View source for History of the Ottoman Empire

{{Short description|none}}
{{History of the Ottoman Empire}}{{History of Turkey}}
The [[Ottoman Empire]] was founded c. 1299 by [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] chieftain [[Osman I]] as a small [[Anatolian beyliks|beylik]] in northwestern [[Anatolia]] just south of the [[Byzantine]] capital [[Constantinople]]. In 1326, the [[Ottoman Turks]] captured nearby [[Bursa]], cutting off Asia Minor from Byzantine control and making Bursa their capital. The Ottoman Turks first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at [[Çimpe Castle]] on the [[Dardanelles]] in 1354 and moving their capital to [[Edirne]] (Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, the [[Anatolian beyliks|numerous small Turkic states]] in [[Asia Minor]] were assimilated into the budding [[Ottoman Sultanate]] through conquest or declarations of allegiance.

As Sultan [[Mehmed II]] [[Fall of Constantinople|conquered Constantinople]] (today named [[Istanbul]]) in 1453, transforming it into the new Ottoman capital, the state grew into a substantial empire, expanding deep into Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. With most of the [[Balkans]] under Ottoman rule by the mid-16th century, Ottoman territory increased exponentially under Sultan [[Selim I]], who assumed the [[Caliphate]] in 1517 as the Ottomans turned east and conquered western [[Arabia]], Egypt, [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Levant]], among other territories. Within the next few decades, much of the North African coast (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman realm.

The empire reached its apex under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] in the 16th century, when it stretched from the [[Persian Gulf]] in the east to [[Algeria]] in the west, and from [[Yemen]] in the south to [[Hungary]] and parts of [[Ukraine]] in the north. According to the [[Ottoman decline thesis]], Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of the [[Battle of Vienna]].

[[Treaty of Karlowitz|From 1699]] onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to lose territory over the course of the next two centuries due to internal stagnation, costly defensive wars, European colonialism, and [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|nationalist revolts]] among its multiethnic subjects. In any case, the need to modernise was evident to the empire's leaders by the early 19th century, and numerous administrative reforms were implemented in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. The gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the [[Eastern Question]] in the mid-19th century.

The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in [[World War I]], when its remaining territory was [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned]] by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]]. The sultanate was officially abolished by the [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara]] on 1 November 1922 following the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. Throughout its more than 600 years of existence, the Ottoman Empire has left a profound legacy in the Middle East and [[Southeast Europe]], as can be seen in the customs, culture, and cuisine of the various countries that were once part of its realm.

== Ottoman etiology ==
With the end of the [[World War I|First World War]] and the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], questions arose in a geopolitical and historical context about the reasons for the emergence and decline of the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]], the reasons for the emergence and decline of their empire and how both events were defined. On the eve of [[World War II]], the geographical position and the geopolitical weight of [[Turkey]], the major historical heir to the Ottoman Empire, gave weight to the issues as propaganda. The first item on the agenda of the [[Tehran conference]] was the issue of Turkey's participation in World War II by the end of 1943.<ref>McNeill, '' American, Britain and Russia '' (1953). p. 353.</ref>

==Historiography==
{{Main|Historiography of the Ottoman Empire}}

==Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)==
{{Main|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{further|Ottoman Dynasty}}

With the demise of the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]] [[Sultanate of Rum]] during 12th to 13th century, [[Anatolia]] was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called [[Anatolian Beyliks]]. For the next few decades, these Beyliks were under the sovereignty of Mongolians and their Iranian Kingdom Ilkhanids. By 1300, a weakened [[Byzantine Empire]] had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities. One of the beyliks was led by [[Osman I]] (d. 1323/4), from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of [[Ertuğrul]], around [[Eskişehir]] in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the story known as "[[Osman's Dream]]", the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky).<ref name=kin24>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'' (Morrow Quill Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 24.</ref> According to his dream the tree, which was Osman's Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the [[Tigris]], the [[Euphrates]], the [[Nile]] and the [[Danube]].<ref name=kin24/> Additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], the [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]], the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas]] and the [[Balkan Mountains|Balkan]] ranges.<ref name=kin24/> During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the [[Byzantine Empire]].

[[File:Beylicats d%u2019Anatolie vers 1330-en.svg|thumb|350px|A map of independent Turkic beyliks in Anatolia during the 14th century]]

During this period, a formal [[Ruling institution of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman government]] was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire.

In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the [[History of the Balkans|Balkans]]. Osman's son, [[Orhan]], captured the city of [[Bursa]] in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia.

After securing their flank in Asia Minor, the Ottomans then crossed into Europe from 1352 onwards; within a decade, almost all of Thrace had been conquered by the Ottomans, cutting off [[Constantinople]] from its Balkan hinterlands. The Ottoman capital was moved to Adrianople [[Edirne]] in 1369. The important city of [[Thessaloniki]] was captured from the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] in 1387. The Ottoman victory at [[Battle of Kosovo|Kosovo in 1389]] effectively marked [[Fall of the Serbian Empire|the end of Serbian power]] in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The [[Battle of Nicopolis]] in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale [[Crusades|crusade]] of the [[Middle Ages]], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic [[Sieges of Constantinople#Ottoman Sieges|conquest of Constantinople]] became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine lands]] surrounding the city, but the [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantines]] were temporarily relieved when [[Timur]] invaded Anatolia in the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402. He took Sultan [[Bayezid I]] as a prisoner. The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when [[Mehmed I]] emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the [[Ottoman Interregnum|Interregnum]].

<gallery>
File:Facial Chronicle - b.10, p.299 - Battle of Kosovo (1389).png|[[Battle of Kosovo|Battle of Kosovo (1389)]]
File:Nicopol final battle 1398.jpg|[[Battle of Nicopolis|Battle of Nicopolis (1396)]]
File:Mehmet I honoraries miniature.jpg|Sultan [[Mehmed I]]. Ottoman miniature, 1413-1421
File:Chelebowski_varna.jpg|[[Battle of Varna|Battle of Varna (1444)]]
</gallery>

Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by [[Murad II]] between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the [[Hungary|Hungarian]], [[Poland|Polish]] and [[Wallachia]]n armies under [[Władysław III of Poland]] (also King of Hungary) and [[John Hunyadi|János Hunyadi]] at the [[Battle of Varna]], which was the final battle of the [[Crusade of Varna]].<ref>Bodnar, Edward W. ''Ciriaco d'Ancona e la crociata di Varna, nuove prospettive''. ''Il Veltro'' 27, nos. 1–2 (1983): 235–51</ref><ref>Halecki, Oscar, ''The Crusade of Varna''. New York, 1943</ref> Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]] in 1448.

The son of Murad II, [[Mehmed II|Mehmed the Conqueror]], reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing [[fall of Constantinople|Constantinople]] on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21.

