View source for History of literature

{{Short description|none}}
{{for|a more in-depth table of the history of literature|List of years in literature}}
{{History of literature by era}}
{{History of literature by region or country}}
The '''history of literature''' is the historical development of [[writing]]s in [[prose]] or [[poetry]] that attempt to provide [[entertainment]] or [[education]] to the reader, as well as the development of the [[literary technique]]s used in the [[communication]] of these pieces. Not all writings constitute [[literature]]. Some recorded materials, such as compilations of [[data]] (e.g., a [[check register]]) are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above.

==Ancient (Bronze Age–5th century)==
{{Main|Ancient literature}}Early literature is derived from [[Narrative|stories]] told in [[hunter-gatherer]] bands through [[oral tradition]], including [[myth]] and [[folklore]]. [[Storytelling]] emerged as the human mind evolved to apply [[causal reasoning]] and structure events into a [[narrative]] and [[language]], allowing early humans to share information with one another. Early storytelling provided opportunity to learn about dangers and [[social norm]]s while also entertaining listeners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sugiyama |first=Michelle Scalise |title=Critical Approaches to Literature: Psychological |publisher=Salem Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781682172728 |editor-last=Evans |editor-first=Robert |pages=67–83 |chapter=Literary Prehistory: The Origins and Psychology of Storytelling}}</ref> Myth can be expanded to include all use of patterns and stories to make sense of the world, and it may be psychologically intrinsic to humans. [[Epic poetry]] is recognized as the pinnacle of ancient literature. These works are long [[narrative poetry|narrative poems]] that recount the feats of mythic heroes, often said to take place in the nation's early history.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=7–16}}

The [[history of writing]] began independently in different parts of the world, including in [[Mesopotamia]] about 3200 BC, in [[Ancient China]] about 1250 BC, and in [[Mesoamerica]] about 650 BC. Literature was not initially incorporated in writing, as it was primarily used for simpler purposes, such as [[accounting]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schmandt-Besserat |first1=Denise |title=Handbook of research on writing : history, society, school, individual, text |last2=Erard |first2=Michael |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |year=2008 |isbn=9781410616470 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |pages=7–26 |chapter=Origins and Forms of Writing |oclc=418043692}}</ref> Some of the earliest surviving works of literature include ''[[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]]'' and the ''[[Story of Wenamun]]'' from [[Ancient Egypt]], ''[[Instructions of Shuruppak]]'' and ''[[Poor Man of Nippur]]'' from Mesopotamia, and ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' from Ancient China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Street |first=Deb |title=10 Of The Most Ancient Pieces Of Literature Ever Found |url=https://historydaily.org/10-oldest-pieces-of-literature-ever-discovered |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=History Daily |language=en |archive-date=2015-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003032900/https://historydaily.org/10-oldest-pieces-of-literature-ever-discovered |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Mesopotamia ===
[[Image:GilgameshTablet.jpg|thumbnail|A stone tablet containing part of the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]]]
[[Sumerian literature]] is the oldest known literature, written in [[Sumer]]. Types of literature were not clearly defined, and all Sumerian literature incorporated poetic aspects. Sumerian poems demonstrate basic elements of poetry, including [[Line (poetry)|lines]], [[imagery]], and [[metaphor]]. Humans, gods, talking animals, and inanimate objects were all incorporated as characters. Suspense and humor were both incorporated into Sumerian stories. These stories were primarily shared orally, though they were also recorded by [[scribe]]s. Some works were associated with specific [[musical instrument]]s or contexts and may have been performed in specific settings. Sumerian literature did not use [[Title (publishing)|titles]], instead being referred to by the work's first line.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |title=The Literature of Ancient Sumer |last2=Cunningham |first2=Graham |last3=Robson |first3=Eleanor |last4=Zólyomi |first4=Gábor |date=2004-11-25 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-155572-5 |language=en |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

[[Akkadian literature]] developed in subsequent Mesopotamian societies, such as [[Babylonia]] and [[Assyria]], from the third to first millennia BC. During this time, it spread to other areas, including Egypt, [[Ugarit]], and [[Hattusa]]. The [[Akkadian language]] was influenced by the [[Sumerian language]], and many elements of Sumerian literature were adopted in Akkadian literature. Many works of Akkadian literature were commissioned by kings that had scribes and scholars in their service. Some of these works served to celebrate the king or the divine, while others recorded information for religious practices or medicine. Poetry, proverbs, folktales, love lyrics, and accounts of disputes were all incorporated into Akkadian literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lenzi |first=Alan |title=An Introduction to Akkadian Literature: Contexts and Content |date=2020-01-10 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-1-64602-030-0 |language=en |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

=== Ancient Egypt ===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian literature}}
Literature of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]] developed directly from practical use during the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Fifth Dynasty]]. Lists of offerings to the gods were rewritten as prayers, and statistical information about state officials was expanded into [[Autobiography|autobiographies]]. These autobiographies were written to exemplify the virtues of their subjects and often incorporated a free flow style that blended prose and poetry. Kings were not written about beyond clerical recordings, but poetry was performed during the funerals of kings as part of a religious ritual. The ''Instructions'', a form of [[wisdom literature]] that was popular during most of Ancient Egyptian history, taught maxims of [[Ancient Egyptian philosophy]] that combined pragmatic thought and religious speculation.<ref name=":0" />

These literary traditions continued to develop in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] as autobiographies became more intricate. The role of the king in literature expanded during this period; royal testaments were written from the perspective of the king to his successor, and celebrations of the king and advocacy of strong leadership were included in autobiographies and ''Instructions''. [[Fiction]] and analysis of [[good and evil]] also developed during this period.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520973619-005/html |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature |date=2019-05-07 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-97361-9 |volume=I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms |language=en |chapter=Literary Genres and Literary Styles |pages=31–44 |doi=10.1525/9780520973619-005 |s2cid=240659212 |access-date=2022-08-25 |archive-date=2022-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825110152/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520973619-005/html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]], the popularity of wisdom literature and educational works persisted, though the use of teachings and stories was prioritized over the use of discourses. Entertainment literature was popular among the nobility during this period, incorporating aspects of narrative myth and folklore, religious hymns, love songs, and praise for the king and the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moers |first=Gerald |title=A Companion to Ancient Egypt |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-405-15598-4 |editor-last=Lloyd |editor-first=Alan B. |pages=685–708 |chapter=New Kingdom Literature}}</ref>

===Ancient China===
{{Main|Chinese classics|Classical Chinese poetry}}

==== Zhou dynasty ====
[[File:Rongo Analects 02.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Analects]]'' of Confucius]]
[[Chinese mythology]] played a notable role in the earliest Chinese literature, though it was less prominent compared to mythological literature in other civilizations. By the time of the [[Zhou dynasty]], Chinese culture emphasized the community over the individual, discouraging mythological stories of great personages and characterization of the divine. Mythological literature was more common in the southern [[Chu (state)|Chu]] nation.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=7}} The ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' and the [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']] are philosophical compilations that serve as the foundation of Taoism.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=62–63}} [[Confucius]] was a defining figure in ancient Chinese [[Ancient Chinese philosophy|philosophy]] and [[Ancient Chinese political systems|politics]]. He collected the [[Six Classics]] as founding texts of [[Confucianism]], and they became the central texts by which other works were compared in Chinese literary scholarship. Confucianism dominated literary tastes in Ancient China starting in the [[Warring States period]].<ref name=":1" /> The sayings of Confucius were later compiled into the ''[[Analects]]'' by his students.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=64}}

[[Anthology|Anthologies]] were common in Ancient China, and anthologizing was used as a means of literary criticism to determine literary classics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Chengxue |first1=W. U. |last2=Hongbing |first2=S. H. A. |date=2007-01-01 |title=The classics of ancient Chinese literature |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/flsc/1/1/article-p50_3.xml |journal=Frontiers of Literary Studies in China |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=50–79 |doi=10.1007/s11702-007-0003-9 |s2cid=195069499 |issn=1673-7423|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'', one of the Six Classics, is the oldest existing anthology of Chinese poetry. It comprises 305 works by anonymous authors dating from the 12th to 7th centuries BC. Prior to the collection of these works, poetic tradition in Ancient China was primarily oral.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wang |first=C. H. |title=Classical Chinese Literature: An Anthology of Translations |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9789629960483 |editor-last=Minford |editor-first=John |pages=71 |chapter=The Book of Songs: The Earliest Anthology of Chinese Poetry |editor-last2=Lau |editor-first2=Joseph S. M.}}</ref> The ''[[Chu Ci]]'' anthology is a volume of poems from the Warring States period written in Chu and traditionally attributed to [[Song yu]] and [[Qu Yuan]]. These poems were written as rhapsodies that were meant to be recited with a specific tone rather than sung.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=31–35}} The [[Music Bureau]] was developed during the Zhou dynasty, establishing a governmental role for the collection of musical works and folk songs that would persist throughout Chinese history.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=137}}

