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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{EU history}}
The [[European Union]] is a [[geo-political]] entity, created in 1993, covering a large portion of the [[European continent]]. It is founded upon numerous treaties and has undergone expansions and secessions that have taken it from six [[Member state of the European Union|member states]] to 27, a majority of the states in Europe.

Since the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration in 1948, the development of the European Union has been based on a [[Supranational union|supranational]] foundation that would "make war unthinkable and materially impossible"<ref name="Schuman Project">{{cite web|url=http://www.schuman.info/9May1950.htm|title=Schuman Project|work=schuman.info}}</ref><ref name="schuman.info">{{cite web|url=http://schuman.info/Strasbourg549.htm|title=Schuman Project|work=schuman.info}}</ref> and reinforce democracy amongst its members<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schuman.info/UN4849.htm|title=Schuman Project|work=schuman.info}}</ref> as laid out by [[Robert Schuman]] and other leaders in the [[Schuman Declaration]] (1950) and the [[Europe Declaration]] (1951). This principle was at the heart of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC) (1951), the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)]], and later the [[Treaty of Rome]] (1957) which established the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) and the [[European Atomic Energy Community]] (EAEC). The [[Maastricht Treaty]] (1992) created the [[European Union]] with its [[Pillars of the European Union|pillars system]], including foreign and home affairs alongside the [[European Communities]]. This in turn led to the creation of the single European currency, [[euro|the euro]] (launched 1999). The ECSC expired in 2002. The Maastricht Treaty has been amended by the treaties of [[Treaty of Amsterdam|Amsterdam]] (1997), [[Treaty of Nice|Nice]] (2001) and [[Treaty of Lisbon|Lisbon]] (2007), the latter merging the three pillars into a single legal entity, though the EAEC has maintained a distinct legal identity despite sharing members and institutions.

==Development of Europe as a region==

===Europe as a continent===
The known world in [[Ancient Greece]] was differentiated into three landmasses: [[Asia]], "[[Ancient Libya|Libya]]" ([[Africa]]) and [[Europe]], giving rise to identifying the European landmass as a coherent area, a [[continent]].

===Roman Europes===
The European landmass was populated and territorialized by many long before its conceptualization as a coherent continent. But the [[Roman Empire]], an empire built on the [[Hellenistic world]] and [[Alexandrian Empire]], [[Ancient Egypt]], the [[Levant]] and [[North Africa]], became the first state to control the whole [[Mediterranean Basin]] and also large parts, particularly the [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Western Europe|Western parts]] of the European landmass. This historic prominence in the Mediterranean Basin and Europe has been invoked by states that came after it, claiming succession to Roman authority and to legitimate their rule over lands throughout the former Roman [[Ecumene#Rome|eucomene]], and therefore also in Europe, particularly in Western Europe, the lands of the later [[Western Roman Empire]] of [[Latin]] [[Rome]]. The latter established Western Europe as a coherent and independent political area of Europe, which has taken sometimes prominence, as simply [[Western world|the West]], over the concept of Europe. Similarly other concepts for Europe as a coherent political space have been used, such as for example [[Frangistan]].

[[File:Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg|thumb|left|upright=1|The Frankish Empire at its greatest extent, ca. 814 AD]]

The claims for the succession of the control over the West, after [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|the fall of Western Rome in 476]] developed into the concept of ''[[translatio imperii]]'' ("transfer of rule") through the [[King of Italy]], enabling claims by the [[Goths]], [[Lombards]], [[Frankish Empire]] (481/800–843) and [[Holy Roman Empire]] (800/962–1806).{{efn|The Frankish Empire has had a symbolic relevance for the building of Europe since the 20th century: [[Charlemagne]] is often regarded as the "Father of Europe" and a similarity between the borders of Charlemagne's Empire and that of the [[European Economic Community]] was made explicit during the 1965 Aachen exhibition sponsored by the Council of Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Story|first=Joanna|title=Charlemagne: Empire and Society|date=2005|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-7089-1|pages=2–3}}</ref> Kikuchi Yoshio (菊池良生) of&nbsp;[[Meiji University]]&nbsp;suggested that the notion of&nbsp;[[Holy Roman Empire]]&nbsp;as a federal political entity influenced the later structural ideas of the European Union.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kikuchi (菊池) |first=Yoshio (良生) |title=神聖ローマ帝国 |year=2003 |page=264 |publisher=講談社 |isbn=978-4-06-149673-6}}</ref>|name=|group=}}
Furthermore, during and after the Roman Empire the concept ''[[renovatio imperii]]'' ("restoration of the empire") was employed,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Patrick|last=Corbet|title=Renovatio imperii romanorum|encyclopedia=Oxford Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages|editor=Vauchez|publisher=James Clarke & Co.|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319-e-2403|date=2002|editor-first=André|editor-link=André Vauchez|isbn=978-0-227-67931-9}}</ref> particularly in the forms of the religiously inspired ''Imperium Christianum'' ("christian empire"),<ref>{{cite book|last=Folz|first=Robert|title=The concept of empire in Western Europe from the fifth to the fourteenth century|date=1969|publisher=Edward Arnold|isbn=978-0-7131-5451-1|location=London|pages=65|oclc=59622}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gorp|first1=Bouke Van|last2=Renes|first2=Hans|date=2007|title=A European Cultural Identity? Heritage and shared histories in the European Union|journal=Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie|volume=98|issue=3|page=411|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00406.x|s2cid=55529057 |issn=1467-9663|url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/2331638/208641.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/2331638/208641.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|quote=For the last two thousand years, the Christian church has attempted to unify Europe in cultural terms. Christianity did not originate in Europe but, building upon the organisation of the Roman Empire, has tried throughout the Middle Ages to become a Europe-wide organisation.}}</ref> and later the ''Reichsidee'' ("imperial idea"),<ref>{{cite book|last=Schramm|first=Percy E.|title=Kaiser, Rom und Renovatio; Studien zur Geschichte des römischen Erneuerungsgedankens vom Ende des karolingischen Reiches bis zum Investiturstreit.|date=1957|publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft|location=Darmstadt|pages=143|language=de|oclc=15021725}}</ref> to establish and sustain a coherent political region. As such the position and extent of influence of the [[Holy See|Papacy]] over a range of European lands has been a force, while not exclusively European, capable of rallying European powers under a common Christian identity.{{sfn|Pagden|Hamilton|2002|p=89}}{{sfn|Mather|2006|pp=16–18}}<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Nelsen|first1=Brent F.|title=Religion and the Struggle for European Union: Confessional Culture and the Limits of Integration|last2=Guth|first2=James L.|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-62616-070-5|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Kj64CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 48–49]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Perkins|first=Mary Anne|url=https://archive.org/details/christendomeurop0000perk|title=Christendom and European Identity: The Legacy of a Grand Narrative Since 1789|date=2004|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-018244-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/christendomeurop0000perk/page/341 341]|url-access=registration}}</ref>
That said, some European powers, such as [[France]] (after the installment of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] with [[East Francia]]) and the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] challenged the Western Roman authority through the [[Western Schism]] and the [[Italian Wars]], while [[England]], the [[Dutch Republic]], [[Prussia]], the [[Swedish Empire]] and [[Denmark–Norway]] also challenged the Papal one with [[Protestant Reformation]].

The Greek [[Eastern Rome]], also called Byzantine Empire, remained long after the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire, sustaining a coherent political space also over large areas of Europe, particularly of (South-) [[Eastern Europe]], or simply [[Eastern world|the East]], giving rise to the other major particular Europe. With the [[fall of the Eastern Roman Empire]] in 1453, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Russian Tsardom]], and ultimately the [[Russian Empire|Empire]] (1547–1917), with Moscow as the so-called [[Moscow, third Rome|Third Rome]], used claims of inheritance of the eastern Roman Empire to legitimate their rule over larger areas of Europe, though not exclusively.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Skolimowska|first=Anna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQB-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT103|title=Perceptions of the European Union's Identity in International Relations|date=2018|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-00560-9}}</ref>

{{notelist}}

===Other Europes===
But also other [[polities]] of Europe have established, independently from Rome and Byzantine, their European realms, such as a range of pre-Roman or pre-Christian Greek, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic and Hungarian powers, [[Khanate]]s, or [[Al-Andalus]] and the [[Sicilian Emirate]].