==Classical Age (1453–1566)==
{{Main|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[Image:OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Rhodes (1522)]]]]
[[Image:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|[[Fall of Constantinople]] (1453)]]The Ottoman conquest of [[Constantinople]] in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority.<ref name="ReferenceB">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 94</ref> Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by [[Loukas Notaras]]'s famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

Upon making Constantinople (present-day [[Istanbul]]) the new capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Mehmed II assumed the title of ''Kayser-i Rûm'' (literally ''Caesar Romanus'', i.e. Roman Emperor.) In order to consolidate this claim, he would launch a campaign to conquer Rome, the western capital of the former [[Roman Empire]]. To this aim he spent many years securing positions on the [[Adriatic Sea]], such as in [[Albania Veneta]], and then continued with the [[Ottoman invasion of Otranto]] and [[Apulia]] on 28 July 1480. The Turks stayed in [[Otranto]] and its surrounding areas for nearly a year, but after Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481, plans for penetrating deeper into the [[Italian peninsula]] with fresh new reinforcements were given up on and cancelled and the remaining Ottoman troops sailed back to the east of the Adriatic Sea.

[[File:Yavuz Sultan I. Selim Han.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Selim I]] conquered the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]], making the Turks the dominant power in the Islamic world.]]

During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|long period of conquest and expansion]], extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman Navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the [[Black Sea|Black]], [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] seas and the Portuguese in the [[Red Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]].

The state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Karpat, Kemal H. |title=The Ottoman state and its place in world history |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |year=1974 |page=111 |isbn=90-04-03945-7 }}. A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for [[Isabella I of Castile]] to fund [[Christopher Columbus]]'s westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g. K. D. Madan, ''Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama'' (1998), 9; I. Stavans, ''Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage'' (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, ''Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877'' (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", ''English Historical Review'', 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, ''The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127)'' (1978), 335).</ref>

The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultans]]. Sultan [[Selim I]] (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail]] I of [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] [[Persia]], in 1514 at the [[Battle of Chaldiran]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Savory |first=R. M. |title = The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907-30/1501-24) |journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume = 23 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |year=1960 |doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00149006 |jstor=609888|s2cid=154467531}}</ref> Selim I established [[History of Ottoman Egypt|Ottoman rule in Egypt]], and created a naval presence on the [[Red Sea]]. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the [[Portuguese Empire]] and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hess |first=Andrew C. |title = The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War |journal = International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume = 4 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |date=January 1973 |jstor = 162225 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800027276|s2cid=162219690 }}</ref> This conquest ended with the execution of [[Tuman bay II|Tuman Bay II]].

Selim's successor, [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing [[Belgrade]] in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (the western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary/214181/History#ref=ref411152 |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cache-media.britannica.com/eb-media/47/20547-004-D655EA04.gif |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=26 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426084941/http://cache-media.britannica.com/eb-media/47/20547-004-D655EA04.gif |url-status=dead }}</ref>[[File:Car bed kap deu2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Walls of Constantinople]] (Gate of Belgrade)]]

After his victory in the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526, he established [[Ottoman Hungary|Turkish rule]] in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western region) and other Central European territories, (See also: [[Ottoman–Hungarian Wars]]). He then laid [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|siege to Vienna]] in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.<ref>Imber, 50.</ref>

In 1532, he made another [[Little War in Hungary|attack]] on Vienna, but was repulsed in the [[Siege of Güns]], {{convert|97|km|mi}} south of the city at the fortress of [[Kőszeg|Güns]].<ref name="Thompson442">Thompson (1996), p. 442</ref><ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583">Ágoston and Alan Masters (2009), p. 583</ref> In the other version of the story, the city's commander, [[Nikola Jurišić]], was offered terms for a nominal surrender.<ref name="Turnbull51">Turnbull (2003), p. 51.</ref> However, Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but turned homeward instead.<ref name="Turnbull51"/><ref name="Vambery298">Vambery, p. 298</ref>

After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand]] officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, [[Transylvania]], [[Wallachia]] and, intermittently, [[Moldavia]], became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took [[Baghdad]] from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of [[Mesopotamia]] and naval access to the [[Persian Gulf]]. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.<ref name="Kinross206">L. Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire'', p.206</ref>

Under Selim and [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean.<ref>Mansel, 61</ref> The exploits of the Ottoman admiral [[Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha|Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha]], who commanded the [[Ottoman Navy]] during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Important naval victories of the Ottoman Empire in this period include the [[Battle of Preveza]] (1538); [[Battle of Ponza (1552)]]; [[Battle of Djerba]] (1560); conquest of [[Ottoman Algeria|Algiers]] (in [[Capture of Algiers (1516)|1516]] and [[Capture of Algiers (1529)|1529]]) and [[History of Ottoman-era Tunisia|Tunis]] (in [[Conquest of Tunis (1534)|1534]] and [[Conquest of Tunis (1574)|1574]]) from Spain; conquest of [[Siege of Rhodes (1522)|Rhodes (1522)]] and [[Siege of Tripoli (1551)|Tripoli (1551)]] from the [[Knights of St. John]]; capture of [[Siege of Nice|Nice (1543)]] from the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; capture of [[Invasion of Corsica (1553)|Corsica (1553)]] from the [[Republic of Genoa]]; capture of the [[Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)|Balearic Islands (1558)]] from Spain; capture of [[Capture of Aden (1548)|Aden (1548)]], [[Capture of Muscat (1552)|Muscat (1552)]] and [[Ottoman expedition to Aceh|Aceh (1565–67)]] from Portugal during the [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean expeditions]]; among others.

The conquests of [[Siege of Nice|Nice (1543)]] and [[Invasion of Corsica (1553)|Corsica (1553)]] occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] and the Ottoman sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]], and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals [[Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha]] and [[Turgut Reis]].<ref>Imber, 53.</ref> A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman [[siege of Esztergom (1543)|conquest of Esztergom]] in 1543. [[Early Modern France|France]] and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Dutch Republic]] against [[Habsburg Spain]], Italy and [[Archduchy of Austria|Habsburg Austria]].

[[File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Suleiman the Magnificent]] became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's power.]]

[[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]]'s policy of expansion throughout the Mediterranean basin was however halted in [[Malta]] in 1565. During a summer-long siege which was later to be known as the [[Siege of Malta (1565)|Siege of Malta]], the Ottoman forces which numbered around 50,000 fought the [[Knights of St. John]] and the Maltese garrison of 6000 men. Stubborn resistance by the Maltese led to the lifting of the siege in September. The unsuccessful siege (the Turks managed to capture the Isle of [[Gozo]] together with [[Fort Saint Elmo]] on the main island of Malta, but failed elsewhere and retreated) was the second and last defeat experienced by Suleiman the Magnificent after the likewise inconclusive [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|first Ottoman siege of Vienna]] in 1529. Suleiman I died of natural causes in his tent during the [[Siege of Szigetvár]] in 1566. The [[Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571 (which was triggered by the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|Ottoman capture of Venetian-controlled Cyprus]] in 1570) was another major setback for Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, despite the fact that an equally large Ottoman fleet was built in a short time and [[Conquest of Tunis (1574)|Tunisia was recovered from Spain]] in 1574.