Historical documents developed into an early form of literature during the Warring States period, as documentation was combined with narrative and sometimes with legendary accounts of history.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=11–12}} Two of the Six Classics, the ''[[Book of Documents]]'' and the ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'', are historical documents. The latter inspired works of historical commentary that became a genre in their own right, including the ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'', the ''[[Gongyang Zhuan]]'', and the ''[[Guliang Zhuan]]''. The ''Zuo Zhuan'' is considered to be the first large scale narrative work in Chinese literature.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=51–55}} ''[[The Art of War]]'' by [[Sun Tzu]] was an influential book on military strategy that is still referenced in the modern era.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Petraeus |first=David |author-link=David Petraeus |date=2018-03-26 |title='The Art of War': As relevant now as when it was written |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/the-art-of-war-as-relevant-now-as-when-it-was-written-1.3440724 |access-date=2022-09-14 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en |archive-date=2022-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723205516/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/the-art-of-war-as-relevant-now-as-when-it-was-written-1.3440724 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Qin and Han dynasties ====
{{Further|Han poetry}}

Poetry written in the brief period of the [[Qin dynasty]] has been entirely lost. Poetry in the [[Han dynasty]] diverged as several branches developed, including short length, paralleled exposition, rhymed exposition, and ancient style, and [[idealism]] also became popular during the Han dynasty.<ref name=":1" /> The ''[[Nineteen Old Poems]]'' were written at this time, though how they came about is the subject of debate.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=131}} Poetry during this period abandoned tetrasyllabic verse in favor of pentasyllabic verse. The ballads of Chu spread through China and became widely popular, often focusing on concepts of inevitable destiny and fate.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=125–127}}

Political and argumentative literature by government officials dominated Chinese prose during this period, though even these works often engaged in lyricism and metaphor. [[Jia Yi]] was an essayist known for his emotional political treatises such as ''[[The Faults of Qin]]''. [[Chao Cuo]] was an essayist known for treatises that were meticulous rather than emotional. Confucianism continued to dictate philosophical works, though a movement of works criticizing contemporary application of Confucianism began with [[Wang Chong]] in his ''[[Lunheng]]''. Prose literature meant for entertainment also developed during this period.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=101–105}} Historical literature was revolutionized by the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', the first general history of ancient times and the largest work of literature to that point in time.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=113}}

==== Six Dynasties ====
{{Further|Six Dynasties poetry}}
Centralism declined during the Six Dynasties period, and Confucianism lost influence as a predominating ideology. This caused the rise of many local traditions of philosophical literature, including that of Taoist and Buddhist ideas.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=149–150}} Prose fiction during the Wei and Jin dynasties consisted mainly of supernatural folklore, including those presented as historical.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=189–190}} This tradition of supernatural fiction continued during the Northern and Southern dynasties with the ''Records of Light and Shade'' attributed to {{ill|Liu Yiqing|zh|劉義慶}}.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=261}} Another genre of prose was collections of short biographical or anecdotal impressions, of which only ''[[A New Account of the Tales of the World]]'' survives.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=263}}

[[Jian'an poetry]] developed from the literary tradition of Eastern Han, incorporating idiosyncrasies and strong demonstrations of emotion to express individualism. This movement was led by then-ruler of China [[Cao Cao]]. The [[poetry of Cao Cao]] consisted of ensemble songs published through the Music Bureau and performed with music.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=152–154}} The [[Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove]] were influential poets in the Wei dynasty mid-3rd century, addressing political and philosophical concerns directly in their poetry.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=167}} Chinese poetry developed significantly during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]], incorporating [[Parallelism (rhetoric)|parallelism]], [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], and emotional expression through scenery. [[Zhang Hua]], [[Lu Ji (Shiheng)|Lu Ji]], and [[Pan Yue (poet)|Pan Yue]] are recognized as the great poets that developed early Western Jin poetry.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=173}} [[Zuo Si]] and [[Liu Kun (Jin dynasty)|Liu Kun]] were poets in later Western Jin.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=178–180}} In Eastern Jin, philosophical poetry went through a period of abstraction that removed much of its literary elements. [[Guo Pu]] and [[Tao Yuanming]] were notable poets in Eastern Jin.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=181–184}}

The popularity of literary poetry and [[aestheticism]] grew during the [[Southern dynasties]], and literature as art began to be recognized as distinct from political and philosophical literature.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=194}} This resulted in the growth of literary criticism, with ''[[The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons]]'' and [[Zhong Rong|''Ranking of Poetry'']] being written at this time.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=197–201}} The [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] of the [[Northern dynasties]] saw little cultural growth due to their instability, and Northern literature of this time was typically influenced by the Southern dynasties.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=233}} [[Shanshui poetry]] also became prominent in Six Dynasties poetry.<ref name=":1" />

=== Levant ===
{{main|Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions}}
Ancient literature of the Levant was written in the [[Northwest Semitic languages]], a language group that contains the [[Aramaic|Aramaic language]], as well as the [[Canaanite languages]] such as [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. A corpus of [[Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions]] (or "Northwest Semitic inscriptions") are the primary extra-Biblical source for the writings of the ancient [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Hebrews|Hebrews]] and [[Arameans]]. These inscriptions occur on stone slabs, pottery [[ostraca]], ornaments, and range from simple names to full texts.<ref name="Woolmer">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/30935044 |title=Phoenician: A Companion to Ancient Phoenicia |journal=A Companion to Ancient Phoenicia, ed. Mark Woolmer |editor-last=Mark Woolmer |page=4 |quote=Altogether, the known Phoenician texts number nearly seven thousand. The majority of these were collected in three volumes constituting the first part of the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (CIS), begun in 1867 under the editorial direction of the famous French scholar Ernest Renan (1823–1892), continued by J.-B. Chabot and concluded in 1962 by James G. Février. The CIS corpus includes 176 "Phoenician" inscriptions and 5982 "Punic" inscriptions (see below on these labels). |access-date=2022-01-17 |archive-date=2022-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117145143/https://www.academia.edu/30935044 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="PR">{{Cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Heather Dana Davis |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctvrxk44t.14 |title=Teaching Epigraphy in the Digital Age |last2=Rollston |first2=Christopher A. |work=Ancient Manuscripts in Digital Culture: Visualisation, Data Mining, Communication |publisher=Brill |others=Alessandra Marguerat |year=2019 |editor-last=Hamidović |editor-first=D. |location=LEIDEN; BOSTON |pages=189–216 |chapter=9 |volume=3 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctvrxk44t.14 |isbn=9789004346734 |quote=Of course, Donner and Röllig's three-volume handbook entitled KAI has been the gold standard for five decades now |editor-last2=Clivaz |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Savant |editor-first3=S. |access-date=2022-01-17 |archive-date=2022-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118200124/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctvrxk44t.14 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Suder1984">{{Cite book |last=Suder |first=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqqxDwSwe5UC&pg=PA13 |title=Hebrew Inscriptions: A Classified Bibliography |publisher=Susquehanna University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-941664-01-1 |pages=13}}</ref><ref name="Doak2019">{{Cite book |last=Doak |first=Brian R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6CgDwAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean |date=2019-08-26 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-049934-1 |page=223 |quote=Most estimates place it at around ten thousand texts. Texts that are either formulaic or extremely short constitute the vast majority of the evidence.}}</ref>

The books that constitute the [[Hebrew Bible]] developed over roughly a millennium, with the oldest texts originating from about the eleventh or tenth centuries BCE.{{cn|date=March 2025}} They are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together. The Old Testament was compiled and edited by [[Authorship of the Old Testament|various authors]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Lim |first=Timothy H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zekRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780192806598 |location=Oxford |page=41 |access-date=2022-09-14 |archive-date=2022-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914212133/https://books.google.com/books?id=zekRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |url-status=live }}</ref> over a period of centuries, with many scholars concluding that the Hebrew canon was [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|solidified]] by about the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Bible: A Very Short Introduction|last= Riches|first= John|year= 2000|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Oxford|isbn= 978-0-19-285343-1|page= 37}}</ref><ref name="Philip R page 50">Philip R. Davies in ''The Canon Debate'', page 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the [[Hasmonean dynasty]]."</ref> The [[New Testament]] was an additional collection of books that supplemented the Hebrew Bible, consisting of the [[gospel]]s that described [[Jesus]] and the [[epistle]]s written by notable figures of early [[Christianity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bible |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/texts/bible.shtml |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=BBC |language=en-GB |archive-date=2022-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010020350/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/texts/bible.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Classical antiquity===
==== Ancient Greece ====
{{Main|Ancient Greek literature}}[[File:Bardo(js)014(js).jpg|thumb|A scene from the ''Odyssey'' portrayed in an Ancient Roman mosaic]]