==Ideas of European unity before 1948==
{{Main|Ideas of European unity before 1948}}
[[File:Europe As A Queen Sebastian Munster 1570.jpg|thumb|''[[Europa regina]]'' in [[Sebastian Münster]]'s "''[[Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)|Cosmographia]]''", 1570]]

Apart from the ideas of [[federation]], [[confederation]], or [[customs union]] such as [[Winston Churchill]]'s 1946 call for a "[[United States of Europe]]", the original development of the European Union was based on a [[Supranational union|supranational]] foundation that would "make war unthinkable and materially impossible"<ref name="Schuman Project"/><ref name="schuman.info"/> 
A peaceful means of some consolidation of European territories used to be provided by [[dynastic union]]s; less common were country-level unions, such as the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/european-union/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|date=16 February 2022}}</ref>

In 15th century, [[King of Bohemia]] [[George of Poděbrady]] proposed the [[Treaty on the Establishment of Peace throughout Christendom]] which sought to end military conflict between Christian kingdoms of Europe. The treaty proposed a multilateral framework, including a peaceful dispute resolution process, but despite a vigorous promotional campaign, the proposal was ultimately unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Le Goff |first=Jacques |title=The birth of Europe |last2=Le Goff |first2=Jacques |date=2005 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-22888-2 |edition=1. publ |series=The making of Europe |location=Malden, Mass. |pages=158–159}}</ref> This effort has been occasionally noted as a first coherent proposal for a proto-European Union.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Koten |first1=Marek |title=George of Bohemia: The Father of the European Union |url=https://3seaseurope.com/george-of-bohemia-podebrady-czechia-european-union/ |website=3 Seas Europe |access-date=17 July 2024 |date=21 September 2022}}</ref>

In the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1818]], [[Alexander I of Russia|Tsar Alexander]], as the most advanced internationalist of the day, suggested a kind of permanent European union and even proposed the maintenance of international military forces to provide recognised states with support against changes by violence.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of the Modern World |author=R. R. Palmer |page=461 }}</ref>

Pan-European political thought truly emerged during the 19th century, inspired by the liberal ideas of the [[French Revolution|French]] and [[American Revolution]]s. The following [[Napoleonic Wars]] and [[First French Empire]] (1804–1815), brought down the [[Holy Roman Empire]], enabled [[nationalism]] and following the [[Congress of Vienna]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghervas|first=Stella|title=EUtROPEs. The Paradox of European Empire|publisher=University of Chicago Center in Paris|year=2014|isbn=978-2-9525962-6-8|editor-last=Boyer|editor-first=John W.|pages=49–81|chapter=Antidotes to Empire: From the Congress System to the European Union|editor-last2=Molden|editor-first2=Berthold}}</ref> the ideals of internationalism like with [[Immanuel Kant]] and European unity flourished across the continent, especially in the writings of [[Wojciech Jastrzębowski]] (1799–1882)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinterič |first1=Uroš |last2=Prijon |first2=Lea |title=European Union in 21st Century |publisher=University of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Faculty of Social Sciences |date=2013 |isbn=978-80-8105-510-2}}</ref> or [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] (1805–1872).<ref>{{cite book |last=Mack Smith |first=Denis |authorlink=Denis Mack Smith |title=Mazzini |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-300-17712-1}}</ref> The term ''[[United States of Europe]]'' ({{langx|fr|États-Unis d'Europe}}) was used at that time by [[Victor Hugo]] (1802–1885) during a speech at the [[International Peace Congress]] held in Paris in 1849:

{{blockquote|A day will come when all nations on our continent will form a European brotherhood ... A day will come when we shall see ... the United States of America and the United States of Europe face to face, reaching out for each other across the seas.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Metzidakis |first=Angelo |title=Victor Hugo and the Idea of the United States of Europe |journal=Nineteenth-Century French Studies |volume=23 |issue=1/2 |pages=72–84 |date=1994 |jstor=23537320}}</ref>}}

===From World War I to World War II===
[[File:Former Flag of the International Paneuropean Union.svg|thumb|1922 [[European flag]] of the [[Paneuropean Union]]]]
[[File:Aristide Briand.png|thumb|upright=.8|[[Aristide Briand]]]]
During the [[interwar period]], the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent.{{sfn|Kaiser|Varsori|2010|p=140}} In 1920, advocating the creation of a European [[economic union]], the British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] wrote that "a Free Trade Union should be established ... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union."<ref>John Maynard Keynes, ''Economic Consequences of the Peace'', New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920, pp. 265–66.</ref> During the same decade, the [[Austrians|Austrian]] [[Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi]], in light of the dissolution of the [[Habsburg Empire]], imagined as one of the first modern political unions of Europe, founded the [[Paneuropean Union|Pan-Europa Movement]].<ref>{{citation |last=Rosamond |first=Ben |year=2000 |title=Theories of European Integration |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |oclc=442641648 |pages=21–22}}</ref> His ideas influenced his contemporaries, among whom was then-[[Prime Minister of France]] [[Aristide Briand]]. As French prime minister, [[List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates|Nobel Peace Prize laureate]] for the [[Locarno Treaties]] and follower of the Paneuropean Union Aristide Briand delivered a widely recognized speech at the [[League of Nations]], the precursor of the [[United Nations]],<ref>{{citation |editor1-last=Weigall |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Stirk |editor2-first=Peter M. R. |year=1992 |title=The Origins and Development of the European Community |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_he0AAAAIAAJ |location=Leicester |publisher=Leicester University Press |isbn=9780718514280 |pages=11–15}}</ref> in [[Geneva]] on 5 September 1929 for a [[federal Europe]] to secure Europe and settle the historic [[Franco-German enmity]].<ref name="Schulz 2010 g046">{{cite web | last=Schulz | first=Matthias | title=Der Briand-Plan und der Völkerbund als Verhandlungsarena für die europäische Einigung zwischen den Kriegen | publisher=IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de) | date=December 3, 2010 | url=http://ieg-ego.eu/de/threads/europaeische-netzwerke/politische-netzwerke/europa-netzwerke-der-zwischenkriegszeit/matthias-schulz-briand-plan-und-voelkerbund-in-der-zwischenkriegszeit | language=de | access-date=November 16, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Nelsson 2019 n549">{{cite web | last=Nelsson | first=Richard | title=Aristide Briand's plan for a United States of Europe | website=the Guardian | date=September 5, 2019 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2019/sep/05/aristide-briands-plan-for-united-states-of-europe-september-9 | access-date=November 16, 2023}}</ref>

=== World War II (1939–1945) ===
[[File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1942-1945. CL3400.jpg|thumb|After two devastating world wars, the political climate favoured an international unity that could preserve peace in Europe effectively ([[Hamburg]], after a massive [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|bombing in 1943]] in the picture).]]

[[World War II]] from 1939 to 1945 demonstrated more than ever the horrors of war, but particularly also of [[extremism]], of discrimination and of genocide. As with devastating wars before, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war bringing the world [[nuclear weapon]]s. Most European countries failed to maintain their [[Great Power]] status, with the exception of the [[Soviet Union]], which became a superpower after World War II and maintained that status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=243 Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War] ena.lu</ref>

With large scale war being waged in Europe once again in the 1930s and becoming [[World War II]], the question of what to fight against and what for, had to be agreed on. A first agreement was the [[Declaration of St James's Palace]] of 1941, when [[World War II resistance|Europe's resistance]] gathered in London. This was expanded on by the 1941 [[Atlantic Charter]], establishing the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and their common goals, inciting a new wave of global international institutions like the [[United Nations]] ([[United Nations Conference on International Organization|founded 1945]]) or the [[Bretton Woods System]] (1944).<ref name="Office of the Historian 1946 r351">{{cite web | title=Milestones: 1937–1945 | website=Office of the Historian | date=March 8, 1946 | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/bretton-woods | access-date=November 16, 2023}}</ref>

During the [[Moscow Conference (1943)|1943 Moscow Conference]] and [[Tehran Conference]] plans to establish joint institutions for a post-war world and Europe became increasingly an agenda. This led to a decision at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1944 to form a [[European Advisory Commission]], later replaced by the [[Council of Foreign Ministers]] and the [[Allied Control Council]], following the German surrender and the [[Potsdam Agreement]] in 1945.