As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the [[Persian Gulf]], Indian Ocean and the [[Maluku Islands|Spice Islands]]. With the Ottoman Turks blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|military campaigns in Austria]] and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.{{Citation needed|date = July 2011}}

==Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)==
{{main|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{further|Ottoman Decline Thesis}}
{{unreliable sources|section|date=September 2016}}

[[File:Szigetvar 1566.jpg|thumb|180px|Ottoman miniature about the [[Siege of Szigetvár|Szigetvár campaign]] showing Ottoman troops and [[Crimean Khanate|Tatars]] as avantgarde.]]
European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the [[Silk Road]]. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia [[Age of Discovery|through new discoveries at sea]]. The [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] discovery of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1488 initiated [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|a series of Ottoman–Portuguese naval wars]] in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Economically, the [[Price Revolution]] caused rampant inflation in both Europe and the Middle East. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society.

The expansion of [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite Russia]] under [[Ivan IV]] (1533–1584) into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates disrupted the northern pilgrimage and trade routes. A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha]], Grand Vizier under [[Selim II]], in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilizing the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia.<ref>Itzkowitz, Norman. ''Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition'', University of Chicago Press, 1980)  {{ISBN|0-226-38806-9}}, pp. 64–65.</ref> In 1571, the Crimean khan [[Devlet I Giray]], supported by the Ottomans, [[Russo-Crimean War (1571)|burned Moscow]].<ref>Davies (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500–1700.]''. p.16.</ref> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the [[Battle of Molodi]]. The [[Crimean Khanate]] continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave raids]],<ref>Subtelny, Orest (1988). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&pg=PA106 Ukraine: a history.]''". p 106</ref> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century.<ref>"[http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501041101/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |date=2011-05-01 }}" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, ''Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.''</ref>
[[File:Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg|thumb|left|[[Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571.]]
In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by [[Philip II of Spain]], formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)]] was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic and not the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern [[galleass]]es<ref name="Kinross, 272">Kinross, 272.</ref> had been built, with the shipyards of Istanbul turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Ottoman Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard".<ref name="Kinross, 272"/> The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.<ref>Itzkowitz, p. 67.</ref> However, what could not be replaced were the experienced naval officers and sailors. The Battle of Lepanto was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<ref>Kunt & Woodhead (Ed.) ''Suleyman The Magnificent and his Age, The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World'' (Longman 1995) p. 53</ref>

By contrast, the [[Habsburg]] frontier had settled into a reasonably permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences<ref>Itzkowitz,  p. 71</ref> and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, [[Vienna]] marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to support two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: [[Ottoman wars in Europe]]), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the [[Safavid]]s of Persia (see: [[Ottoman wars in Near East]]).

[[File:Mehmed III.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Mehmed III]]'s armies defeated the [[Habsburg]] and [[Transylvania]]n forces at the [[Battle of Mezőkeresztes|Battle of Keresztes]].]]
Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the [[military revolution]] caused the [[Sipahi]] cavalry to lose military relevance. The [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]] against Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in [[Janissary]] corps numbers. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the [[Jelali revolts]] (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref>Inalcik, Halil. ''An Economic And Social History Of The Ottoman Empire, Vol 1 1300–1600''. Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-57455-2}}, p. 24.</ref> With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.<ref name="Kinross281">L. Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p.281</ref>

[[File:IV. Murat.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Murad IV]] reconquered [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)|Baghdad]] from the [[Safavids]] in 1638.]]
[[File:OttomanEmpire1683.png|thumb|left|200px|The Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent in Europe in 1683, under Sultan [[Mehmed IV]] and the [[Köprülü family|Köprülü]] Grand Vizier [[Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha]].]]

However, the 17th century was not an era of stagnation and decline, but a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The [[Sultanate of women]] (1534–1683) was a period in which the political influence of the [[Imperial Harem]] was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; [[Roxelana|Hürrem Sultan]], who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of [[Hafsa Sultan|Hafsa]], the first [[valide sultan]], was described by the Venetian [[Bailo of Constantinople|baylo]] Andrea Giritti as "a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom" even though she "thwarted some while rewarding others".<ref>Leslie P. Peirce, ''The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire'' and ''Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab''.</ref> But the inadequacy of [[Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire|Ibrahim I]] (1640–1648) and the minority accession of [[Mehmed IV]] in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule, which the dominant women of the [[Imperial Harem]] filled. The most prominent women of this period were [[Kösem Sultan]] and her daughter-in-law [[Turhan Hatice]], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.<ref>Itzkowitz, pp. 74–75.</ref>

[[File:A török kori Esztergom látképe. Vízfestmény, 1664.jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Esztergom (1543)|Ottoman city]] of [[Esztergom|Estergon]] in 1664.]]
[[Image:Vienna Battle 1683.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Vienna|Second Siege of Vienna]] in 1683, painting by [[Frans Geffels]].]]

This period gave way to the highly significant [[Köprülü Era]] (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of [[Grand Vizier]]s from the Köprülü family. On 15 September 1656 the octogenarian [[Köprülü Mehmed Pasha]] accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide [[Turhan Hatice]] of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor [[Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed]] (Grand Vizier 1661–1676).<ref>Itzkowitz, pp. 77–81.</ref> The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in [[Transylvania]], the conquest of [[Crete]] completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern [[Ukraine]], with the strongholds of [[Khotyn]] and [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] and the territory of [[Podolia]] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.<ref>Itzkowitz,  pp. 80–81.</ref>

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier [[Kara Mustafa Pasha]] in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the [[Great Turkish War]] of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king [[John III Sobieski|Jan]]<ref>Itzkowitz, pp. 81–82.</ref> at the
[[Battle of Vienna]].

The alliance of the [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.<ref>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 357.</ref> For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrendered control of significant European territories (many permanently), including [[Ottoman Hungary]].<ref>Itzkowitz, p. 84.</ref> The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.

Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous [[Murad IV]] (1612–1640) recaptured [[Yerevan]] (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the [[Safavids]] and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign. [[Mustafa II]] (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at [[Battle of Zenta|Zenta]] (11 September 1697).<ref>Itzkowitz, pp. 73, 83–84.</ref>

==Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)==
{{Main|Ottoman ancien régime}}
[[File:Axel Sparre - Karl den XII, 1682-1718, kung av Sverige.jpg|thumb|upright|King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] fled to the Ottoman Empire following his defeat against the Russians at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709.]]
During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. Certain areas of the Empire, such as [[Egypt]] and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders.

However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat.<ref name="LordKinross">Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 371.</ref> Accordingly, King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709 (part of the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721.)<ref name="LordKinross" /> Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the [[Pruth River Campaign]] of 1710–1711.<ref>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 372.</ref> Following the [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)]], the subsequent [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.<ref>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 376.</ref>

[[File:Hunting Party with the Sultan Jean Baptiste Vanmour 18th century.JPG|thumb|left|A Turkish hunting party with [[Ahmed III]]. Painting by [[Jean-Baptiste van Mour]].]]