Early Greek literature was composed in [[dactylic hexameter]]. [[Homer]] is credited with the codification of epic poetry in Ancient Greece with the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]].'' [[Hesiod]] is credited with developing a literary tradition of poetry derived from catalogues and genealogies, such as the ''[[Megala Erga]]'' and the ''[[Theogony]]''. Notable writers of religious literature also held similar prominence at the time, but these works have since been lost.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murray |first=Gilbert |title=A History of Ancient Greek Literature |year=1897 |pages=4–5}}</ref> Notable among later Greek poets was [[Sappho]], who contributed to the development of [[lyric poetry]] and was widely popular in antiquity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rayor |first1=Diane |title=Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works |last2=Lardinois |first2=André |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-107-02359-8 |location=Cambridge |pages=7}}</ref>

[[Theatre of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek plays]] originate from the [[Greek chorus|chorus plays]] of [[Athens]] in the 6th century BC as a tradition to honor [[Dionysus]], the god of theater and wine. Greek plays came to be associated with "elaborate costumes, complex choreography, scenic architecture, and the mask". They were often structured as a [[tetralogy]] in which three tragedies were followed by a [[satyr play]]. [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]] were known for their [[Tragedy|tragedies]], while [[Aristophanes]] and [[Menander]] were known for their [[Comedy (drama)|comedies]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hart |first1=Mary Louise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dhwVAA-A4IC&dq=ancient+greek+plays&pg=PP1 |title=The Art of Ancient Greek Theater |last2=Walton |first2=J. Michael |publisher=Getty Publications |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60606-037-7 |pages=1 |language=en |access-date=2022-09-03 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405003931/https://books.google.com/books?id=_dhwVAA-A4IC&dq=ancient+greek+plays&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sophocles is most well known for his play ''[[Oedipus Rex]]'', which established an early example of literary [[irony]].{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=21–25}}

[[Ancient Greek philosophy]] was developed as the foundation of [[Western philosophy]]. [[Thales of Miletus]] was the first person in recorded history to engage in Western philosophy. The Ancient Greek philosophical literature was advanced by [[Plato]], who incorporated philosophical debates into dialogues with [[Socratic questioning]]. [[Aristotle]], Plato's student, wrote dozens of works on many scientific disciplines.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Jacob N. |title=Ancient Greek Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825215433/https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Aristotle also developed early [[literary criticism]] and [[literary theory]] in his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]].''{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=21–25}}

====Ancient Rome====
{{Main|Latin literature}}

In the [[Roman Republic]], literature took the form of tragedy, comedy, epic, and historical. [[Livius Andronicus]] is recognized as the originator of literature in the Latin language, and due to Rome's influence, the development of Latin literature often extended beyond the traditional boundaries of Rome. [[Plautus]] was an influential playwright known for his comedies that emphasized humor and [[popular culture]]. The late republic saw the rise of [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan literature]] and [[Classical Latin]], which was primarily prose and included the works of [[Cicero]] and [[Sallust]]. Upon the formation of the [[Roman Empire]], political commentary declined and prose went out of favor to be replaced by poetry. Poets such as [[Virgil]], [[Horace]], [[Propertius]], and [[Ovid]] are recognized as bringing about the Golden Age of Latin literature.{{Sfn|Cohen|2017|pp=45–48}} Virgil's epic poem the ''[[Aeneid]]'' closely followed the formula established by Homer.{{Sfn|Cohen|2017|p=54}}

Prominent Latin authors that lived during the early empire included [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Seneca the Younger]], and Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. As the Roman Empire grew, Latin literature increasingly came from Spain and Northern Africa. Historical works of the early empire included the epic ''[[Pharsalia]]'' by [[Lucan]], which followed [[Caesar's civil war]], and the [[Annals (Tacitus)|''Annals'']] of [[Tacitus]], which recorded the events of the first century.{{Sfn|Cohen|2017|pp=57–63}} ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' by [[Apuleius]] was written in the later Empire and is possibly the world's oldest novel.{{Sfn|Cohen|2017|p=65}} The adoption of [[Christianity]] in the Roman Empire became apparent in Latin literature, most notably in the [[confessional writing]] of [[Augustine of Hippo]], such as the ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]''.{{Sfn|Cohen|2017|pp=70–71}}

===Ancient India===
{{Further|Tamil literature|Indian literature|Kannada literature|Telugu literature|Sanskrit literature}}{{More sources needed section|date=September 2022}}
Knowledge traditions in India handed down philosophical gleanings and theological concepts through the two traditions of [[Shruti]] and [[Smriti]], meaning ''that which is learnt'' and ''that which is experienced'', which included the [[Vedas]]. It is generally believed that the [[Puranas]] are the earliest philosophical writings in Indian history, although linguistic works on [[Sanskrit]] existed earlier than 1000 BC. Puranic works such as the Indian epics: [[Ramayana]] and ''[[Mahabharata]]'', have influenced countless other works, including Balinese [[Kecak]] and other performances such as shadow puppetry ([[wayang]]), and many European works. [[Pali]] literature has an important position in the rise of [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gornall |first1=Alastair |title=Rewriting Buddhism |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/37315 |website=OAPEN |access-date=September 25, 2024 |doi=10.14324/111.9781787355156 |date=2020|hdl=20.500.12657/37315 |isbn=978-1-78735-515-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pāli language |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pali-language |website=Britannica |access-date=September 25, 2024 |date=August 29, 2024}}</ref> [[Classical Sanskrit literature]] flowers in the [[Maurya period|Maurya]] and [[Gupta period]]s, roughly spanning the 2nd century BC to the 8th century AD. [[Sangam literature|Classical Tamil literature]] also emerged in the early historic period dating from 300 BC to 300 AD,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zvelebil |first1=Kamil Veith |title=Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MvD7EAAAQBAJ&dq=Classical+Tamil+literature+also+emerged+in+the+early+historic+period+dating+from+300+BC+to+300+AD&pg=PR3 |access-date=September 25, 2024 |page=24 |date=2021|publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-49302-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=HISTORY OF TAMIL |url=https://vocal.media/history/history-of-tamil-fv670yq4 |website=Vocal |access-date=September 25, 2024 |date=2024}}</ref> and is the earliest secular literature of India, mainly dealing with themes such as love and war. The [[Gupta period]] in India sees the flowering of [[Sanskrit drama]], classical [[Sanskrit poetry]] and the compilation of the [[Puranas]].

==Post-classical (5th century–15th century)==
{{Main|Early medieval literature|Medieval literature}}

===Medieval Europe===

After the fall of Rome (in roughly 476), many of the literary approaches and styles invented by the Greeks and Romans fell out of favor in Europe. In the [[millennium]] or so that intervened between Rome's fall and the [[Florentine Renaissance]], medieval literature focused more and more on faith and faith-related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had not been preserved in Europe, and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond. Although much had been lost to the ravages of time (and to catastrophe, as in the burning of the Library of Alexandria), many Greek works remained extant: they were preserved and copied carefully by Muslim scribes. What little there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions. Some of these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described as [[Matter of Rome]], [[Matter of France]] and [[Matter of Britain]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

Around 400 AD, the ''Prudenti [[Psychomachia]]'' began the tradition of allegorical tales. Poetry flourished, however, in the hands of the [[troubadour]]s, whose courtly romances and ''[[chanson de geste]]'' amused and entertained the upper classes who were their patrons. The [[First Crusade]] in 1095 also affected literature. For instance the image of the [[knight]] would take on a different significance. The [[Islamic]] emphasis on scientific investigation and the preservation of the Greek philosophical writings would also affect European literature.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

[[Hagiography|Hagiographies]], or "lives of the [[List of saints|saints]]", were frequent among early medieval European texts. The writings of [[Bede]]—''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People|Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]''—and others continue the faith-based historical tradition begun by Eusebius in the early 4th century. Between Augustine and ''The Bible'', religious authors had numerous aspects of Christianity that needed further explication and interpretation. [[Thomas Aquinas]], more than any other single person, was able to turn [[theology]] into a kind of science, in part because he was heavily influenced by Aristotle, whose works were returning to Europe in the 13th century. Playwriting essentially ceased, except for the [[mystery play]]s and the [[passion play]]s that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common people.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

[[Latin]] continued to be used as a [[literary language]] in medieval Europe. Though it was also spoken, it was primarily learned and expressed through literature, and scientific literature was typically written in Latin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ong |first=Walter J. |date=1984 |title=Orality, Literacy, and Medieval Textualization |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/468772 |journal=New Literary History |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.2307/468772 |jstor=468772 |issn=0028-6087 |access-date=2022-08-26 |archive-date=2022-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826081212/https://www.jstor.org/stable/468772 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Christianity became increasingly prominent in medieval European literature, also written in Latin. Religious literature in other languages proliferated during the 13th century as those who were not educated in Latin sought religious literature that they could understand. Women in particular were not permitted to learn Latin, and an extensive body of religious literature in many languages was written by women at this time.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blumenfeld-Kosinski |first1=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3haCwAAQBAJ |title=The Vernacular Spirit: Essays on Medieval Religious Literature |last2=Warren |first2=N. |last3=Robertson |first3=D. |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-230-10719-9 |pages=1–2 |language=en |access-date=2022-08-26 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405003930/https://books.google.com/books?id=a3haCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Medieval England ====
Early medieval literature in England was written in [[Old English]], which is not mutually intelligible with modern English. Works of this time include the epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'' and [[Arthurian fantasy]] based on the legendary character of [[King Arthur]]. Literature in the modern English language began with [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] in the 14th century, known for ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=26–28}}