With war still raging, resistance movements formulated their vision of a post-war Europe, the [[Ventotene Manifesto|Ventotene prison Manifesto]] of 1941 by [[Altiero Spinelli]] propagated European integration through the [[Italian Resistance]] and after 1943 through the Italian [[European Federalist Movement]]. In March 1943, in a radio address, the [[United Kingdom]]'s leader Sir [[Winston Churchill]] spoke warmly of "restoring the true greatness of Europe" once victory had been achieved, and mused on the post-war creation of a "Council of Europe" which would bring the European nations together to build peace.<ref name="Klos 2017 51">{{cite book |last=Klos |first=Felix |title=Churchill's Last Stand: The Struggle to Unite Europe |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2017 |pages=51 |isbn=978-1-78673-292-7}}</ref><ref name="Churchill">{{cite web |last=Churchill |first=Winston |title=National Address |url=https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1941-1945-war-leader/national-address/ |website=The International Churchill Society|date=21 March 1943}}</ref>

===Aftermath (1945–1948)===
[[File:President Roosevelt and Winston Churchill seated on the quarterdeck of HMS PRINCE OF WALES for a Sunday service during the Atlantic Conference, 10 August 1941. A4815.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]] (right, during the [[Atlantic Charter|Atlantic Conference]]), consistent advocate of continental European integration, later along with his son-in-law [[Duncan Sandys]]]]
By the end of the war European integration became seen as an antidote to the [[extreme nationalism]] which caused the war.<ref>{{cite web|title=The political consequences|publisher=CVCE|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/die_politischen_folgen-de-bafcfa2d-7738-48f6-9b41-3201090b67bb.html|access-date=28 April 2013}}</ref> On 19 September 1946 in a much recognized speech [[Winston Churchill]] reiterated his calls since 1930 for a "European Union" and "Council of Europe", at the [[University of Zürich]]. After leaving office, Churchill called as a civilian for a [[United States of Europe]]. Coincidentally<ref name="Union of European Federalists (UEF)">{{cite web | title=Union of European Federalists (UEF): Churchill and Hertenstein | website=Union of European Federalists (UEF) | url=https://www.federalists.eu/uef/our-achievements/churchill-and-hertenstein | access-date=2022-05-17 | archive-date=5 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605224333/https://www.federalists.eu/uef/our-achievements/churchill-and-hertenstein | url-status=dead }}</ref> parallel to his speech the [[Hertensteiner Cross|Hertenstein Congress]] [[Weggis|in the Lucerne Canton]] was being held, resulting in the [[Union of European Federalists]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/reden/die_historische_rede/200115_hr_churchill1_englisch|title=Ein britischer Patriot für Europa: Winston Churchills Europa-Rede, Universität Zürich, 19. September 1946|newspaper=Zeit Online|access-date=13 January 2010|trans-title=A British Patriot for Europe: Winston Churchill's Speech on Europe University of Zurich, 19 September 1946}}</ref> one of the then founded and later constituting members of the [[European Movement]]. [[Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi]], who successfully established during the [[interwar period]] the oldest organization for European integration, the [[Paneuropean Union]], founded in June 1947 the [[European Parliamentary Union]] (EPU). To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: [[Allied plans for German industry after World War II]]) and its main coal-producing regions were either awarded to neighbouring countries ([[Province of Silesia|Silesia]]), managed as separate directly by an occupying power ([[Saarland]])<ref>{{Cite web|last=Encyclopaedia Britannica|date=2019-09-12|title=Saarland|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saarland|access-date=2021-08-19}}</ref> or put under international control ([[Ruhr area]]).<ref name="yoder">{{cite journal|last=Yoder|first=Amos|date=July 1955|title=The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034670500014261|journal=Review of Politics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=17|issue=3|pages=345–358|doi=10.1017/S0034670500014261|s2cid=145465919 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>*[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=6584 French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions] 8 September 1945<br />[http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/saar.htm France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland][http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=465 Letter from Konrad Adenauer to Robert Schuman] (26 July 1949) Warning him of the consequences of the dismantling policy. (requires Flash Player)<br />[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=16822 Letter from Ernest Bevin to Robert Schuman] (30 October 1949) British and French foreign ministers. Bevin argues that they need to reconsider the Allies' dismantling policy in the occupied zones (requires Flash Player)</ref>

Though by 1947 a growing rift between the western Allied Powers and the [[Soviet Union]] became evident as a result of the rigged [[1947 Polish legislative election]] which constituted an open breach of the [[Yalta Agreement]], followed by the announcement of the [[Truman Doctrine]] on 12 March 1947. On 4 March 1947 France and the United Kingdom signed the [[Treaty of Dunkirk]] for mutual assistance in the event of future military aggression in the aftermath of [[World War II]] against any of the pair. The rationale for the treaty was the threat of a potential future military attack, specifically a Soviet one in practice, though publicised under the disguise of a German one, according to the official statements. Immediately following the [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|February 1948 coup d'état]] by the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]], the [[London Six-Power Conference]] was held, resulting in the [[Soviet]] boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the [[Cold War]]. The remainder of the year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration.

== Initial years (1948–1957) ==
{{Further|History of European integration (1948–1957)}}
[[File:Flag of the Western Union.svg|thumb|Flag of the Western Union]]
With the start of the [[Cold War]], the [[Treaty of Brussels]] was signed in 1948 establishing the [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]] (WU) as the first organisation, followed by the [[International Authority for the Ruhr]]. In the same year, the [[Organization for European Economic Co-operation]], the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded to manage the [[Marshall Plan]]; the [[Eastern Bloc]] responded with establishing the [[Comecon]].

[[File:Europa Congres Ridderzaal Den Haag. Overzicht, Bestanddeelnr 902-7379.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|Meeting in the [[Ridderzaal|Hall of Knights]] in [[The Hague]], during the [[Congress of Europe]] (9 May 1948)]]

A pivotal moment in European integration was the [[Hague Congress (1948)|Hague Congress]] of May 1948, as it led to the creation of the [[European Movement International]], the [[College of Europe]]<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.isbnplus.com/9789080498310|editor=[[Dieter Mahncke]]|editor2=[[Léonce Bekemans]]|editor3=[[Robert Picht]]|title=The College of Europe. Fifty Years of Service to Europe|location=[[Bruges]]|year=1999|publisher=[[College of Europe]]|isbn=978-90-804983-1-0|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228030332/http://www.isbnplus.com/9789080498310|archive-date=28 December 2016}}</ref> and most importantly to the founding of the [[Council of Europe]] on the 5th of May 1949 (now known as [[Europe Day]]). The Council of Europe was the first institution to bring the sovereign nations of Western Europe together, raising great hopes and fevered debates in the following two years for further European integration.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving things like the 1950-signed [[European Convention on Human Rights]].

[[Image:Schuman Declaration.jpg|thumb|left|[[Robert Schuman]] [[Schuman Declaration|proposed]] the [[Coal and Steel Community]] in May 1950.]]