During the [[Tulip Era in the Ottoman Empire|Tulip Era]] (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the [[tulip]] flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of its cities in the Balkan peninsula to act as a defence against European expansionism. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the [[Baroque]] and [[Rococo]] movements in Europe. A classic example is the [[Fountain of Ahmed III]] in front of the [[Topkapı Palace]]. The famous [[Flemish people|Flemish]]-French painter [[Jean-Baptiste van Mour]] visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Turkey: The later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839'', Ed. Suraiya Faroqhi, (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 443.</ref>

Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Empress Anne, Catherine I's niece, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The [[Treaty of Belgrade]] signed on 18 September 1739, ended this war and resulted in Ottoman recovery of [[Belgrade]] and other territories from Austria, but the loss of the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.<ref>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 393.</ref>

This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} In the latter part of this period there were [[Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire#Education|educational and technological reforms]], including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the [[Istanbul Technical University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |title=History of the Istanbul Technical University |publisher=Itu.edu.tr |access-date=6 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory |archive-date=18 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ottoman [[Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire|science and technology]] had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of [[theodicy]].<ref name="ReferenceC">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 97</ref> Not until 1754 was the artillery school reopened on a semi-secret basis.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Earlier, the [[guilds]] of writers had denounced the [[printing press]] as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by [[Johannes Gutenberg]] in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Istanbul that was established by the [[Sephardic Jews]] of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the [[Spanish Inquisition]] of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, [[Ibrahim Muteferrika]] convinced the [[Grand Vizier]] [[Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha]], the [[Grand Mufti]], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and later submitted a request to Sultan Ahmed III, who granted Muteferrika the permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphers]] and religious leaders.)<ref name="katip celebi">[http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/wwwroot/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm Presentation of Katip Çelebi, ''Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi''], at the [[Utrecht University]] Library {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505024753/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/wwwroot/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |date=May 5, 2009 }}</ref> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)<ref name="katip celebi"/><ref name=watson>William J. Watson, "Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula", in ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', Vol. 88, No. 3 (1968), p. 435.</ref>

[[File:Turkish guns 1750-1800.jpg|thumb|left|18th-century [[Shishane|Turkish guns]] with [[miquelet]] locks, c. 1750–1800.]]

Other tentative reforms were also enacted: [[Taxation in the Ottoman empire|taxes]] were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.

Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered [[Balta, Ukraine|Balta]] an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground.<ref>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 396.</ref> This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)]], during which, in January 1769, a 70-thousand Turkish-Tatar army led by the Crimean Khan [[Qırım Giray]] made one of the largest [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave raids]] in the history, which was repulsed by the 6-thousand garrison of the [[Fortress of St. Elizabeth]], which prevented Ottoman Empire from further progress. After that, the Ottomans were pushed back to the shores of the Black Sea by the troops of General [[Pyotr Rumyantsev|Rumyantsev]]. The [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] of 1774 ended the Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship.<ref>Lord Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries'', p. 405.</ref> Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship.
[[File:35-101-0621 гармати.jpg|thumb|Cannons and earthworks of the [[Fortress of St. Elizabeth]] in the city of [[Kropyvnytskyi]]]]
A series of [[History of Russo-Turkish wars|wars]] were fought between the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of [[Peter the Great]] had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

[[Ottoman military reform efforts]] begin with [[Selim III]] (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a [[Janissary revolts|Janissary revolt]]. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic [[Mahmud II]], who [[Auspicious Incident|eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826]].
[[File:Ottoman Sultan Selim III (1789).jpg|thumb|[[Selim III]] receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, [[Topkapı Palace]].]]

The [[Serbian revolution]] (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of [[Romantic nationalism|national awakening]] in the [[Balkans]] during the [[Eastern Question]]. [[Suzerainty]] of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own [[Karađorđevic dynasty|dynasty]] was acknowledged ''de jure'' in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |title=Liberation, Independence and Union |publisher=Njegos.org |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref><ref>[[Iván T. Berend]], ''History derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the long nineteenth century'', ([[University of California Press]] Ltd, 2003), 127.</ref> In 1821, the [[Ottoman Greece|Greeks]] [[Greek War of Independence|declared war]] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the [[Peloponnese]], which, along with the northern part of the [[Gulf of Corinth]], became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the [[Sick man of Europe|"sick man"]] by Europeans. The [[suzerainty|suzerain states]] – the [[Principality of Serbia]], [[Wallachia]], [[Moldavia]] and [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

=== International Trade ===

As regards trade imbalance, only Istanbul ran an import surplus. Both Lampe and McGowan argue that the empire as a whole, and the Balkans in particular, continued to record an export surplus throughout the period. As early as 1850, French authorities became concerned that imports of 27.3 million francs from the Ottoman Empire exceeded what France was exporting to them 19.9 million francs and were anxious to balance the two figures <ref>[[#Raccagni|Raccagni (1980)]], p. 342.</ref> 
The balance of trade however moved against the Ottomans from the 18th century onwards. They would re-export high value luxury goods, mainly silks from the [[Far East]] and exported many of its own goods. Luxury goods began being imported. Through the 18th century, exports moved to unprocessed goods whilst at the same time commodities were imported from European colonies. Most of these commodities were produced by [[slavery|slave labor]] undercutting domestic production. However, according to most scholars, a favourable balance of trade still existed at the end of the 18th century.<ref>[[#Quataert00|Quataert (2000)]], p. 126.</ref> 19th century trade increased multi-fold, however exports remained similar to 18th century levels. Foodstuffs and raw materials were the focus with carpets and raw silk appearing in the 1850s.<ref>[[#Pamuk84|Pamuk (1984)]], pp. 109–111.</ref>

From the 18th century onwards, foreign merchants and Ottoman non-[[Islam|Muslims]] became dominant in the growing international trade. With increasing affluence, their political significance grew especially in Syria. Muslim merchants however dominated internal trade and trade between the interior and coastal cities. In 1793, Aleppo alone issued 1,500 certificates to Ottoman non-Muslims for such privileges which through the course of the eighteenth century allowed them to replace their European counterparts. Istanbul boasted over 1,000 registered merchants in the early twentieth century, of which only 3% were British, French or German merchants;<ref>[[#Quataert00|Quataert (2000)]], pp. 127–128.</ref>

==Decline and modernization (1828–1908)==
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
During this period, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 [[Crimean War]], the Ottomans united with Britain, [[Second French Empire|France]] and the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] against [[Russian Empire|Russia]].

===Modernization===
[[Image:Sultan Mahmud II.jpg|thumb|[[Mahmud II]] started the modernization of Turkey by paving the way for the Edict of [[Tanzimat]] in 1839.]]
During the [[Tanzimat]] period (from Arabic: تنظيم ''tanẓīm'', meaning "organisation") (1839–76), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the replacement of religious law with secular law<ref>http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> and [[guild]]s with modern factories. In 1856, the ''[[Hatt-ı Hümayun]]'' [[Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856|promised equality]] for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 [[Hatt-i Sharif|''Hatt-ı Şerif'' of Gülhane]].

Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the [[Republic of Turkey]] and of many other former Ottoman states in the [[Balkans]], the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included<ref name=NTVtarih>[http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/ NTV Tarih] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212143841/http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/ |date=2013-02-12 }} history magazine, issue of July 2011. ''"Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı"'', pages 46–50. (Turkish)</ref> guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper [[banknotes]] (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganisation of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganisation of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the ''Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye'' (1841) which was the prototype of the [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Ottoman Parliament]] (1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an [[Ottoman imperial anthem|Ottoman national anthem]] and [[Ottoman flag|Ottoman national flag]] (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the ''Mecidiye'' identity papers, or informally ''kafa kağıdı'' (''head paper'') documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (''Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti'', 1847, which later became the ''Maarif Nezareti'', 1857); the [[Disestablishment of the Istanbul Slave Market]] and the [[Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf]] (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (''darülfünun'', 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (''darülmuallimin'', 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (''Tıbbiye Nezareti'', 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (''Encümen-i Daniş'', 1851); establishment of the ''Şirket-i Hayriye'' which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (''Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye'', 1853) and supreme judiciary council (''Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat'', 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (''Şehremaneti'', 1854); the [[Firman of 1854|Prohibition of the Circassian and Georgian slave trade]] (1854–1855); the City Planning Council (''İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu'', 1855); the abolition of the [[Jizya|capitation (Jizya) tax]] on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first [[telegraph]] networks (1847–1855) and [[railway]]s (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the ''Bank-ı Osmanî'' in 1856, and later reorganised as the ''Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane'' in 1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html |title=Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank |publisher=Obarsiv.com |access-date=6 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614105241/http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html |archive-date=14 June 2012 }}</ref> and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (''Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası'', established in 1866);<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imkb.gov.tr/genel/tarih.htm |title=Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange |publisher=Imkb.gov.tr |access-date=6 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225094722/http://www.imkb.gov.tr/genel/tarih.htm |archive-date=25 February 2012 }}</ref> the Land Code (''Arazi Kanunnamesi'', 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the ''Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi'' (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (''Mekteb-i Mülkiye'', 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (''Matbuat Nizamnamesi'', 1864); among others.<ref name=NTVtarih/>

[[File:Sultan Abdülmecid - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|The reign of Sultan [[Abdülmecid I|Abdülmecid]] was marked by the implementation of the Tanzimat reforms; the [[Crimean War]] and [[Ottoman public debt|first foreign debt]] of the Ottoman Empire in 1854.]]
The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.<ref name=PTT>[http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html PTT Chronology] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913233443/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html |date=September 13, 2008 }}</ref><ref name=PTT2>{{cite web |url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1 |title=History of the Turkish Postal Service |publisher=Ptt.gov.tr |access-date=6 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401082752/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1 |archive-date=1 April 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first post office was the ''Postahane-i Amire'' near the courtyard of the [[New Mosque (Istanbul)|Yeni Mosque]].<ref name=PTT /> In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established.<ref name=PTT /> In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational.<ref name=PTT />

[[Samuel Morse]] received his first ever patent for the [[telegraph]] in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present [[Beylerbeyi Palace]] was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan [[Abdülmecid I|Abdülmecid]] who personally tested the new invention.<ref>[http://www.istanbulcityguide.com/history/body_mansions_palaces.htm Istanbul City Guide: Beylerbeyi Palace] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010112702/http://www.istanbulcityguide.com/history/body_mansions_palaces.htm |date=October 10, 2007 }}</ref> Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-[[Adrianople]]&ndash;[[Şumnu]])<ref name=NTVtarih2>[http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/ NTV Tarih] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212143841/http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/ |date=2013-02-12 }} history magazine, issue of July 2011. ''"Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı"'', page 49. (Turkish)</ref> began on 9 August 1847.<ref name=telekomhistory>{{Cite web|url=http://www.turktelekom.com.tr/webtech/eng_default.asp?sayfa_id=30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928164731/http://www.turktelekom.com.tr/webtech/eng_default.asp?sayfa_id=30|url-status=dead|title=Türk Telekom: History|archivedate=September 28, 2007}}</ref> In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established.<ref name=PTT /><ref name=PTT2/><ref name=NTVtarih2/> In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph.<ref name=PTT2/> In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter.<ref name=telekomhistory /> On 23 May 1909, the first manual [[telephone exchange]] with a 50 line capacity entered service in the [[Istanbul Main Post Office|Büyük Postane]] (Grand Post Office) in [[Sirkeci]].<ref name=telekomhistory />

The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the ''Kanûn-u Esâsî'' (meaning "[[Basic Law]]" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the [[Young Ottomans]], which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The empire's [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional era]], was short-lived. But the idea of [[Ottomanism]] proved influential. A group of reformers known as the [[Young Ottomans]], primarily educated in [[Western world|Western]] universities, believed that a [[constitutional monarchy]] would give an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a [[military coup]] in 1876, they forced Sultan [[Abdülaziz]] (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of [[Murad V]]. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, [[Abdülhamid II]] (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the ''[[Kanûn-ı Esâsî]]''.

The Christian [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]] gained privileges, such as in the [[Armenian National Constitution]] of 1863. This [[Ottoman Porte|Divan]]-approved form of the ''Code of Regulations'' consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed [[Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire)|Armenian National Assembly]].<ref>[[Hagop Barsoumian|Barsoumian, Hagop]]. "The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era", in ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century''. [[Richard G. Hovannisian]] (ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 198. {{ISBN|0-312-10168-6}}.</ref> The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

====Railways====
New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Railway !! Year established !! Cities serviced
|-
| [[Cairo]]&ndash;[[Alexandria]] line || 1856|| [[Cairo]]&ndash;[[Alexandria]]
|-
| [[İzmir]]&ndash;[[Selçuk]]&ndash;[[Aydın]] line|| 1856|| [[İzmir]]&ndash;[[Selçuk]]&ndash;[[Aydın]] 
|-
| [[Constanța|Köstence]]&ndash;[[Cernavodă|Boğazköy]] railway line|| 1860|| [[Constanța|Köstence]]&ndash;[[Cernavodă|Boğazköy]] 
|-
| [[Smyrne Cassaba & Prolongements]]|| 1863|| İzmir, [[Afyon]], [[Bandırma]]
|-
| [[Ruse, Bulgaria|Rusçuk]]–[[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]] railway line|| 1866|| [[Ruse, Bulgaria|Rusçuk]], [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]] 
|-
| [[Bucharest|Bükreş]]&ndash;[[Giurgiu|Yergöğü]] railway line|| 1869|| [[Bucharest|Bükreş]], [[Giurgiu|Yergöğü]]
|-
| [[Chemins de fer Orientaux]]|| 1869|| [[Vienna]], [[Banja Luka]], [[Sarajevo|Saraybosna]], [[Niš]], [[Sofia]], [[Plovdiv|Filibe]], [[Adrianople]] and [[Istanbul]] (starting from 1889 between Paris and Istanbul as the [[Orient Express]])
|-
| [[Chemin de Fer Moudania Brousse]]|| 1871 || [[Mudanya]], [[Bursa]]
|-
| Istanbul-[[Belovo, Bulgaria|Belovo]] railway line|| 1873|| Istanbul, [[Belovo, Bulgaria|Belovo]]
|-
| [[Skopje|Üsküp]]&ndash;[[Thessaloniki|Selânik]] railway line|| 1873|| [[Skopje|Üsküp]], [[Thessaloniki|Selânik]] 
|-
| [[Mersin-Tarsus-Adana Railway]]|| 1882 || [[Mersin]], [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], [[Adana]]
|-
| [[Chemins de Fer Ottomans d'Anatolie]] || 1888|| Istanbul, [[İzmit]], [[Adapazarı]], [[Bilecik]], [[Eskişehir]], [[Ankara]], [[Kütahya]], [[Konya]]
|-
| [[Jaffa–Jerusalem railway]]|| 1892|| [[Jaffa]], [[Jerusalem]]
|-
| [[Rail transport in Lebanon|Beirut-Damascus railway]]|| 1895 || [[Beirut]], [[Damascus]]
|-
| [[Baghdad Railway]]|| 1904||Istanbul, Konya, [[Adana]], [[Aleppo]], [[Baghdad]]
|-
| [[Jezreel Valley railway]]|| 1905|| [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Haifa]], [[Bosra]], [[Hauran]], [[Yagur]], [[Daraa]], [[Samakh, Tiberias|Samakh]], [[Beit She'an]], [[Silat ad-Dhahr]]
|-
| [[Hejaz Railway]] || 1908 ||  Istanbul, Konya, Adana, Aleppo, [[Damascus]], [[Amman]], [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]] and [[Medina]]
|-
| [[Eastern Railway (Israel)|Eastern Railway]]|| 1915 || [[Tulkarm]], [[Lod]]
|-
| [[Railway to Beersheba|Beersheba Railway]] || 1915 || [[Nahal Sorek]], [[Beit Hanoun]], [[Beersheba]].
|}