==== Medieval Italy ====
''[[Divine Comedy|The Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]] was completed circa 1321. Organized into three parts called ''cantiche'', ''Divine Comedy'' is a narrative poem that is regarded as a preeminent work in Italian literature.<ref>For example, ''Encyclopedia Americana'', 2006, Vol. 30. p. 605: "the greatest single work of Italian literature;" John Julius Norwich, ''The Italians: History, Art, and the Genius of a People'', Abrams, 1983, p. 27: "his tremendous poem, still after six and a half centuries the supreme work of Italian literature, remains – after the legacy of ancient Rome – the grandest single element in the Italian heritage;" and Robert Reinhold Ergang, ''The Renaissance'', Van Nostrand, 1967, p. 103: "Many literary historians regard the Divine Comedy as the greatest work of Italian literature. In world literature it is ranked as an epic poem of the highest order."</ref> It follows Dante's journey into three different realms of the dead, ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]'' ([[Hell]]), ''[[Purgatorio]]'' ([[Purgatory]]), and ''[[Paradiso (Dante)|Paradiso]]'' ([[Heaven|Paradise]]), with the Roman poet [[Virgil]] and [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]], Dante's idealized woman, guiding him. Though ''Divine Comedy'' was largely ignored by the literary world during and a while after its publication, it gained further acclaim in the English-speaking world after British [[Romanticism|Romanticist]] poet William Blake and other 19th century Romanticist writers "rediscovered" the poem, influencing later writers such as [[T. S. Eliot|T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]. The narrative reflects the medieval philosophy of the afterlife as it existed in the 14th century [[Western Church]] as well as established the [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan language]] as the standard [[Italian language]]. ''[[The Decameron]]'' by [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] was published in 1351, and it influenced European literature over the following centuries. Its framing device of ten individuals each telling ten stories introduced the term ''[[novella]]'' and inspired later works, including Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales''.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=75–81}}

===Islamic world===
{{See also|Islamic literature}}

[[Image:Arabian nights manuscript.jpg|thumb|Arabic manuscript of the ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'']]

The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (''Arabian Nights''), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] Queen [[Scheherazade]]. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.<ref name="arabianNights">John Grant and John Clute, ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', "Arabian fantasy", p. 51 {{ISBN|0-312-19869-8}}</ref> This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by [[Antoine Galland]].<ref>[[L. Sprague de Camp]], ''[[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers]]: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'', p. 10 {{ISBN|0-87054-076-9}}</ref> Many imitations were written, especially in France.<ref name="arabianNights2">John Grant and John Clute, ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', "Arabian fantasy", p. 52 {{ISBN|0-312-19869-8}}</ref>

====Arabic literature====
{{Main|Arabic literature|Literature of Morocco}}
====Persian literature====
{{Main|Persian literature|Pahlavi literature}}

[[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'', the national epic of [[Iran]], is a mythical and heroic retelling of [[History of Iran|Persian history]] and the longest epic poem ever written. From [[Persian Empire|Persian]] culture the book which would, eventually, become the most famous in the west is the ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]''. The Rubáiyát is a collection of poems by the [[Persian people|Persian]] mathematician and astronomer [[Omar Khayyám]] (1048–1122). "Rubaiyat" means "quatrains": verses of four lines. ''[[Amir Arsalan]]'' was also a popular mythical Persian story.

Examples of early Persian proto-[[science fiction]] include [[Al-Farabi]]'s ''Opinions of the residents of a splendid city'' about a [[utopia]]n society, and elements such as the [[flying carpet]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khammas |first=Achmed A. W. |date=2006-10-10 |title=The Almost Complete Lack of the Element of "Futureness" |url=https://www.heise.de/tp/features/The-Almost-Complete-Lack-of-the-Element-of-Futureness-3408243.html |website=heise.de |access-date=2022-08-26 |archive-date=2006-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025052143/http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/23/23713/1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Ottoman literature====
{{Main|Ottoman literature}}
{{See also|Poetry of the Ottoman Empire|Prose of the Ottoman Empire}}

===Post-classical Hebrew literature===
{{Further|Jewish literature|Hebrew literature}}

Medieval Jewish fiction often drew on ancient [[aggadah|Jewish legends]], and was written in a variety of languages including [[Hebrew]] and [[Judeo-Arabic]]. [[Piyyut|Liturgical Jewish poetry]] in Hebrew flourished in Palestine in the seventh and eighth centuries with the writings of [[Yose ben Yose]], [[Yannai (Payetan)|Yannai]], and [[Eleazar Kalir]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jewish Literature|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/literature-jewish|access-date=2022-02-02|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archive-date=2016-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726174056/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0013_0_12632.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Later Jewish poets in Spain, Provençal, and Italy wrote both religious and secular poems in Hebrew; particularly prominent poets were the Spanish Jewish poets [[Solomon ibn Gabirol]] and [[Yehuda Halevi]]. In addition to poetry and fiction, medieval Jewish literature also includes [[Jewish philosophy#Jewish philosophy before Maimonides|philosophical literature]], [[Kabbalah: Primary Texts#Primary texts|mystical (Kabbalistic) literature]], [[Musar literature#Medieval Musar literature|ethical (musar) literature]], [[Halakhic|legal (halakhic)]] literature, and [[Jewish commentaries on the Bible#Commentaries|commentaries on the Bible]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

===Medieval India===
{{Further|Indian literature}}

Sanskrit declines in the early 2nd millennium, late works such as the ''[[Kathasaritsagara]]'' dating to the 11th century, to the benefit of literature composed in [[Middle Indic]] vernaculars such as [[Old Bengali]], [[Old Hindi]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

===Mid-imperial China===
{{Further|Chinese literature}}

==== Sui and Tang dynasties ====
[[Image:LiBai.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Li Po Chanting a Poem, by [[Liang K'ai]] (13th century)]][[Lu Sidao]], {{ill|Xue Daoheng|zh|薛道衡}}, and [[Yang Su]] were notable poets of the early [[Sui dynasty]], with Yang moving away from the dominant traditions of Southern poetry.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=251–253}} In the Sui and early [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties, literature was supported by the various emperors, who commissioned many works and wrote some of their own. Poetry in this period followed the Palace Style until it diverged with the work of the [[Four Paragons of the Early Tang|Four Paragons]].{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=268–275}} [[Wang Changling]] and [[Li Bai]] are recognized among the great poets of High Tang.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=282}} Landscape poetry and frontier poetry were both influential during the Tang dynasty.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=285–294}} Tang poetry also included [[Cí (poetry)|''cí'']], a type of lyric poetry.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=411}} Chinese poetry increased focus on politics, human suffering, and realism in the mid-Tang dynasty, such as in the works of [[Du Fu]].{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=310–311}} Chinese poetry diverged into two schools in the early-9th century; poets such as [[Meng Jiao]] and [[Han Yu]] wrote about the unusual, while poets such as [[Bai Juyi]] and [[Yuan Zhen]] emphasized simplicity.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=334}} The final years of the Tang dynasty saw the rise of [[lyric poetry]] and [[erotic poetry]]. [[Li Shangyin]] and [[Wen Tingyun]] were influential poets during this period.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=361–365}}