Essential for the actual birth of the institutions of the EU was the 9th of May 1950 [[Schuman Declaration]] (on the day after the fifth [[Victory in Europe Day|Victory Day]], today's [[Europe day]] – of the EU). On the basis of that speech, France, Italy, the [[Benelux]] countries (Belgium, Netherlands and [[Luxembourg]]) together with [[West Germany]] signed the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)]] creating the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] the following year; this took over the role of the [[International Authority for the Ruhr]]<ref name="yoder"/> and lifted some restrictions on German industrial productivity. It gave birth to the first institutions, such as the High Authority (now the [[European Commission]]) and the Common Assembly (now the [[European Parliament]]). The first presidents of those institutions were [[Jean Monnet]] and [[Paul-Henri Spaak]] respectively. The [[founding fathers of the European Union]] understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely.<ref name="Europa History 45-59">{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/1945-1959/index_en.htm|title=A peaceful Europe&nbsp;– the beginnings of cooperation|publisher=European Commission|access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> Backed by the [[Marshall Plan]] with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organization, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the [[European Commission]] and [[European Parliament|Parliament]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1084818.html|title=Europe: How The Marshall Plan Took Western Europe From Ruins To Union|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=9 April 2008 |access-date=20 June 2019|last1=Blocker |first1=Joel }}</ref>

The formation of the European Coal and Steel Community was advanced by [[United States|American]] Secretary of State [[George C. Marshall]]. His [[Marshall Plan|namesake plan to rebuild Europe]] in the wake of World War II contributed more than $100 billion in today's{{when|date=July 2022}} dollars to the Europeans, helping to feed Europeans, deliver steel to rebuild industries, provide coal to warm homes, and construct dams to help provide power. In doing so, the Marshall Plan encouraged the integration of European powers into the European Coal and Steel Community, the precursor to present-day European Union, by illustrating the effects of economic integration and the need for coordination. The potency of the Marshall Plan caused former German Chancellor [[Helmut Schmidt]] to remark in 1997 that "America should not forget that the development of the European Union is one of its greatest achievements. Without the Marshall Plan it perhaps would never have come to that."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Schmidt|first=Helmut|author-link=Helmut Schmidt|date=1997-06-06|title=Helmut Schmidt über den Marshallplan und die europäische Einheit: Mit voller Kraft ins nächste Jahrhundert|url=https://www.zeit.de/1997/24/zukunft.txt.19970606.xml/komplettansicht|publisher=[[Die Zeit]]|language=de|quote=Und Amerika sollte nicht vergessen, daß die Entstehung der Europäischen Union eine seiner größten Leistungen ist. Ohne den Marshallplan wäre es vielleicht nie dazu gekommen.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Blocker|first=Joel|date=1997-05-09|title=Europe: How The Marshall Plan Took Western Europe From Ruins To Union|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1084818.html|access-date=20 June 2019|website=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|language=en|quote=Witness the recent words of former German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt: 'The United States ought not to forget that the emerging European Union is one of its greatest achievements: it would never have happened without the Marshall Plan.' [The "vielleicht" in the original quote is missing in this translation.]}}</ref>

Paralleling Schuman, the [[Pleven Plan]] of 1951 tried, but failed to tie the institutions of the developing European community under the [[European Political Community (1952)|European Political Community]], which was to include the also proposed [[European Defence Community]], an alternative to [[West Germany]] joining [[NATO]] which was established 1949 under the [[Truman Doctrine]].
In 1954 the [[Western European Union]] was founded, after NATO took over competences from the WU, and West Germany joined. This prompted the [[Soviet Union]] to form the [[Warsaw Pact]] in 1955, allowing it to enforce its standing in [[Eastern Europe]].

The attempt to turn the [[Saar protectorate]] into a "European territory" was rejected by a referendum in 1955. The Saar was to have been governed by a statute supervised by a European Commissioner reporting to the Council of Ministers of the [[Western European Union]].

After the failed attempts at creating defence (European Defence Community) and political communities (European Political Community), leaders met at the [[Messina Conference]] and established the [[Spaak Committee]] which produced the [[Spaak report]]. The report was accepted at the [[Venice Conference]] (29 and 30 May 1956), which decided to organise an [[Intergovernmental Conference]]. The [[Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom]] focused on economic unity, leading to the [[Treaties of Rome]] being signed in 1957 – this established the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) and the [[European Atomic Energy Community]] (Euratom) among the members.<ref name="europa">[http://europa.eu/abc/history/1945-1959/index_en.htm A peaceful Europe – the beginnings of cooperation] europa.eu
</ref>

==1958–1972: Three communities==
{{Main|History of the European Communities (1958–1972)}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-45653-0001, Rom, Verträge über Zollpakt und Eurotom unterzeichnet.jpg|thumb|[[Konrad Adenauer]], [[Walter Hallstein]] and [[Antonio Segni]], signing the [[European customs union]] and [[Euratom]] in Rome in 1957]]
The two new communities were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The executives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the "High Authority". The EEC was headed by [[Walter Hallstein]] ([[Hallstein Commission]]) and Euratom was headed by [[Louis Armand]] ([[Armand Commission]]) and then [[Étienne Hirsch]]. Euratom would integrate sectors in [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] while the EEC would develop a [[customs union]] between members.<ref name="europa"/><ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=3054 A European Atomic Energy Community] ena.lu</ref><ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=3056 A European Customs Union] ena.lu</ref>

Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power and rejecting the membership of the United Kingdom. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached to merge the three communities under a single set of institutions, and hence the [[Merger Treaty]] was signed in Brussels and came into force on 1 July 1967 creating the [[European Communities]].<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=473 Merging the executives] ena.lu</ref> [[Jean Rey (politician)|Jean Rey]] [[President of the European Commission|presided over]] the first merged Commission ([[Rey Commission]]).

While the political progress of the Communities was hesitant in the 1960s, this was a fertile period for European legal integration.<ref>Lecourt, Robert (1976). L'Europe des juges. Bruxelles, Bruylant. Stein, Eric (1981). 'Lawyers, Judges, and the Making of a Transnational Constitution.' American Journal of International Law 75(1): 1–27. Weiler, Joseph H. H. (1991). 'The Transformation of Europe.' Yale Law Journal 100: 2403–2483.</ref> Many of the foundational legal doctrines of the Court of Justice were first established in landmark decisions during the 1960s and 1970s, above all in the ''[[Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen|Van Gend en Loos]]'' decision of 1963 that declared the "direct effect" of [[European law]], that is to say, its enforceability before national courts by private parties.<ref>ECJ Case 26/62</ref> Other landmark decisions during this period included ''[[Costa v ENEL]]'', which established the supremacy of European law over national law<ref>ECJ Case 6/64</ref> and the [[Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium|"Dairy Products" decision]], which declared that general international law principles of reciprocity and retaliation were prohibited within the European Community.<ref>ECJ Cases 90&91/63, Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium. See e.g. Phelan, William (2016). 'Supremacy, Direct Effect, and Dairy Products in the Early History of European law.' International Journal of Constitutional Law 14: 6–25.</ref> All three of these judgments were made after the appointment of French judge [[Robert Lecourt]] in 1962, and Lecourt appears to have become a dominant influence on the Court of Justice over the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>W. Phelan, Great Judgments of the European Court of Justice: Rethinking the Landmark Decisions of the Foundational Period (Cambridge, 2019)</ref>

==1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors==
{{Main|History of the European Communities (1973–1993)|Accession Treaty of Spain to the European Economic Community}}
[[Image:De Gaulle-OWI.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles De Gaulle|De Gaulle's]] veto delayed the first enlargement.]]
After much negotiation, and following a change in the [[President of France|French Presidency]], Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom (with [[Gibraltar]]) eventually joined the European Communities on 1 January 1973. This was the first of several enlargements which became a major policy area of the Union (see: [[Enlargement of the European Union]]).<ref>[http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_first_enlargement-en-fa871903-53b5-497e-855f-01c9842c7b94.html The first enlargement] cvce.eu</ref>

In 1979, the [[European Parliament]] held its first direct elections by [[universal suffrage]]. 410 members were elected, who then elected the first female [[President of the European Parliament]], [[Simone Veil]].<ref>[http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_new_european_parliament-en-e40aba1b-45f1-43bf-bbd1-a34bb52f15db.html The new European Parliament] cvce.eu</ref>

A further enlargement took place in 1981 with Greece joining on 1 January, six years after applying. In 1982, [[Greenland]] [[1982 Greenlandic European Communities membership referendum|voted to leave the Community]] after gaining [[home rule]] from Denmark (See also: [[Special member state territories and the European Union]]). [[Accession Treaty of Spain to the European Economic Community|Spain]] and Portugal joined (having applied in 1977) on 1 January 1986 in the third enlargement.<ref>[http://www.cvce.eu/obj/negotiations_for_enlargement-en-19a4fd81-119d-4090-bfac-c7cc8ae64a20.html Negotiations for enlargement] cvce.eu</ref>

[[Image:West and East Germans at the Brandenburg Gate in 1989.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Iron Curtain]]'s fall enabled the accession of the [[East Germany|DDR]] ([[Berlin Wall]]).]]