===Crimean War===
{{main|Crimean War}}
The [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the [[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|declining Ottoman Empire]]. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia.<ref>Orlando Figes, ''The Crimean War: A History'' (2012)</ref>

Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's [[Crimean Peninsula]] to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western [[Anatolia]], the [[Caucasus]], the [[Baltic Sea]], the Pacific Ocean and the [[White Sea]]. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph.<ref name=royle1>Royle. Preface.</ref> The subsequent [[Treaty of Paris (1856)]] secured Ottoman control over the [[Balkan Peninsula]] and the [[Black Sea]] basin. That lasted until defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]].

The Ottoman Empire took its [[Ottoman public debt|first foreign loans]] on 4 August 1854,<ref name=Ottomandebthistory>{{cite web|url=http://gberis.e-monsite.com/categorie,osmanli-borclanma-tarihi-ottoman-debt-history,3219214.html |title=History of the Ottoman public debt |publisher=Gberis.e-monsite.com |access-date=6 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125180142/http://gberis.e-monsite.com/categorie%2Cosmanli-borclanma-tarihi-ottoman-debt-history%2C3219214.html |archive-date=25 November 2010 }}</ref> shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.<ref>Douglas Arthur Howard: "The History of Turkey", page 71.</ref>
[[File:Turkish Refugees from the district of Tirnova coming into Shumla.png|thumb|Turkish refugees from Bulgaria, 1877.]]
The war caused an exodus of the [[Crimean Tatars]]. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the [[Tauride Province]], about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<ref>[http://monderusse.revues.org/docannexe1800.html "''Hijra'' and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire"], by Bryan Glynn Williams, ''Cahiers du Monde russe'', 41/1, 2000, pp. 79–108. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611035541/http://monderusse.revues.org/docannexe1800.html |date=June 11, 2007 }}</ref> Toward the end of the [[Caucasian Wars]], 90% of the [[Circassians]] were exiled from their homelands in the [[Caucasus]] and settled in the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. <u>The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present and Future</u>. Routledge. 2008.</ref> Since the 19th century, the exodus to present-day Turkey by the large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, [[Crimea]] and [[Crete]],<ref>By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim.</ref> had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called ''[[Muhajir (Turkey)|Muhacir]]'' under a general definition.<ref>Justin McCarthy, ''Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–2000'', Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995</ref> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<ref name="ReferenceA">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 95.</ref> Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Turkish education.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Ethnic nationalism===
{{main|Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:The ruined gateway of Prince Eugene, Belgrade.jpg|thumb|[[Belgrade]], 19th century]]
The [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]] swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning [[Nationalism|national consciousness]], together with a growing sense of [[ethnic nationalism]], made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary [[List of parties in Ottoman Empire|political parties]] rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of [[ethnic conflict]] were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.

[[Image:Punch - The Dogs of War.png|thumb|225px|''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' cartoon from 17 June 1876. Russian Empire preparing to let slip the Balkan "Dogs of War" to attack the Ottoman Empire, while policeman [[John Bull]] (UK) warns Russia to take care.]]

In 1804 the [[Serbian Revolution]] against Ottoman rule erupted in the [[Balkans]], running in parallel with the [[Illyrian provinces|Napoleonic invasion]]. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of [[Principality of Serbia|self-governing monarchy]] under nominal Ottoman [[suzerainty]].<ref>English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)</ref><ref>L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), pp. 248–250.</ref> In 1821 the [[First Hellenic Republic]] became the first [[Balkan]] country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognised by the [[Ottoman Porte|Porte]] in 1829, after the end of the [[Greek War of Independence]].

===Balkans===
{{main|History of the Balkans}}
The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the [[Danubian Principalities]] and the [[Principality of Serbia]], which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and the [[United Principalities]] of [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]], unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]], the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] also achieved independence<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-San-Stefano|title=Treaty of San Stefano {{!}} Russia-Turkey [1878]|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2018-01-30|language=en}}</ref> (as the [[Principality of Bulgaria]]); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations.

====Congress of Berlin====
[[File:Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg|thumb|left|Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1900,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapsof.net/uploads/static-maps/europe_map_1900.jpg |title=Map of Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the year 1900 |access-date=6 November 2011}}</ref> with the names of the Ottoman provinces between 1878 and 1908.]]

The [[Congress of Berlin]] (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]] that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the [[Balkans|Balkan Peninsula]], the urgent need was to stabilise and reorganise the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimise the risks of major war, while recognising the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.

As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost [[Eastern Rumelia]], which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. [[Romania]] achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of [[Bessarabia]] to Russia. [[History of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.

In 1878, [[Austria-Hungary]] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of [[Bosnia Vilayet|Bosnia-Herzegovina]] and [[Sanjak of Novi Pazar|Novi Pazar]], but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the [[Young Turk Revolution]] and [[Bosnian crisis|annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina]], but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks.

In return for British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]]'s advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of [[Cyprus]] in 1878<ref>A. J. P. Taylor, ''The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918'' (1954) pp 228–54</ref> and later sent troops to [[Egypt]] in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the [[Urabi Revolt]]; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the [[Central Powers]].) France, on its part, occupied [[Tunisia]] in 1881.

The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into [[world war]] in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.<ref>Jerome L. Blum, et al. ''The European World: A History'' (1970) p 841</ref>

In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the [[Principality of Bulgaria]], most notably [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the [[First Balkan War]] in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in the Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia.<ref>Mann, Michael (2005), ''The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing'', Cambridge University Press, p. 118</ref><ref>Todorova, Maria (2009), ''Imagining the Balkans'', Oxford University Press, p. 175</ref> Muslims had been the majority in some parts of the Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between the 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern [[Thrace]] remained Muslim land.<ref>editors: Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p.437 [https://books.google.com/books?id=2c6ifbjx2wMC Read] quote: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, only Anatolia, eastern Thrace and a section of the south-eastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land."</ref>

===Egypt===
{{main|Ottoman Egypt}}
After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in [[Alexandria]] to support the [[khedive]] and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied [[Egypt]] on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported [[Tewfik Pasha|Khedive Tewfiq]] and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. [[List of monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty#Khedivate (1867–1914)|Egypt and Sudan]] remained as Ottoman provinces ''[[de jure]]'' until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the [[Central Powers]] of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and [[Cyprus]] in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with [[Algeria]] (occupied by France in 1830), [[Tunisia]] (occupied by France in 1881) and [[Libya]] (occupied by Italy in 1912).