Fictional narrative became prominent in the Tang dynasty, written with looser restrictions on form and length.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=391}} Fiction in the mid-Tang period focused primarily on social commentary and romantic love, and notable authors during this time included [[Shen Jiji]] and Yuan Zhen.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=396–397}} Collections of stories became more common in the Late Tang period, particularly those of chivalrous tales by authors such as [[Pei Xing]]. Popular literature of the time included transformation text, vernacular story, [[sutra]], song, and rhapsody.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=403–405}} The style of prose was not initially developed during the Tang dynasty. Parallel prose remained popular in the early Tang dynasty, though writers such as Li Bai moved away from strict form that was common at the time.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=305–308}} Han Yu promoted the use of classical prose in the style of ancient Confucisionist works.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=376–379}} Printing began in Tang dynasty China. A copy of the ''[[Diamond Sutra]]'', a key [[Buddhist]] text, found sealed in a cave in China in the early 20th century, is the oldest known dated printed book, with a printed date of 868. The method used was [[block printing]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==== Song and Jin dynasties ====
Printing first became widespread in the [[Northern Song (960–1127)|Northern Song]]. Northern Song lyric poetry was developed by [[Yan Shu]], [[Liu Yong (Song dynasty)|Liu Yong]], and [[Zhang Xian (poet)|Zhang Xian]], and it became a popular pastime among the lower class.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=428–429}} [[Ouyang Xiu]] developed the popular style of lyric poetry while [[Yan Jidao]] developed the refined style.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=439}} Lyric poetry contrasted with the more formal [[Shi (poetry)|''shi'']] poetry that followed canonical literary forms and was used by scholars.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=428–429}} Political pressures heavily influenced the poetry of scholars in the Northern Song, as proficiency in older styles was a requirement for scholars to enter into civil service.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=461}} Politics and Confucianism in particular increasingly influenced poetry in Northern Song. Poets such as [[Mei Yaochen]] and [[Su Shunquin]] developed the style of poetry used in the Middle Northern Song.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=474}} [[Ouyang Xiu]] was a prominent literary scholar in Northern Song that refined the mainstream literary style of the time,{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=480}} and [[Su Shi]] is said to have perfected it.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=490}}

[[Chen Yuyi]] defined the style of Early Southern Song poetry.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=508}} [[Lu You]] was a poet in the Middle Southern Song that wrote extensively about political life in civil service and frustration with the dynasty's weakened position in the [[Jin–Song Wars]], while [[Xin Qiji]] was a Middle Southern Song poet that wrote on similar topics from a military perspective.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=525–533}} Poetic style did not advance significantly in the Late Southern Song, though [[Yan Yu (poetry theorist)|Yan Yu]]'s ''[[Canglang Shihua]]'' was influential in poetic theory.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=539}} Classical poetry in the Early Jin emphasized emotion, while elegance was emphasized later in the Jin dynasty.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=563–564}}

Popular fiction was typically performed in the Song dynasty, made up primarily of small talk fiction and historical tales. Classical prose fiction in the Song dynasty often sacrificed linguistic quality and imagination for plain language and moral teaching. ''[[Zaju]]'' variety plays developed during the Song dynasty as a predecessor to drama.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=557–562}} The scientist, statesman, and general [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095 AD) was the author of the ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' (1088), a large book of scientific literature that included the oldest description of the magnetized [[compass]]. During the Song dynasty, there was also the enormous historical work of the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', compiled into 294 volumes of 3 million written [[Chinese characters]] by the year 1084 AD.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} The [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] saw advances in popular literature, including ''[[Romance of the Western Chamber]]''.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=507}}

==== Yuan dynasty ====
Drama was significantly developed as a literary form in the [[Yuan dynasty]] and made up much of the era's fictional works.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=617}} Variety plays were influential in the Early Yuan period, with [[Khanbaliq]], present-day [[Beijing]], as the cultural center of variety plays.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=575}} As the 14th century began, variety play writers moved to [[Hangzhou]], though variety plays declined and they did not achieve the same prominence.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=593}} The [[Nanxi (theatre)|''nanxi'']] was developed as a genre of play at the same time, reflecting the unique political life of the Yuan dynasty in which civil service, [[infidelity]], and inter-clan politics all played a major role. ''[[Tale of the Pipa]]'' by [[Gao Ming]] was an influential ''nanxi'' drama.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=598–600}} [[Qu (poetry)|''Qu'']] was a common type of poetry in the Yuan dynasty that was used both as a standalone work and part of the structure of a play.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=605}}

Two of the earliest Chinese novels, ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' and ''[[Water Margin]]'', first appeared in the Yuan dynasty.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=639}} Poetry in the Yuan dynasty remained the primary form of expression for classical writers, though the Song tradition of intellectual poetry was replaced by poetry that expressed strong emotion. Northern Yuan poetry was influenced by the works of [[Yuan Haowen]] while Southern Yuan poetry was influenced by Yan Yu.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=617}}

===Classical and feudal Japan===
{{Main|Japanese literature|List of Japanese classic texts}}
[[File:Booklet of A Boat Cast Adrift (Ukifune).jpg|thumb|Illustrated 13th century copy of ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'']]
Japanese literature first diverged from Chinese literature around the eighth century.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=12}} ''[[Fudoki]]'' were eighth century records that were typically written in Chinese and documented both historical and mythological stories.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=18}} Folk ballads were also common, including those recorded in the ''fudoki'' and musical ballads. These ballads were written to be chanted and often had a syllabic structure, with the ''[[tanka]]'' being highly regarded in particular.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=21}} The writing of [[Waka (poetry)|''waka'']] poetry became increasingly important in the Heian period as it became a necessary skill for the aristocracy in both social and courtship settings.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|pp=57–58}}

The ''[[Man'yōshū]]'' is the oldest collection of Japanese poetry, written in Japanese with Chinese characters through ''[[Man'yōgana]]'' and compiling ''waka'' poetry from the fifth to eighth centuries.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=24}} The ''[[Kokin Wakashū]]'' was a collection of ninth century ''waka'' poetry compiled by imperial command. While the ''Man'yōshū'' was varied in the classes and professions of its writers, the poems of the ''Kokin Wakashū'' were limited to those of aristocratic poets.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|pp=50–51}} ''[[The Tales of Ise]]'' is a collection of loosely connected poems and narratives based on the life of [[Ariwara no Narihira]].{{Sfn|Kato|1997|pp=48–49}}

''[[Utsubo Monogatari]]'' and ''[[Ochikubo Monogatari]]'' were early prose works from the 10th century that realistically portrayed the lives of the aristocracy, and the former is sometimes considered to be the first full-length novel.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=62}} At the same time, women of the aristocracy began keeping diaries that followed aristocratic life.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=68}} ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' was the next major prose work in Japan, written in the 11th century.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|pp=72–73}} Its use of realism and romantic idealization inspired later works of Heian period prose fiction, including historical works such as ''[[Eiga Monogatari]]'' and ''[[Ōkagami]]''; romantic novels such as ''{{ill|The Tale of Sagoromo|ja|狭衣物語}}'', ''[[Yoru no Nezame]]'', ''[[Hamamatsu Chūnagon Monogatari]]'', and ''[[Torikaebaya Monogatari]]''; and short story collections such as ''[[Tsutsumi Chūnagon Monogatari]]''.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=78}} While these stories typically portrayed the aristocracy, ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū]]'' was written in the 12th century, compiling roughly one thousand stories from different walks of life in Japan, China, and India.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=84}} Japanese literature expanded beyond the aristocracy in the 13th century and became increasingly accessible to lower classes, often through the narration of religious texts such as ''[[The Tale of the Heike]]'' by [[Biwa hōshi|blind priests]].{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=100}} In the 14th and 15th centuries, poetry such as ''[[renga]]'' and drama such as ''[[noh]]'' and ''[[kyōgen]]'' was written by professional writers under the patronage of the court, temples, or local lords.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|p=112}}

=== Southeast Asia ===
The literary tradition of [[Java]] and the [[Kawi language]] is most well known for ''[[kakawin]]'' poetry. These were narrative poems based on the traditions of [[Sanskrit]] poetry, and they often incorporated religious elements. The oldest surviving ''kakawin'' is ''[[Kakawin Ramayana]]'' from the 9th century, a Javanese localization of the Sanskrit ''[[Bhaṭṭikāvya]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |date=2005 |title=Traditions of Knowledge in Old Javanese Literature, c. 1000–1500 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/abs/traditions-of-knowledge-in-old-javanese-literature-c-10001500/DFDBDCC47B898A3C3B7354BD593D8788 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1017/S0022463405000019 |issn=1474-0680 |s2cid=161351530 |access-date=2022-08-27 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827002145/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/abs/traditions-of-knowledge-in-old-javanese-literature-c-10001500/DFDBDCC47B898A3C3B7354BD593D8788 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica ===
{{Further|Mesoamerican literature}}

Mesoamerican literature was typically recorded on [[Codex|codices]], though most surviving codices of pre-Columbian literature were written in the Latin alphabet to preserve oral tradition after colonization. [[Nahuatl]] literature was divided into {{Lang|nah|cuícatl}}, which included song and poetry, and {{Lang|nah|tlahtolli}}, which included prose works of history and discourses. The {{Lang|nah|teocuícatl}} were divine hymns that were sung to praise the gods, while other Nahuatl poetry was sung in celebration of life and friendship, to honor warriors, or to pose philosophical questions. King [[Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani)|Nezahualcoyotl]] of [[Tetzcoco (altepetl)|Tetzcoco]] was a notable poet and songwriter.<ref name=":3" />