Recently appointed Commission President [[Jacques Delors]] ([[Delors Commission]]) presided over the adoption of the [[European flag]] by the Communities in 1986. In the first major revision of [[Treaties of the European Union|the treaties]] since the Merger Treaty, leaders signed the [[Single European Act]] in February 1986. The text dealt with institutional reform, including extension of community powers – in particular in regarding foreign policy. It was a major component in completing the single market and came into force on 1 July 1987.<ref>[http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_provisions_of_the_single_european_act-en-243555aa-d219-4525-9978-34325bb5e17a.html Single European Act] cvce.eu</ref>
In 1987 [[Turkey]] formally applied to join the Community and began the longest application process for any country. After the [[1988 Polish strikes]] and the [[Polish Round Table Agreement]], the first small signs of opening in Central Europe appeared. The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the [[Pan-European Picnic]] on August 19, 1989, then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the [[Eastern Bloc]] had disintegrated. [[Otto von Habsburg]] and [[Imre Pozsgay]] saw the event as an opportunity to test [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]`s reaction to an opening of the [[Iron Curtain]].<ref>Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV – ORF "Report", 25 June 2019</ref> In particular, it was examined whether Moscow would give the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary the command to intervene.<ref>"Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows" (German – August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</ref> But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|Socialist Unity Party of East Germany]] and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. So the bracket of the Eastern Bloc was broken and as a result the [[Berlin Wall]] fell together with the whole Iron Curtain.<ref>Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic – With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</ref><ref>Ludwig Greven "Und dann ging das Tor auf", in Die Zeit, 19 August 2014.</ref> [[German reunification|Germany reunified]] and the door to enlargement to the former [[Eastern Bloc]] was opened (See also: [[Copenhagen Criteria]]).<ref>[http://europa.eu/abc/history/1980-1989/index_en.htm The fall of the Berlin Wall] ena.lu</ref><ref>Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).</ref>

With a wave of new enlargements on the way, the [[Maastricht Treaty]] was signed on 7 February 1992 which established the European Union when it came into force the following year.

==1993–2004: Creation==
{{Main|History of the European Union (1993–2004)}}
{{Evolution_of_the_European_Union_SMIL.svg}}
On 1 November 1993, under the third [[Delors Commission]], the Maastricht Treaty became effective, creating the [[European Union]] with its [[Three pillars of the European Union|pillar system]], including foreign and home affairs alongside the [[European Community]].<ref>[http://europa.eu/abc/history/1990-1999/1993/index_en.htm 1993] europa.eu</ref><ref>[http://www.cvce.eu/obj/characteristics_of_the_treaty_on_european_union-en-beec7a53-4023-412d-a1ab-2c31b6a3c39d.html Characteristics of the Treaty on European Union] cvce.eu</ref> The [[1994 European Parliament election|1994 European elections]] were held resulting in the [[Party of European Socialists]] maintaining their position as the largest party in Parliament. The Council proposed [[Jacques Santer]] as [[Commission President]] but he was seen as a second choice candidate, undermining his position. Parliament narrowly approved Santer but [[Santer Commission|his commission]] gained greater support, being approved by 416 votes to 103. Santer had to use his new powers under Maastricht to flex greater control over his choice of Commissioners. They took office on 23 January 1995.<ref name="ENA">{{Cite web| title =The crisis of the Santer Commission  | publisher =[[Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe (CVCE)]] | url =http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_crisis_of_the_santer_commission-en-7380f95b-1fb2-484d-a262-d870a0d5d74d.html  | access-date = 29 January 2013 }}</ref>

On 30 March 1994, accession negotiations concluded with [[Austria]], [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. Meanwhile, [[Norway]], [[Iceland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] joined the [[European Economic Area]] (which entered into force on 1 January 1994), an organisation that allowed [[European Free Trade Association]] states to enter the [[Single European Market]]. The following year, the [[Schengen Agreement]] came into force between seven members, expanding to include nearly all others by the end of 1996. The 1990s also saw the further development of the [[euro]]. 1 January 1994 saw the second stage of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]] begin with the establishment of the [[European Monetary Institute]] and at the start of 1999 the euro as a currency was launched and the [[European Central Bank]] was established. On 1 January 2002, notes and coins were put into circulation, replacing the old currencies entirely.

[[File:Euro coins and banknotes.jpg|left|thumb|Coins and banknotes of the [[Euro]], the single-currency [[History of the euro|introduced from 1999]]]]
During the 1990s, the [[Yugoslav wars|conflicts in the Balkans]] gave impetus to developing the EU's [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP). The EU failed to react during the beginning of the conflict, and [[UN peacekeepers]] from the Netherlands failed to prevent the [[Srebrenica massacre]] (July 1995) in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the largest mass murder in Europe since the Second World War. The [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) finally had to [[NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina|intervene in the war]], forcing the combatants to the negotiation table. The early foreign policy experience of the EU led to foreign policy being emphasised in the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]] (which created the [[High Representative]]).<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=18928 The Treaty of Amsterdam] ena.lu</ref>

However, any success was overshadowed by the budget crisis in March 1999. The Parliament refused to approve the commission's 1996 [[Budget of the European Union|community's budget]] on grounds of financial mismanagement, fraud and nepotism. With Parliament ready to throw them out, the entire [[Santer Commission]] resigned.<ref name="Ringe">{{Cite web| last =Ringer  | first =Nils F.  | title =The Santer Commission Resignation Crisis  | publisher =[[University of Pittsburgh]]  |date=February 2003  | url =http://aei.pitt.edu/2919/01/156.pdf  | access-date = 7 October 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060830184844/http://aei.pitt.edu/2919/01/156.pdf | archive-date = 30 August 2006 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Hoskyns">{{Cite book| last = Hoskyns | first = Catherine |author2=Michael Newman | title = Democratizing the European Union: Issues for the twenty-first Century (Perspectives on Democratization) | publisher = [[Manchester University Press]] | year = 2000 | pages=106–7 | isbn = 978-0-7190-5666-6 }}</ref> The post-Delors mood of euroscepticism became entrenched with the Council and Parliament constantly challenging the commission's position in coming years.<ref name="Topan">{{Cite web| last = Topan | first = Angelina | title= The resignation of the Santer-Commission: the impact of 'trust' and 'reputation'  | publisher = European Integration online Papers | date = 30 September 2002 | url = http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/2002-014.htm | access-date = 7 October 2007 }}</ref>

In the [[1999 European Parliament election|following elections]], the Socialists lost their decades-old majority to the new [[European People's Party|People's Party]] and the incoming [[Prodi Commission]] was quick to establish the new [[European Anti-Fraud Office]] (OLAF).<ref name="OLAF">{{Cite web|title=EU Budget Fraud |publisher=politics.co.uk |url=http://www.politics.co.uk/issue-briefs/europe/eu-budget/eu-budget-fraud/eu-budget-fraud-$366701.htm |access-date=7 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619223954/http://www.politics.co.uk/issue-briefs/europe/eu-budget/eu-budget-fraud/eu-budget-fraud-%24366701.htm |archive-date=19 June 2006 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Under the new powers of the Amsterdam Treaty, Prodi was described by some as the 'First Prime Minister of Europe'.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/1999/04/16/eu.2.t_0.php Prodi to Have Wide, New Powers as Head of the European Commission] iht.com 16 April 1999</ref> On 4 June, [[Javier Solana]] was appointed Secretary General of the council and the strengthened [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] admitted the intervention in Kosovo – Solana was also seen by some as Europe's first [[Foreign Minister]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000302051246/http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_45/b3654047.htm Javier Solana/Spain: Europe's First Foreign Minister?] businessweek.com</ref> The [[Nice Treaty]] was signed on 26 February 2001 and entered into force on 1 February 2003 which made the final preparations before the [[2004 enlargement of the European Union|2004 enlargement to 10 new members]].

