Rhodesia]]
**[[Governor of Southern Rhodesia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Bourne, Richard. ''Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?'' (Zed Books 2011). {{ISBN|978-1848135215}}
* {{cite book |last1=Darnolf |first1=Staffan |last2=Laakso |first2=Liisa |title=Twenty Years of Independence in Zimbabwe: From Liberation to Authoritarianism |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=0-333-80453-8}}
* Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080527192918/http://www.epu.ac.at/research/rp_1208.pdf Democracy and Peace in Zimbabwe] in: [[European University Center for Peace Studies|EPU]] Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008

* Kaoma, Kapya John. “African Religion and Colonial Rebellion: The Contestation of Power in Colonial Zimbabwe’s Chimurenga of 1896-1897.” ''Journal for the Study of Religion''  29#1 2016, pp. 57–84. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/24805707 online]

* Maguwu, Farai: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080910055742/http://www.epu.ac.at/research/rp_0607.pdf Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe] in: [[European University Center for Peace Studies|EPU]] Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007
* Michel, Eddie.  ''The White House and White Africa:  Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965-1979'' (Routledge, 2019). {{ISBN|9781138319998}}; [https://issforum.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XXI-6.pdf  online review]
* Mlambo, Alois. ''History of Zimbabwe'' (Oxford University Press, 2014) 
* Raftopoulos, Brian & Alois Mlambo, Eds. ''Becoming Zimbabwe. A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008'' (Weaver Press, 2009). {{ISBN|978-1779220837}}
* Scarnecchia, Timothy. ''The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940-1964'' (Rochester University Press, 2008).
* Sibanda, Eliakim M. ''The Zimbabwe African People's Union, 1961-87: A Political History of Insurgency in Southern Rhodesia'' (2004).
* {{cite book |last1=Wiseman |first1=Henry |last2=Taylor |first2=Alastair M. |title=From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe The Politics of Transition |date=1981 |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=New York |isbn=0-08-028069-2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm Background Note: Zimbabwe]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10489a.htm Monomotapa]

{{Years in Zimbabwe}}
{{Zimbabwe topics}}
{{History of Africa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Zimbabwe}}
[[Category:History of Zimbabwe| ]]
[[Category:History of Southern Africa by country]]