Literature in the [[Mayan languages]] was closely related to oral tradition in which writing guided memorized passages that were often performed. It was highly symbolic and incorporated heavy use of wordplay. Metaphor and imagery involving the natural world was also common. Mayan literature was often religious in nature, including information on religious practices, divination, and the gods. Much of this literature was later condemned as heretical and destroyed by Christian priests. The [[Dresden Codex]], the [[Paris Codex]], and the [[Madrid Codex (Maya)|Madrid Codex]] are the only surviving pre-Columbian Mayan codices. Notable surviving Mayan texts include the [[Popol Vuh]], the [[Chilam Balam]], and the [[Annals of the Cakchiquels]] that describe the religious beliefs of Mesoamerican cultures.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=O'Connell |first=Joanna |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7560/724822-002/html |title=Mexican Literature |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-292-73397-8 |editor-last=Foster |editor-first=David William |pages=1–30 |language=en |chapter=Pre-Columbian Literatures |doi=10.7560/724822-002 |s2cid=244159599 |access-date=2022-08-26 |archive-date=2023-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404203907/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7560/724822-002/html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early modern (15th century–18th century)==
{{Main|Early Modern literature}}
{{Further|15th century in literature|16th century in literature|17th century in literature}}

=== Early modern Europe ===
{{Main|Western literature}}
The [[Renaissance]] encompassed much of European culture during the early modern period. This period saw a renewed interested in the classical works of Ancient Greece and Rome and a proliferation of artistic and scientific achievement. Literature, as with most forms of art in the early modern period, was financed through [[patronage]] by nobles. Fiction writing was not considered a profession in its own right and was typically undertaken by those who already possessed independent wealth.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Keenan |first=Siobhan |title=Renaissance Literature |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780748631216 |pages=1–34 |chapter=The Historical Context}}</ref> The invention of the [[printing press]] in the mid-15th century revolutionized European literature. The production of printed books allowed for more uniformity in literary works and the spread of [[literacy]]. Religious literature in particular was affected by the printing press, as churches funded and involved themselves in the printing process. Literary criticism also developed as literary works became more accessible.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dondi |first=Cristina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odDYAQAAQBAJ |title=The Book: A Global History |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-166875-3 |editor-last=Suarez |editor-first=F. J. F. |language=en |chapter=The European Printing Revolution |editor-last2=Woudhuysen |editor-first2=H. R. |access-date=2022-08-26 |archive-date=2023-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404203911/https://books.google.com/books?id=odDYAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The form of writing now commonplace across the world—the [[novel]]—originated from the [[early modern period]] and grew in popularity in the next century. Before the [[modern novel]] became established as a form there first had to be a transitional stage when "novelty" began to appear in the style of the epic poem. [[Petrarch]] popularized the [[sonnet]] as a poetic form; [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s ''[[Decameron]]'' made romance acceptable in prose as well as poetry; [[François Rabelais]] rejuvenates satire with ''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]''; [[Michel de Montaigne]] single-handedly invented the [[essay]] and used it to catalog his life and ideas. Perhaps the most controversial and important work of the time period was a treatise printed in [[Nuremberg]], entitled ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium]]'': in it, the astronomer [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] removed the Earth from its privileged position in the universe, which had far-reaching effects, not only in science, but in literature and its approach to humanity, hierarchy, and truth.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Plays for entertainment (as opposed to religious enlightenment) returned to Europe's stages in the early modern period. [[William Shakespeare]] is the most notable of the early modern playwrights, but numerous others made important contributions, including [[Molière]], [[Pierre Corneille]], [[Jean Racine]], [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], and [[Ben Jonson]]. From the 16th to the 18th century [[Commedia dell'arte]] performers improvised in the streets of Italy and France. Some Commedia dell'arte plays were written down. Both the written plays and the [[improvisation]] were influential upon literature of the time, particularly upon the work of Molière. Shakespeare drew upon the arts of [[jester]]s and strolling players in creating new style comedies. All the parts, even the female ones, were played by men (''[[Drag (clothing)|en travesti]]'') but that would change, first in France and then in England too, by the end of the 17th century.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==== British literature ====
{{Further|British literature}}
As England grew to become a [[Superpower|world power]], focus on England itself appeared in English literature. This tradition began with ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' by [[Edmund Spenser]], written through the 1590s in honor of Queen Elizabeth I.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|p=61}} [[metaphysical poets|Metaphysical poetry]] developed in the 17th century, led by [[John Donne]], most well known for his love poems.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|p=54}} The [[Augustan literature]] movement developed in the 18th century, led by [[Samuel Johnson]], seeking to imitate the classical tastes of Ancient Greece and Rome. Augustan critics condemned metaphysical poetry for its frivolity and subversion.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|p=57}} [[John Milton]] wrote the epic poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' to create an English Christian epic that rivaled those of Homer and Virgil.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|p=64}} During the rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]] in the 1650s, the arts were restricted along [[Puritans|Puritan]] ideals. This censorship contributed to the fall of the [[Commonwealth of England]] and the restoration of the British monarchy. Under the restored monarchy, the arts were freer than they had been previously, and King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] became a patron of the theater.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=75–81}}

William Shakespeare was a famed playwright in the late-16th and early-17th centuries, and he is generally recognized as the greatest author in the English language. He is known for his comedies, his dramas, and his histories, as well as his use of [[blank verse]], [[sonnet]], and [[soliloquy]]. Shakespeare's historical plays ignored historical accuracy and often contemplated [[Order of succession|royal succession]], reflecting the concerns of his day regarding the succession of [[Elizabeth I]].{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=40–44}} Early English novels include ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' by [[John Bunyan]] and ''[[Oroonoko]]'' by [[Aphra Behn]], both published in the 1680s. Bunyan introduced into English literature ideas of [[individualism]] and the quest of [[personal fulfillment]]. Behn used her writing as [[social criticism]] to question the [[Atlantic slave trade]].{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=75–81}} ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]] is considered to be the first modern English novel, written as a celebration of the [[social mobility]] introduced by [[capitalism]]. The book was written in a [[Realism (arts)|realistic]] style, and the original edition was marketed as a true autobiography without any mention of Defoe as an author. [[Jonathan Swift]] introduced the [[fantasy novel]] to English literature, most notably through [[Gulliver's Travels]], which was similarly marketed as a true story.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=82–87}}

==== French literature ====
{{Further|French literature}}''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]'' was written by [[François Rabelais]] in five parts throughout the mid-16th century. It was an early influence of the novel, using an informal style and subversive humor.{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=75–81}}

The 17th century in France is known as the [[Louis XIV of France|Grand Siècle]] (Great Century). The most famous French authors, beside playwrights, include [[Jean de La Fontaine]] and [[Charles Perrault]] known primarily for their [[fable]]s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==== Italian literature ====
{{Further|Italian literature}}The [[Italian Renaissance]] was the starting point of what would become the European Renaissance over the following centuries.<ref name=":2" />

The earliest work considered an [[opera]] in the sense the work is usually understood dates from around 1597. It is ''[[Dafne]]'', (now lost) written by [[Jacopo Peri]] for an elite circle of literate [[Florence|Florentine]] [[Humanism|humanists]] who gathered as the "[[Florentine Camerata|Camerata]]".{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==== Spanish literature ====
{{Further|Spanish literature}}

''[[Don Quixote]]'' by [[Miguel de Cervantes]] was published in the early-17th century and is recognized as an early novel. It was a [[picaresque novel]] that parodied [[Romance (heroic literature)|chivalric romance]].{{Sfn|Sutherland|2013|pp=75–81}} The 16th and 17th centuries are recognized as the [[Spanish Golden Age]].

=== Early modern Islamic world ===
{{Further|Islamic literature}}

=== Early modern East Asia ===

==== Qing dynasty ====
{{Further|Chinese literature|Ming poetry}}
[[File:Xyj-sunwukong.jpg|thumb|An illustrated copy of ''[[Journey to the West]]'']]
Printing became prominent in China during the [[Ming dynasty]] in the beginning of the 16th century. By this time, urban areas were highly literate, assisted by the availability of paper in China. Written works were divided into four categories, including classics, histories, philosophy, and [[belles-lettres]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lu |first=Tina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1jGz0qXPgM0C |title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature: From 1375 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85559-4 |editor-last=Chang |editor-first=Kang-i Sun |pages=63–64 |language=en |editor-last2=Owen |editor-first2=Stephen}}</ref> Among the lower class, [[aria]] and folk songs were common, often performed by entertainers.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=704}} Literature was suppressed by the Ming dynasty's founding [[Hongwu Emperor]], and writers that did not comply with his rule were executed, beginning a decline in Chinese literature in the 14th and 15th centuries.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=654–655}} ''[[Jiandeng Xinhua]]'' by [[Qu You]] was a collection of supernatural and [[Chuanqi (short story)|''chuanqi'']] stories, and it was one of the few works that maintained influence despite the suppression of literature.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=719}} Variety plays were the most common type of drama in the Early Ming period, and Prince [[Zhu Youdun]] was the most influential playwright of the time.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=721}} A literary revival took place in the Middle Ming period. The revival of poetry was led by literary groups such as the [[Four Talents of Suzhou]] and the {{ill|Earlier Seven Masters|zh|前七子}} and continued by groups such as the {{ill|Tang-Song School|zh|唐宋派}} and the [[Latter Seven Masters]]. [[Xu Wei]] became an influential poet and prose writer after his death for his use of authenticity and his rejection of the preceding literary schools.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=667–681}} [[Classic Chinese Novels|Early Chinese novels]] were developed in the Middle Ming period, including works such as ''[[Water Margin]]'', ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', and ''[[Journey to the West]]''.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=728}}