==2004–2007: The great enlargement and consolidation==
{{Main|History of the European Union (2004–present)|Treaty of Lisbon}}
[[File:José Manuel Barroso (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[José Manuel Barroso]] [[President of the European Commission]] (2004–2014)]]
On 10–13 June 2004, the 25 member states participated in the largest trans-national election in history (with the second largest democratic electorate in the world). The result of the [[2004 European Parliament election|sixth Parliamentary election]] was a second victory for the [[European People's Party-European Democrats]] group. It also saw the lowest [[voter turnout]] of 45.5%, the second time it had fallen below 50%.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/europe/2004/elections_2004/default.stm Vote EU 2004] news.bbc.co.uk</ref> On 22 July 2004, [[José Manuel Barroso]] was approved by the new Parliament as the next Commission President. However, his new team of 25 Commissioners faced a tougher road. With Parliament raising objections to a number of his candidates he was forced to withdraw his selection and try once more. The Prodi Commission had to extend their mandate to 22 November after the new line-up of commissioners was finally approved.<ref>[http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php The new commission – some initial thoughts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923001700/http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php |date=23 September 2006 }} bmbrussels.b</ref>

A proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|constitutional treaty]] was signed by [[plenipotentiaries]] from EU member states on 28 October 2004. The document was ratified in most member states, including two positive referendums. The [[2005 French European Constitution referendum|referendums that were held in France]] and [[2005 Dutch European Constitution referendum|the Netherlands]] failed however, killing off the treaty. The European Council agreed that the constitution proposal would be abandoned, but most of its changes would be retained in an amending treaty. On 13 December 2007 the treaty was signed, containing [[Opt-outs in the European Union|opt-outs]] for the more [[eurosceptic]] members and no state-like elements. The Lisbon treaty finally came into force on 1 December 2009. It created the post of [[President of the European Council]] and significantly expanded the post of [[High Representative]]. After much debate about what kind of person should be president, the European Council agreed on a low-key personality and chose [[Herman Van Rompuy]] while foreign policy-novice [[Catherine Ashton]] became High Representative.

[[File:EU28-2013 European Union map enlargement.svg|thumb|Newest state in yellow]]

The [[2009 European Parliament election|2009 elections]] again saw a victory for the [[European People's Party]], despite losing the [[British Conservatives]] who formed a smaller eurosceptic [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]] grouping with other anti-federalist right wing parties. Parliament's presidency was once again divided between the People's Party and the Socialists, with [[Jerzy Buzek]] elected as the first [[President of the European Parliament]] from an ex-communist country. Barroso was nominated by the council for a second term and received backing from EPP who had declared him as their candidate before the elections. However, the Socialists and Greens led the opposition against him despite not agreeing on an opposing candidate. Parliament finally approved Barroso II, though once more several months behind schedule.

In 2007, the [[2007 enlargement of the European Union|fifth enlargement completed]] with the accession of [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] on 1 January 2007. Also, in 2007 Slovenia adopted the euro,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/5086546.stm |title=Slovenia clear to adopt the euro |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=16 June 2006 |access-date=18 January 2009}}</ref> Malta and Cyprus in 2008<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.euractiv.com/en/enlargement/cyprus-malta-set-join-eurozone-2008/article-163836?Ref=RSS |title=Cyprus and Malta set to join Eurozone in 2008 |publisher=[[euractiv.com]] |date=16 May 2007 |access-date=19 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018013618/http://euractiv.com/en/euro/cyprus-malta-set-join-eurozone-2008/article-163836 |archive-date=18 October 2007}}</ref> and Slovakia in 2009.

== 2008–2016: European crisis ==
{{Main|Euro area crisis|2015 European migrant crisis|Great Recession in Europe}}
However, trouble developed with existing members as the [[eurozone]] entered its first recession in 2008.<ref>[http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1231409822.27/ EU data confirms eurozone's first recession] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230075057/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1231409822.27/ |date=30 December 2010 }}, EUbusiness.com, 8 January 2009</ref> Members cooperated and the ECB intervened to help restore economic growth and the euro was seen as a safe haven, particularly by those outside such as Iceland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1223856121.86 |title=European leaders agree crisis rescue at summit |publisher=Eubusiness.com |access-date=2 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013134028/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1223856121.86 |archive-date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="Oakley17">Oakley, David and Ralph Atkins (17 September 2009) [https://www.ft.com/content/0cf1c0ee-a3b5-11de-9fed-00144feabdc0 Eurozone shows its strength in a crisis], [[Financial Times]]</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/30/iceland-join-eu Iceland to be fast-tracked into the EU], the Guardian</ref> With the risk of a default in [[Euro area crisis|Greece, Ireland, Portugal and other members in late 2009–10]], eurozone leaders agreed to provisions for loans to member states who could not raise funds. Accusations that this was a U-turn on the EU treaties, which rule out any bail out of a euro member in order to encourage them to manage their finances better, were countered by the argument that these were loans, not grants, and that neither the EU nor other Member States assumed any liabilities for the debts of the aided countries. With [[Greek government-debt crisis|Greece struggling to restore its finances]], other member states also at risk and the repercussions this would have on the rest of the eurozone economy, a loan mechanism was agreed. The crisis also spurred consensus for further economic integration and a range of proposals such as a [[European Monetary Fund]] or federal treasury.<ref>Willis, Andrew (25 March 2010) [http://euobserver.com/9/29773 Eurozone leaders agree on Franco-German bail-out mechanism], EU Observer</ref><ref>[http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/190221-eurozone-overhaul Eurozone overhaul] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214114000/http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/190221-eurozone-overhaul |date=14 February 2010 }} Die Zeit on [[Presseurop]], 12 February 2010</ref><ref name="EMF 1">[http://euobserver.com/9/29623 Plans emerge for 'European Monetary Fund'] EU Observer</ref>

The European Union received the [[2012 Nobel Peace Prize]] for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and [[human rights in Europe]]."<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/|title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2012|publisher=Nobelprize.org|date=12 October 2012|access-date=12 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Nobel Committee Awards Peace Prize to E.U.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/13/world/nobel-peace-prize.html?_r=0|work=New York Times|date=12 October 2012|access-date=12 October 2012}}</ref> The [[Nobel Committee]] stated that "that dreadful suffering in [[World War II]] demonstrated the need for a new Europe [...] today war between Germany and France is unthinkable. This shows how, through well-aimed efforts and by building up mutual confidence, historical enemies can become close partners."<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/press.html|title=The Nobel Peace Prize for 2012|publisher=Nobelprize.org|date=12 October 2012|access-date=12 October 2012}}</ref> The Nobel Committee's decision was subject to considerable criticism.<ref name="Gaspers FPC">{{cite web |url=http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/1521.pdf |title=The European Union and the Nobel Peace Prize: A Criteria-Based Assessment |last=Gaspers |first=Jan |date=December 2012 |access-date=19 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203121231/http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/1521.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 1 July 2013, Croatia [[2013 enlargement of the European Union|joined the EU]], and on 1 January 2014 the French [[Indian Ocean]] territory of [[Mayotte]] was added as an outermost region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:204:0131:0131:EN:PDF|title=EUROPEAN COUNCIL DECISION of 11 July 2012 amending the status of Mayotte with regard to the European Union|work=europa.eu}}</ref>

==2016–20: Brexit==
{{Main|Brexit|Euroscepticism}}
[[File:Boris Johnson official portrait (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Boris Johnson]] Prime Minister of the [[United Kingdom]] from 2019 to 2022]]
On 23 June 2016, the citizens of the United Kingdom voted to [[Brexit|withdraw from the European Union]] in a referendum and subsequently became the first and to date only member to trigger [[Withdrawal from the European Union|Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU)]]. The vote was in favour of leaving the EU by a margin of 51.9% in favour to 48.1% against.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/uk-politics-36570120|title=Labour leadership & Hammond in China – BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=23 July 2016}}</ref> The UK's withdrawal was completed on 31 January 2020.