===Armenians===
{{main|Armenians in the Ottoman Empire}}
Although granted their own [[Armenian National Constitution|constitution]] and [[Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire)|national assembly]] with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hovannisian | first1 = Richard G. | title = The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914 | journal = The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times | volume = II | page = 218 }}</ref> Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia).<ref>Hovannisian, 217,222.</ref> These were formed mostly of irregular [[cavalry]] units of recruited [[Kurds]].<ref>Hovannisian. "The Armenian Question", p. 217.</ref> From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the [[Hamidian massacres]].<ref>[[Taner Akcam|Akcam, Taner]]. ''[[A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility]]''. New York: [[Metropolitan Books]], 2006, p. 42. {{ISBN|0-8050-7932-7}}.</ref> Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Istanbul in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help.

== Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) ==
{{Main|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Declaration of the 1908 Revolution in Ottoman Empire.png|thumb|Declaration of the [[Young Turk Revolution]] by the leaders of the Ottoman [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]].]]
The Ottoman Empire had long been the "[[sick man of Europe]]" and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914 had been driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa. It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.<ref>Şevket Pamuk, "The Ottoman Economy in World War I" in Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. ''The Economics of World War I'' (2005) pp 112–36, esp. p 112</ref>

The [[Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|Second Constitutional Era]] began after the [[Young Turk Revolution]] (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the [[:s:tr:Kanun-u Esasi|1876 constitution]] and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marked the beginning of the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]]. This era is dominated by the politics of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP), and the movement that would become known as the [[Young Turks]]. Although it began as a uniting progressive party, the CUP splintered in 1911 with the founding of the opposition [[Freedom and Accord Party]] (Liberal Union or Entente), which poached many of the more liberal [[Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)|Deputies]] from the CUP. The remaining CUP members, who now took a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the [[Balkan Wars]], dueled Freedom and Accord in a series of power reversals, which ultimately led to the CUP (specifically its leadership, the "[[Three Pashas]]") seizing power from the Freedom and Accord in the [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état]] and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until the end of World War I.

Profiting from the civil strife, [[Austria-Hungary]] officially annexed [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the [[Sanjak of Novi Pazar]], another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. During the [[Italo-Turkish War]] (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost [[Libya]], the [[Balkan League]] declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the [[Balkan Wars]] (1912–13). It lost its [[Balkan peninsula|Balkan]] territories except [[East Thrace]] and the historic Ottoman capital city of [[Adrianople]] during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.<ref>{{Cite web|place=NL |url=http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |title=Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924 |publisher=[[Universiteit Leiden]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |archive-date=2007-07-16 }}</ref> The [[Baghdad Railway]] under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play a role in the origins of World War I.

===World War I (1914–1918)===
{{main|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I}}
[[Image:Turkish trenches at Gallipoli.jpg|thumb|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)]] at the trenches of [[Gallipoli Campaign]] in 1915.]]
The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the [[Ottoman–German Alliance]] in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the [[Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau|''Goeben'' and ''Breslau'' incident]], in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then—after having officially been transferred to the [[Ottoman Navy]], but effectively still under German control—attacked the Russian port of [[Sevastopol]], thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the [[Central Powers]], in which it took part in the [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Middle Eastern theatre]]. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the [[Battle of Gallipoli]] and the [[Siege of Kut]], but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous [[Caucasus Campaign]] against the Russians. The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Spencer Tucker, ed. ''Encyclopedia of World War I'' (2005) p 1080</ref>

[[File:Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg|thumb|January 1919 [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign Office]] memorandum summarizing the wartime agreements between Britain, France, Italy and Russia regarding Ottoman territory.]]
[[File:Arabia 1914.png|thumb|The Arabian peninsula in 1914]]

In 1915, as the [[Russian Caucasus Army (World War I)|Russian Caucasus Army]] continued to advance in eastern Anatolia with the help of [[Armenian volunteer units]] from the [[Caucasus]] region of the [[Russian Empire]],<ref name=ArmenianMassacresBritannica>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35323/Armenian-massacres |title=''Encyclopædia Britannica'': Armenian massacres (Turkish-Armenian history) |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref> and aided by some [[Armenian militia|Ottoman Armenians]], the Ottoman government decided to issue the [[Tehcir Law]], which started the [[deportation]] of the ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman–Russian front, resulting in what became known as the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref>[[Peter Balakian|Balakian, Peter]]. ''The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response''. New York: Perennial, 2003. {{ISBN|0-06-019840-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walker | first1 = Christopher J | author-link = Christopher J. Walker | title = World War I and the Armenian Genocide | journal = The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times | volume = II | pages = 239–273 }}</ref><ref>[[Taner Akcam|Akcam]]. ''[[A Shameful Act]]'', pp. 109–204.</ref> Through forced marches and gang skirmishes, the Armenians living in eastern Anatolia were uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished, but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000 (per the modern Turkish state), 600,000 (per early estimates by Western researchers)<ref>[[Arnold J. Toynbee|Toynbee, Arnold J]]., ''The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–16: Documents presented to Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs By Viscount Bryce''. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, for His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1916, p. 650.</ref> to up to 1.5 million (per modern Western and Armenian scholars).<ref>[[Israel Charny|Charny, Israel]] et al. [[s:A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars|A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars]]. International Association of Genocide Scholars. 13 June 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2009.</ref><ref>See Marashlian, Levon. ''Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks, and Kurds in the Ottoman Empire''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Zoryan Institute, 1991.</ref><ref>Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|0-313-34642-9}}.</ref><ref>Noël, Lise. ''Intolerance: A General Survey''. Arnold Bennett, 1994, {{ISBN|0-7735-1187-3}}, p. 101.</ref><ref>Schaefer, T (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society''. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2008, p. 90.</ref><ref>The criminal law of genocide: international, comparative and contextual aspects, by Ralph J. Henham, Paul Behrens, 2007, p. 17</ref>

The [[Arab Revolt]] which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed on 30 October 1918, the only parts of the [[Arabian peninsula]] that were still under Ottoman control were [[Yemen]], [[Asir]], the city of [[Medina]], portions of northern [[Syria]] and portions of northern [[Iraq]]. These territories were handed over to the British forces on 23 January 1919. The Ottomans were also forced to evacuate the parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], Armenia and [[Azerbaijan]]), which they had gained towards the end of World War I, following Russia's retreat from the war with the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917.

Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Sèvres]], the [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire]] was solidified. The [[List of Ottoman Empire dominated territories|new countries created]] from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39.

===Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)===
{{main|Turkish War of Independence|Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate}}
[[File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|Departure of [[Mehmed VI]], last Sultan of the Ottoman State, 1922.]]