In the Late Ming period, literature increasingly focused on the role of individuals within a society, beginning with the works of [[Li Zhi (philosopher)|Li Zhi]].{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=684–685}} Chinese philosophy developed humanist elements that challenged subservience to community and imperial hierarchy.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=654–655}} The {{ill|Gong'an School|zh|公安派}}, led by the {{ill|Three Yuan Brothers|zh|三袁}}, produced literature of "natural sensibility" that favored delight and simplicity over reason and ambition.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=687}} The {{ill|Jingling School|zh|竟陵派}}, led by [[Zhong Xing]] and [[Tan Yuanchun]], was a response to the Gong'an School that accepted the concept of "natural sensibility" but rejected the carefree style of Gong'an poetry.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=697–698}} Novels became more common in the Late Ming period as book publishers emerged.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=743}} ''[[Jin Ping Mei]]'' is recognized as a great novel of the Late Ming period and the first novel to follow day-to-day life of commoners.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=733}} ''[[Huaben]]'' stories were also common in this period, such as those collected by [[Feng Menglong]] in the [[Three Words (collection)|''Three Words'']] and by [[Ling Mengchu]] in ''[[Slapping the Table in Amazement]]''.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=745–750}} Dramas became more common in the Late Ming period as it became fashionable for the aristocracy to entertain guests with private theater troupes. [[Tang Xianzu]] was an influential playwright of this period, and the [[Wujiang School]] led by [[Shen Jing]] was responsible for expanding upon drama as an artform with emphasis on its musical elements.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=753–754}}

==== Japanese literature ====
{{Further|Japanese literature}}
Wood block printing became popular in the 17th century, and over a thousand books were sold annually by 1670. By the 17th century, increasing social divisions separated drama, with ''[[samurai]]'' watching ''noh'' and ''[[chōnin]]'' watching ''[[kabuki]]''. Writers typically dedicated themselves to the government, to a specific clan, to the commons, or to a reclusive lifestyle. [[Ishikawa Jōzan]] was an influential 17th century poet.{{Sfn|Kato|1997|pp=128–129}}

==== Korean literature ====
{{Further|Korean literature}}
Korean literature diverged from Chinese literature in the [[Joseon]] dynasty. The ''[[akjang]]'', the ''[[sijo]]'', and the [[Gasa (poetry)|''gasa'']] are forms of lyric composition that were popular in the Joseon dynasty.{{Sfn|Lee|2003|pp=148, 168, 189}} ''[[Yongbieocheonga]]'' was a major collection of poems produced in the 1440s.{{Sfn|Lee|2003|p=151}} Korean vernacular fiction was developed by [[Hŏ Kyun]] at the beginning of the 17th century with ''[[Hong Gildong jeon]]''.{{Sfn|Lee|2003|p=273}} The structure of ''Hong Gildong jeon'' was used to develop heroic fiction. ''[[The Cloud Dream of the Nine]]'' was written by [[Kim Man-jung]] to reflect historical and philosophical changes of the time using dream structure.{{Sfn|Lee|2003|pp=276–277}} ''[[Pansori]]'' fiction was developed in the early 18th century.{{Sfn|Lee|2003|p=284}}

=== Early modern Southeast Asia ===
{{Further|Cambodian literature|Vietnamese literature|Thai literature}}

=== Early modern India ===
{{Further|Indian literature}}

=== Pre-colonial Africa ===
{{Further|African literature}}

== Late modern (18th century–20th century) ==
{{Further|18th century literature|19th century in literature|20th century in literature}}

=== Late modern Europe ===
The 18th century was [[Age of Enlightenment]] and its most important authors are [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Adam Smith]]. The second half of the century sees the beginnings of [[Romanticism]] with [[Goethe]]. In the later 19th century, Romanticism is countered by [[Literary realism|Realism]] and [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]]. The late 19th century, known as the ''[[Belle Époque]]'', with its ''[[Fin de siècle]]'' retrospectively appeared as a "golden age" of European culture, cut short by the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914. [[Modernist literature]] was written from roughly 1900 to 1940.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In Britain, the 19th century was dominated by the [[Victorian era]], characterized by Romanticism, with [[Romantic poetry|Romantic poets]] such as [[William Wordsworth]], [[Lord Byron]] or [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] and genres such as the [[gothic novel]]. [[Charles Dickens]], perhaps the most famous novelist in the history of English literature, was active during this time and contributed to the novel's emergence as the leading literary genre of Victorian England.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In Romania, the first novels were plublished in the 19th century by [[Dimitrie Bolintineanu]] and [[Nicolae Filimon]]. During the same century, one of the most-known Romanian poets was [[Mihai Eminescu]].

In Denmark, the early 19th century [[Danish Golden Age|Golden Age]] produced prolific literary authors such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Hans Christian Andersen]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In Germany, the ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' period of the late 18th century merges into a [[Classicism|Classicist]] and [[Romanticism|Romantic]] period, epitomized by the long era of [[Goethe]]'s activity, covering the first third of the century. The conservative ''[[Biedermeier]]'' style conflicts with the radical ''[[Vormärz]]'' in the turbulent period separating the end of the Napoleonic wars from the [[Revolutions of 1848]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== United States ===
{{Further|American literature}}
[[File:Huckleberry Finn book.JPG|thumb|1884 cover of ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'']]
Literature of the [[American Revolution]] included ''[[A Summary View of the Rights of British America]]'' by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and ''[[Common Sense]]'' by [[Thomas Paine]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=28}} ''[[The Power of Sympathy]]'' by [[William Hill Brown]] was the first American novel, written in a realistic style with a clear moral message.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=41}} [[Judith Sargent Murray]] is credited with establishing American feminism through her essays and poetry.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=32}} The United States quickly achieved widespread literacy in the early-19th century, and many authors made fiction-writing their primary source of income. [[Washington Irving]] set precedent for comic literature and short stories, and he established the Knickerbocker School that wrote affectionately of New York. [[James Fenimore Cooper]] similarly set the precedent for American [[sea stories]], novels of manners, political satire, dynastic novels, and [[American frontier|frontier]] stories.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=47–49}} [[Edgar Allan Poe]] was highly influential in fiction writing, poetry, and essays, and he is particularly credited for his contributions to [[Gothic fiction]] and [[mystery fiction]] as genres.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=54–57}} [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] wrote moralistic stories such as ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' inspired by colonial-era [[Puritans|Puritan]] literature. [[Herman Melville]] explored human contradiction in sea stories such as ''[[Moby-Dick]]'', though his work did not become influential until the 1920s.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=93–101}} [[William Cullen Bryant]] was credited as the "founding father of American poetry", [[Walt Whitman]] is celebrated as defining the essence of America in his day with his poetry collection ''[[Leaves of Grass]]''. [[Emily Dickinson]] was refused to publish her poetry during her lifetime, but her works of this period were later acclaimed.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=106–114}}

[[Transcendentalism]] evolved as a philosophical school in the early-19th century, and authors such as [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] contributed to transcendentalist literature.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=59}} Many works were written on the topic of slavery in the early United States, including ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' by [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=81}} Freed slaves such as [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Jacobs]] also wrote autobiographies that promoted the cause of [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=66–69}} [[Native American literature]] in the early-19th century was in conflict between retaining traditional elements and incorporating elements of contemporary American literature.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=71–72}} [[Literary realism|Realism]] and [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalism]] became popular in the United States in the late-19th century. [[Mark Twain]] saw wide acclaim for his novels, including ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''. Regionalism developed in which different literary traditions evolved in the [[Western United States|West]], the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], the [[Southern United States|South]], and [[New England]]. [[African Americans|African American]] and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] literature also evolved as distinct literary traditions.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=115–130}}