==2020–22: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic==
[[File:Ursula_von_der_Leyen_(49468709252).jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Ursula von der Leyen]] [[President of the European Commission]]<br>(since 1 December 2019)]]
{{See also|European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19 pandemic in Europe}}
After the [[COVID-19 recession|economic crisis]] caused by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] the EU leaders agreed for the first time to emit common debt to finance the European Recovery Program called [[Next Generation EU]] '''(NGEU)'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recovery plan for Europe |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/recovery-plan-europe_en |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=2 May 2021}}</ref>

==2022–present: Impact of the Russo-Ukrainian War==
[[File:Владимир Путин (08-03-2024) (cropped) (higher res).jpg|180px|thumb|[[Vladimir Putin]] [[President of Russia]]]]
{{see also|Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russo-Ukrainian War}}

On 24 February 2022, after massing near the borders of Ukraine, the [[Russian Armed Forces]] undertook a [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|full-scale invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia-Ukraine war: humanitarian corridor opened from Sumy; Moscow threatens to cut gas supplies to Europe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/08/ukraine-news-russia-war-vladimir-putin-volodymyr-zelenskiy-kyiv-russian-invasion-live-latest-updates |access-date=8 March 2022 |agency=theguardian.com |publisher=theguardian.com |date=8 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=In pictures: Russia invades Ukraine |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/02/14/world/gallery/ukraine-russia-crisis/index.html |access-date=8 March 2022 |agency=cnn.com |publisher=cnn.com |date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

The European Union imposed [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War#EU sanctions|heavy sanctions on Russia]] and agreed on a pooled military aid package to Ukraine for lethal weapons funded via the [[European Peace Facility]] off-budget instrument.<ref>{{Cite web|first1=Jillian|last1=Deutsch|first2=Lyubov|last2=Pronina|date=27 February 2022|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-02-27/eu-approves-450-million-euros-in-lethal-military-aid-for-ukraine|website=[[Bloomberg.com]]|title=EU Approves 450 Million Euros of Arms Supplies for Ukraine}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chelsea's oligarch owner is selling. Will scrutiny of other Premier League owners follow? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2022/03/08/roman-abramovich-selling-chelsea-premier-league-owners/ |access-date=8 March 2022 |agency=washingtonpost.com |work=washingtonpost.com |date=8 March 2022}}</ref> Likewise, neighbouring EU member countries received a [[2022 Ukrainian refugee crisis|mass influx of Ukrainian refugees]] fleeing the conflict over the course of the first weeks of the war.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/03/16/eu-granted-ukrainian-refugees-temporary-protection-why-different-response-past-migrant-crises/|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|date=16 March 2022|title=The E.U. granted Ukrainian refugees temporary protection. Why the different response from past migrant crises?|first=Nicholas R.|last=Micinski}}</ref> The conflict exposed the EU energy dependency on Russia, deemed as a supplier "explicitly" threatening the EU.<ref name="dw" /> This development injected a sense of urgency in the switch towards alternative energy suppliers and further development of clean energy sources.<ref name="dw">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-unveils-plan-to-reduce-russia-energy-dependency/a-61047997|website=[[dw.com]]|title=EU unveils plan to reduce Russia energy dependency|date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

==2023–present: Impact of Middle Eastern crisis ==
{{Main|October 7 attacks|Gaza war|Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present)}}
The European Union since [[7 October 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|7 October 2023]],<ref>{{cite news |title=The October 7 Massacre |url=https://www.jpost.com/tags/the-october-7-massacre |access-date=1 October 2024 |agency=jpost.com |publisher=jpost.com |date=7 October 2023}}</ref> has had to face the resurgence of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]], in particular the attack by [[Hamas]] in Israel that detonated a conflict first in the [[Gaza Strip]], and then gradually wider to include [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Yemen]] and at last [[West Bank]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Israel ramps up settlement and annexation in West Bank with dire human rights consequences |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/03/israel-ramps-settlement-and-annexation-west-bank-dire-human-rights |website=ohchr.org |publisher=ohchr.org |access-date=2 October 2025}}</ref> and [[Qatar]].<ref>{{cite news |title=What do we know about Israeli strike on Hamas in Qatar? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cq5jl77ygv4o |access-date=2 October 2025 |agency=bbc.com |publisher=bbc.com |date=9 September 2025}}</ref>

==2024: The Draghi Report and the new European challenges==
[[File:Mario Draghi in 2021 crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mario Draghi]]]]
{{main|Draghi report}} 
Among the challenges of the European Union is the implementation of the [[European Green Deal]]. While among the new challenges there is [[Artificial Intelligence Act|the governance of AI]] that must combine the development of this new technology with the intrinsic risks that it brings to the European Union.<ref>{{cite web |title=EU AI Act: first regulation on artificial intelligence |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20230601STO93804/eu-ai-act-first-regulation-on-artificial-intelligence |website=europarl.europa.eu |publisher=europarl.europa.eu |access-date=1 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The three challenges facing the new European Commission |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/opinion/article/2024/09/18/the-three-challenges-facing-the-new-european-commission_6726487_23.html |access-date=1 October 2024 |agency=lemonde.fr |publisher=lemonde.fr |date=18 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=European Union priorities 2024–2029 |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/priorities-and-actions/eu-priorities/european-union-priorities-2024-2029_en |website=european-union.europa.eu |publisher=european-union.europa.eu |access-date=1 October 2024}}</ref>
{{see also|Artificial Intelligence Act}}

==2025: Donald Trump's Second US Presidency==
[[File:Official Presidential Portrait of President Donald J. Trump (2025).jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Donald Trump]] [[President of the United States]]]]
{{main|2025 Russia–United States Summit}}
The European Union must address the new US policy, implemented by Donald Trump's second presidency of the United States in the economic, trade, financial and defense of the European continent. A challenge<ref>The challenge is summed up by the hope that the Union will not be reduced to being the "only herbivore in a world of carnivores": Flavio Brugnoli, ''L’unico erbivoro in un mondo di carnivori'', [[L'Indice dei libri del mese]], n. 6/2025, p. 14.</ref> that places Europe in front of new choices of collaboration and opportunity that requires an unprecedented effort to maintain competitiveness as illustrated in Mario Draghi's report.<ref>{{cite news |title=Davos 2025: Trump Urges OPEC to Lower Oil Prices, Warns of Tariffs |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-01-23/trump-urges-opec-to-lower-oil-prices-warns-of-tariffs-at-davos?srnd=homepage-europe |access-date=24 January 2025 |agency=bloomberg.com |publisher=bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Davos hits 'peak pessimism' on Europe as US exuberance rises |url=https://www.ft.com/content/7071e5cb-b9ad-490e-8702-44e9434aab1f |access-date=24 January 2025 |agency=ft.com |publisher=ft.com |date=24 January 2025}}</ref>

==2026: The Defense of the European Union==
{{main|Readiness 2030|European army}}
As of September 2025, despite the efforts of the [[President of the United States]], the failure to resolve the war in Ukraine through diplomacy and the pressing need to ensure security both for the part of Ukraine not occupied by [[Russia]] and for [[Europe]] itself along its entire eastern border, the European Union has adopted a defense plan that calls for strengthening the defenses of individual states in full agreement with [[NATO]].<ref>{{cite news |title=EU Nears Deal on €1.5 Billion Fund to Boost Its Defense Industry |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-12-02/eu-nears-deal-on-1-5-billion-fund-to-boost-its-defense-industry |access-date=1 September 2025 |agency=bloomberg.com |publisher=bloomberg.com |date=2 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Europe's Defense Reset Hits Banking Blockage |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2025-03-10/europe-s-defense-reset-hits-banking-blockage |access-date=1 September 2025 |agency=bloomberg.com |publisher=bloomberg.com |date=10 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Europe's €14 Trillion Defense Tab Needs Private Capital: Carlyle |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-06-24/private-capital-eyes-14-trillion-europe-defense-push-carlyle |access-date=1 September 2025 |agency=bloomberg.com |publisher=bloomberg.com |date=24 June 2025}}</ref> This plan is becoming increasingly urgent and extraordinary.<ref>{{cite web |title=Acting on defence to protect Europeans |url=https://commission.europa.eu/topics/defence/future-european-defence_en |website=commission.europa.eu |publisher=europa.eu |access-date=1 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Explainer: Europe's plans to pay for surge in defence spending |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/europes-plans-pay-surge-defence-spending-2025-03-19/ |access-date=1 September 2025 |agency=reuters.com |publisher=reuters.com |date=19 March 2025}}</ref> [[Germany]] has planned a major rearmament program unseen since [[World War II]], with major investments in the modernization of its entire defense industry and with the possibility of reinstatement of military conscription.<ref>{{cite news |title=Germany's Defense Splurge Set to Favor European Companies |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-03-17/germany-s-defense-splurge-is-said-to-favor-european-companies |access-date=1 September 2025 |agency=bloomberg.com |publisher=bloomberg.com |date=17 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=German cabinet passes bill for voluntary military service |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/german-cabinet-passes-bill-voluntary-military-service-2025-08-27/ |access-date=1 September 2025 |agency=reuters.com |publisher=reuters.com |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> [[Italy]] has increased its defense industry investments, including in partnership with German defense industry, developing fully or partially shared technologies. The objective is to create the conditions for a unified defense of the European Union, especially for [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] against potentially hostile actors, beyond Russia, which is involved in the war with Ukraine. The European Union's defense strategy not only involves strengthening and modernizing the defense sector but also impacts on civilian industries, such as the strengthening of European infrastructure and the [[space industry]]. Furthermore, to be effective and efficient, the European Union's defense strategy requires mutual security guarantees with Russia, as part of the solution to the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], to ensure a lasting and secure peace between the parties.