The [[occupation of Constantinople]] along with the [[occupation of İzmir]] mobilized the [[establishment of the Turkish national movement]], which won the 1919–1923 [[Turkish War of Independence]] under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]].<ref>Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}</ref> The [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|Sultanate was abolished]] on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, [[Mehmed VI|Mehmed VI Vahdettin]] ({{R.|1918|1922}}), left the country on 17 November 1922. The new independent [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The GNA officially declared the [[Republic of Turkey#Republic of Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] on 29 October 1923. The [[Caliphate]] was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared [[150 personae non gratae of Turkey|personae non gratae of Turkey]] and exiled.

== Ottoman dynasty after dissolution ==
{{Main|Line of succession to the Ottoman throne}}
In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]], and were notified that they could apply. [[Mehmed Orhan]], son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan [[Abdülhamid II]], [[Ertuğrul Osman]], as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey."<ref>Bilefsky, Dan. "Weary of Modern Fictions, Turks Glory in Splendor of Ottoman Past", ''New York Times.'' 5 December 2009.</ref> He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.<ref>{{cite news|title=Political Obituaries: Ertugrul Osman|work=The Daily Telegraph  |date=27 September 2009|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6237121/Ertugrul-Osman.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6237121/Ertugrul-Osman.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=26 October 2009|location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".<ref>{{cite news|title='Last Ottoman' dies in Istanbul|publisher=BBC|date=24 September 2009|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8273396.stm|access-date=24 September 2009|first=Roger|last=Hardy}}</ref>

[[Harun Osman]]oğlu, the 3rd generation grandson of [[Abdul Hamid II]], is the eldest living member of the former ruling dynasty.

<gallery>
File:Blue mosque2.jpg|The Blue Mosque [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (1616)
File:20111225 Suleymaniye Mosque Istanbul Turkey Panoramic.jpg|[[Süleymaniye Mosque]] (Ottoman imperial mosque-1556)
File:Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg|[[Topkapı Palace]] (1453)
File:Piri reis world map 01.jpg|[[Piri Reis map]] (1513)
</gallery>

==Fall of the Empire==
{{Main|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire}}
In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall were a result of tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. The introduction of increased [[cultural rights]], [[civil liberties]] and a [[parliamentary system]] during the [[Tanzimat]] proved too late to reverse the [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|nationalistic]] and [[secession]]ist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.{{Citation needed|date = September 2011}}

==See also==
* [[History of the Republic of Turkey]] (1923–present)
* [[Outline of the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Timeline of the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Wikilala]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{commons category|History of the Ottoman Empire}}

===General surveys===
{{refbegin}}
* ''The Cambridge History of Turkey''
:* {{Cite book |title=Byzantium to Turkey, 1071-1453 |date=2009 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62093-2 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |volume=1 |location=Cambridge}}
:* {{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |author-link=Suraiya Faroqhi |title=The Ottoman Empire as a world power, 1453-1603 |last2=Fleet |first2=Kate |date=2011 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62094-9 |volume=2 |location=Cambridge}}
:* {{Cite book |title=The later Ottoman Empire, 1603-1839 |date=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62093-2 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |volume=3 |location=New York |editor-last2=Faroqhi |editor-first2=Suraiya |editor-link2=Suraiya Faroqhi |editor-last3=Kasaba |editor-first3=Reşat}}
:* {{Cite book |title=Turkey in the modern world |date=2008 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62096-3 |editor-last=Kasaba |editor-first=Reşat |volume=4 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline F. |author-link=Caroline Finkel |title=Osman's dream: the story of the Ottoman empire 1300-1923 |date=2005 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-0-7195-5513-8 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab lands under Ottoman rule, 1516-1800 |publisher=[[Pearson Longman]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8 |series=A history of the Near East |location=Harlow; New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Imber |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: the structure of power |date=2009 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-57450-2 |edition=2nd |location=Basingstoke; New York}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWUlNdskNfIC |title=An economic and social history of the Ottoman empire: 1300-1914 |date=1994 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-34315-2 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |editor-link=Halil İnalcık |location=Cambridge |editor-last2=Quataert |editor-first2=Donald |editor-link2=Donald Quataert}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kia |first=Mehrdad |author-link=Mehrdad Kia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eafOEAAAQBAJ |title=The Ottoman Empire: a historical encyclopedia |date=2017 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=978-1-61069-388-2 |series=Empires of the world |location=Santa Barbara (Calif.)}}
* {{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |author-link=Justin McCarthy (American historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aHXJAwAAQBAJ |title=The Ottoman Turks: an introductory history to 1923 |date=1997 |publisher=[[Longman]] |isbn=978-0-582-25655-2 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6fOEAAAQBAJ |title=Conflict and conquest in the Islamic world: a historical encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=978-1-59884-336-1 |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |editor-link=Alexander Mikaberidze |location=Santa Barbara, Calif}}
* {{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |author-link=Donald Quataert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OX3lsOrXJGcC |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 |date=2005 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-83910-5 |edition=2nd |series=New approaches to European history |location=Cambridge, UK; New York |oclc=875094027}}

===The Early Ottomans===
* {{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |author-link=Cemal Kafadar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pa8wDwAAQBAJ |title=Between two worlds: the construction of the Ottoman state |date=1995 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-20600-7 |location=Berkeley, Calif.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi Paul |title=Nomads and Ottomans in medieval Anatolia |date=1983 |publisher=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University |isbn=978-0-933070-12-7 |series=Indiana University Uralic and Altaic series |location=Bloomington}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC |title=The nature of the early Ottoman state |date=2003 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-5635-4 |series=SUNY series in the social and economic history of the Middle East |location=Albany}}

===The Classical Age===
* {{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |author-link=Halil İnalcık |title=Süleymân the Second [i.e. the First] and his time |last2=Kafadar |first2=Cemal |author-link2=Cemal Kafadar |date=1993 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-052-4 |location=Istanbul}}
* {{Cite book |last=Şahin |first=Kaya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FxkYVnznGXAC |title=Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03442-6 |series=Cambridge studies in Islamic civilization |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Şahi̇N |first=Kaya |date=2017 |title=The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century |journal=[[Renaissance Quarterly]] |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=220–234 |doi=10.1086/691834 |issn=0034-4338 |jstor=26560197}}

===Military===
* {{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNqzjfWABSAC |title=Guns for the sultan: military power and the weapons industry in the Ottoman Empire |date=2005 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-84313-3 |series=Cambridge studies in Islamic civilization |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia H. |title=Ottoman wars, 1700-1870: an empire besieged |date=2007 |publisher=[[Longman]]/[[Pearson plc|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7 |series=Modern wars in perspective |location=Harlow, England |oclc=260120241}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XBXHEAAAQBAJ |title=War in the Balkans: an encyclopedic history from the fall of the Ottoman Empire to the breakup of Yugoslavia |date=2014 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=978-1-61069-030-0 |editor-last=Hall |editor-first=Richard C. |location=Santa Barbara, California}}
* {{Cite book |last=Murphey |first=Rhoads |title=Ottoman warfare, 1500-1700 |date=1999 |publisher=[[UCL Press]] |isbn=978-1-85728-388-4 |series=Warfare and history |location=London |oclc=500039490}}
{{refend}}

{{Ottoman Empire}}
{{Ottoman Empire by modern countries}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:History of the Ottoman Empire| ]]