A movement of backlash against small-town and middle-class values emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, including authors such as [[Theodore Dreiser]], [[H. L. Mencken]], [[Sinclair Lewis]], and [[Sherwood Anderson]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=167–169}} Civil rights literature of the early-20th century was written by authors such as [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], [[Booker T. Washington]], and [[James Weldon Johnson]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=159}} American poetry expanded significantly during the 20th century, introducing or incorporating [[modernist poetry]] traditions such as [[Imagism]], [[Vorticism]], and [[Objectivism (poetry)|Objectivism]]. Poets such as [[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], [[Robert Frost]], and [[Robinson Jeffers]] were influential in developing poetic form.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=171}} Authors such as [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], and [[William Faulkner]] analyzed their own places in American society through modernist novels,{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=196–206}} while authors such as [[Thomas Wolfe]] and [[John Steinbeck]] sought to find a future identity for the United States.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=223–226}} Counter-movements emerged in response to modernism, including traditionalism in the South and populism in [[Chicago literature]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=211–218}} The early-20th century also saw the emergence of [[Theater in the United States|American drama]] distinct from that of Europe.{{Sfn|Gray|2011|pp=206–207}} Popular genre fiction at the time included [[Western (genre)|westerns]] and [[detective fiction]].{{Sfn|Gray|2011|p=242}}

=== Canada ===
{{Further|Canadian literature}}
Early Canadian novels adapted the literary trends of Europe. ''[[The History of Emily Montague]]'' was the first Canadian novel, published in 1769. The aftermath of the [[Seven Years' War]] was a significant influence on Canadian literature in the 18th and 19th centuries as [[Canada (New France)|French Canada]] was transferred to the British.{{Sfn|Lane|2011|p=38}} Popular novels, such as those of [[Julia Catherine Beckwith]], came about in the early-19th century with an emphasis on day-to-day experiences rather than grand narrative.{{Sfn|Lane|2011|pp=57–61}} Nature featured prominently in Canadian literature by the mid-19th century. [[Edward Hartley Dewart]] was a prominent figure in early Canadian poetry, having published the first Canadian poetry anthology in 1864. He identified the formation of a Canadian literary body as a part of a conflict between colonial origins and a distinct Canadian identity. [[Octave Crémazie]] led the French Canadian literature movement in the 1860s. Notable Canadian poets of this period included [[Charles Sangster]], [[Alexander McLachlan (poet)|Alexander McLachlan]], [[Charles Heavysege]], and the [[Confederation Poets]].{{Sfn|Lane|2011|pp=21–26}} Victorian poetry remained prominent in Canada through the early-20th century, though international modernist movements such as Imagism gained influence after [[World War I]]. Poets such as [[Arthur Stringer (writer)|Arthur Stringer]] and [[Frank Oliver Call]] lead a [[free verse]] movement in the 1910s and 1920s.{{Sfn|Lane|2011|pp=94–96}}

=== Latin America ===
{{Further|Latin American literature}}Latin American literature diverged from European literature and began as its own literary tradition at the start of the 19th century. The primary change was in the subject matter and theme of the literature, while the form remained relatively European. It began with an individualist trend associated with the [[Spanish American wars of independence|Latin American independence]] movements that were developing at the time. Within this movement developed the individual literature of each Latin American country as they formed their own national identities. [[Andrés Bello]] is recognized as a founder of modern literature in [[Hispanic America]], and he is credited for popularizing Romanticism in the region. The balance of national and continental literary identities was a major issue in early Latin American literature, particularly within the Spanish language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gonzalez Echevarria |first=Roberto |title=The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780521340694 |editor-last=Gonzalez Echvarria |editor-first=Roberto |volume=1: Discovery to Modernism |pages=7–32 |chapter=A brief history of the history of Spanish American Literature |editor-last2=Pupo-Walker |editor-first2=Enrique}}</ref>

=== Late modern Islamic world ===
{{Further|Islamic literature}}

=== Late modern East Asia ===
==== Qing dynasty and Republic of China ====
{{Further|Chinese literature|Qing poetry}}

The [[Qing dynasty]] saw the return of prose literature as a vehicle primarily for Confucian teaching, and individualist literature declined.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=787–788}} The [[Three Masters of Jiangdong]] were the most prominent poets during the [[transition from Ming to Qing]].{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=773}} [[Wang Shizhen (poet)|Wang Shizhen]] led poetry trends in the Early Qing period through the expression of sentimentality through imagery and prosody rather than vocabulary, particularly with his ''[[Autumn Willows: Four Poems]]''. Song lyrics also reemerged as a popular poetic form as literary critics viewed the individual aria as unrefined.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=778–781}} Heroic fiction was adapted to popular novels in the Early Qing period. [[Supernatural fiction]] also became popular, including ''[[Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio]]'' by [[Pu Songling]].{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=845–848}}

In the Middle Qing period, [[Shen Deqian]], [[Weng Fanggang]], and [[Yuan Mei]] each formed new trends in poetry in opposition to the style of Wang Shizhen.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=793}} ''[[Pianwen]]'' became popular among prose writers in the Middle Qing period in opposition to the [[Tongcheng school]].{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=805}} ''[[Six Records of a Floating Life]]'' was an autobiography by [[Shen Fu]] that emphasized direct language and emotional appeal over style.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=810–811}} Performing arts of the Middle Qing period included the northern ''[[guci]]'' drum lyric and the southern ''[[tanci]]'' strummed lyric, the latter of which was often written by women poets.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=819}} Novels of the Middle Qing period included [[The Scholars (novel)|''The Scholars'']] and ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'', both of which eschewed popular taste in favor of philosophy.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=861}} Drama went out of fashion among the [[Qing literati]], though theatrical performances remained common entertainment for the public.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=839}} In the Late Qing period, Western culture was a significant influence on Chinese society.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=823}} The [[Tongguang school]] was popular among adherents to typical Chinese poetry, styled after that of the Song dynasty.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|p=827}} Chivalrous novels telling the tales of folk heroes, political novels that were critical of the falling Qing government, and genre fiction all became popular in the final years of the Qing dynasty.{{Sfn|Luo|2011|pp=882–886}}

Literature in the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] reflected the societal changes brought about by the [[1911 Revolution]]. Chinese literature broke away from classical tradition and literary restrictions with the [[New Literature Movement]] in 1919, beginning with works such as ''Experiments'' by [[Hu Shih]], [[Diary of a Madman (Lu Xun)|''Diary of a Madman'']] by [[Lu Xun]], and ''The Goddess'' by [[Guo Moruo]]. The [[May Fourth Movement]] was a further cultural movement that promoted the use of [[Written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Chinese]]. Advocates of [[Liberalism in China|liberal reform in China]] supported these shifts in literary tradition to challenge imperial institutions, and these works typically supported humanism and individualism. A refutation of individualism emerged in response at the onset of the [[Chinese Civil War]], and revolutionary literature was spread in support of the [[Chinese Red Army]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mian |first=Xie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baHPDgAAQBAJ |title=The Ideological Transformation of 20th Century Chinese Literature |date=2015-12-09 |publisher=Enrich Professional Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-62320-079-4 |pages=1–20 |language=en |chapter=Introduction: A Centenary of New Chinese Literature |access-date=2022-09-21 |archive-date=2023-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404203908/https://books.google.com/books?id=baHPDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Japanese literature ====
{{Further|Japanese literature}}

==== Korean literature ====
{{Further|Korean literature}}

=== Late modern Southeast Asia ===
{{Further|Cambodian literature|Vietnamese literature|Thai literature|Philippine literature}}

=== Late modern India ===
{{Further|Indian literature}}

=== Colonial Africa ===
{{Further|African literature}}

== Contemporary (20th century–21st century) ==
{{Main|Contemporary literature}}
{{Further|21st century in literature}}
Contemporary literature is defined as literature written after the end of [[World War II]] in 1945. [[Postmodern literature]] was written from roughly 1945 to 1980. Popular literature developed its own genres such as [[fantasy literature|fantasy]] and [[science fiction]]. Ignored by mainstream [[literary criticism]], these genres develop their own establishments and critical awards, such as the ''[[Nebula Award]]'' (since 1965), the ''[[British Fantasy Award]]'' (since 1971) or the ''[[Mythopoeic Awards]]'' (since 1971).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=22em}}
* [[History of art]]
* [[History of books]]
* [[History of fantasy]]
* [[History of film]]
* [[History of poetry]]
* [[History of science fiction]]
* [[History of theater]]
* [[Intellectual history]]
* [[:Category:Literature by country|Literature by country]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist|22em}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Walter |title=A History of European Literature: The West and the World from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780198732679}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gray |first=Richard |title=A Brief History of American Literature |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2011 |isbn=9781405192316}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kato |first=Shuichi |title=A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times |publisher=Japan Library |year=1997 |isbn=1-873410-48-4 |edition=New Abridged |translator-last=Sanderson |translator-first=Don}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lane |first=Richard J. |title=The Routledge Concise History of Canadian Literature |publisher=Routledge |year=2011}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Peter H. |title=A History of Korean Literature |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781139440868}}
* {{Cite book |last=Luo |first=Yuming |title=A Concise History of Chinese Literature |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=9789004203662 |translator-last=Ye |translator-first=Yang}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sutherland |first=John |title=A Little History of Literature |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780300188363}}

==External links==
* [http://www.litencyc.com/ The Literary Encyclopedia]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of literature by region or country}}
[[Category:History of literature| ]]
[[Category:History by topic]]