== Reform ==
[[Multi-speed Europe]] is a concept of [[differentiated integration]] currently in operation that has recently been given renewed emphasis by a team of independent experts<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amt |first=Auswärtiges |title=German-French working group of experts on EU institutional reforms |url=https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/newsroom/news/german-french-working-group-of-experts-on-eu-institutional-reforms/2574572 |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=German Federal Foreign Office |language=en}}</ref> in a report presented at a [[Council of the European Union|council meeting]] in Brussels in September 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=red |first=ORF at/Agenturen |date=2023-09-19 |title=Expertengruppe empfiehlt umfangreiche EU-Reformen |url=https://orf.at/stories/3331694/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=news.ORF.at |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Brzozowski |first1=Alexandra |last2=Pugnet |first2=Aurélie |date=2023-09-19 |title=Germany, France make EU reform pitch ahead of enlargement talks |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/enlargement-neighbourhood/news/germany-france-make-eu-reform-pitch-ahead-of-enlargement-talks/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=www.euractiv.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> "France and Germany are pushing for a larger EU reform before any new member joins the bloc."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Noyan |first=Oliver |date=2023-06-23 |title=EU reform: France, Germany confident on reaching agreement this year |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/eu-reforms/interview/eu-reform-france-germany-confident-on-reaching-agreement-this-year/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=www.euractiv.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Structural evolution==
{{EU evolution timeline}}

==See also==
* [[Timeline of European Union history]]
* [[Enlargement of the European Union]]
* [[History of the euro]]
* [[History of the Common Security and Defence Policy]]
* [[House of European History]]
* [[List of European Council meetings]]
* [[List of presidents of the institutions of the European Union]]
* [[Brussels and the European Union#History|History of the European Union in Brussels]]
* [[Location of European Union institutions#History|History of the location of EU institutions]]

;Wider European history between World War II and the fall of Communism in Europe 1945–1992
* [[End of World War II in Europe]]
* [[Revolutions of 1989]]
* [[German reunification]]
* [[Yugoslavia–European Communities relations]]
* [[Breakup of Yugoslavia]]

;Wider European history after the creation of the European Union
* [[2006 Montenegrin independence referendum]]
* [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence]] from Serbia
* [[Euro area crisis]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{cite book |last1=Kaiser |first1=W. |last2=Varsori |first2=A. |title=European Union History: Themes and Debates |date=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-28150-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kvFZCwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mather |first=J. |title=Legitimating the European Union: Aspirations, Inputs and Performance |publisher=Springer |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-230-62562-4}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pagden |first1=Anthony |title=The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union |last2=Hamilton |first2=Lee H. |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79552-4}}

==Further reading==
* Anderson, P. ''The New Old World'' (Verso 2009) {{ISBN|978-1-84467-312-4}}
* [[Berend, Ivan T.]] ''The History of European Integration: A New Perspective''. (Routledge, 2016).
* Blair, Alasdair. ''The European Union since 1945'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Chaban, N. and M. Holland, eds. ''Communicating Europe in Times of Crisis: External Perceptions of the European Union'' (2014).
* Dedman, Martin. ''The origins and development of the European Union 1945–1995: a history of European integration'' (Routledge, 2006).
* [[Catherine E. de Vries|De Vries, Catherine E.]] "Don't Mention the War! Second World War Remembrance and Support for European Cooperation." ''JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies'' (2019).
* Dinan, Desmond. ''Europe recast: a history of European Union'' (2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan), 2004 [https://www.rienner.com/uploads/53aae65db9769.pdf excerpt].
* Fimister, Alan. ''Robert Schuman: Neo-Scholastic Humanism and the Reunification of Europe'' (2008) 
* Heuser, Beatrice. ''Brexit in History: Sovereignty or a European Union?'' (2019) [https://books.google.com/books?id=fZygDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=(brexit+in+history)&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjWzOq96cKJAxXPIzQIHSiHNfoQ6AF6BAgDEAI online]; also see [https://www.wsj.com/articles/brexit-in-history-review-lets-not-get-together-11580428449 online review]
* [[Sara Hobolt|Hobolt, Sara B.]] "The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent." ''Journal of European Public Policy'' (2016): 1–19.
* Jorgensen, Knud Erik, et al., eds. ''The SAGE Handbook of European Foreign Policy'' (Sage, 2015).
* [[Kaiser, Wolfram]]. "From state to society? The historiography of European integration." in Michelle Cini, and Angela K. Bourne, eds. ''Palgrave Advances in European Union Studies'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2006). pp 190–208.
* Koops, TJ. and G. Macaj. ''The European Union as a Diplomatic Actor'' (2015).
* [[John McCormick (Jean Monnet Chair)|McCormick, John]]. ''Understanding the European Union: a concise introduction'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
* May, Alex. ''Britain and Europe since 1945'' (1999). 
* Marsh, Steve, and Hans Mackenstein. ''The International Relations of the EU'' (Routledge, 2014).
* [[Milward, Alan S.]] ''The Reconstruction of Western Europe: 1945–51'' (Univ. of California Press, 1984)
*{{cite book|last1=Pasture|first1=Patrick|title=Imagining European unity since 1000 AD|date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=9781137480460}}
* Patel, Kiran Klaus, and Wolfram Kaiser. "Continuity and change in European cooperation during the twentieth century." ''Contemporary European History'' 27.2 (2018): 165–182. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/E478ABB55246FBA32276D13F27818903/S096077731800005Xa.pdf/continuity_and_change_in_european_cooperation_during_the_twentieth_century.pdf online]
* Segers, Mathieu. ''The Origins of European Integration: The Pre-History of Today's European Union, 1937–1951'' (Cambridge University Press, 2023) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=60570 online review of this book]
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-first=M.L.|editor2-last=Stirk|editor2-first=P.M.R.|title=Making The New Europe: European Unity and the Second World War|date=1990|publisher=Pinter Publishers|location=London|isbn=0-86187-777-2|edition=1st UK}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Stirk|editor1-first=P.M.R.|title=European Unity in Context: The Interwar Period|date=1989|publisher=Pinter Publishers|location=London|isbn=9780861879878|edition=1st}}
* Young, John W. ''Britain, France, and the unity of Europe, 1945–1951'' (Leicester University, 1984).

==External links==
{{commons category|History of the European Union}}
* [http://europa.eu/abc/history/index_en.htm History of the EU] Official Europa website
* [http://logic-law.com/index.php?title=Emergence_of_the_European_Union An Outline of the Emergence of the European Union]
* [http://www.cliohworld.net/ CLIOH-WORLD] CLIOH-WORLD: Network of Universities supported by the European Commission (LLP-Erasmus) for the researching, teaching and learning of the history of the EU, including EU Integration, EU-Turkey dialogue, and linking to world history
{{History of Europe}}
{{European Union topics}}
{{European history by country}}
{{Portal bar|European Union|History}}

[[Category:History of the European Union| ]]