View source for History of video games

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[[File:Consoles-computerspielemuseum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|A collection of home and handheld video game consoles at the [[Computerspielemuseum|''Computerspielemuseum'' Berlin]]]]
{{VG History}}
The '''history of video games''' began in the 1950s and 1960s as [[computer science|computer scientists]] began designing simple games and [[simulation video game|simulations]] on [[minicomputer]]s and [[mainframe computer|mainframes]]. ''[[Spacewar!]]'' was developed by [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) student hobbyists in 1962 as one of the first such [[video games|games on a video display]]. The first consumer video game hardware was released in the early 1970s. The first [[home video game console]] was the [[Magnavox Odyssey]], and the first [[arcade video game]]s were ''[[Computer Space]]'' and ''[[Pong]]''. After its home console conversions, numerous companies sprang up to capture ''Pong''{{'}}s success in both the arcade and the home by [[Video game clone|cloning]] the game, causing a series of boom and bust cycles due to oversaturation and lack of innovation.

By the mid-1970s, low-cost programmable [[microprocessor]]s replaced the discrete [[transistor–transistor logic]] circuitry of early hardware, and the first [[ROM cartridge]]-based home consoles arrived, including the [[Atari Video Computer System]] (VCS). Coupled with rapid growth in the [[golden age of arcade video games]], including ''[[Space Invaders]]'' and ''[[Pac-Man]]'', the home console market also flourished. The [[1983 video game crash]] in the United States was characterized by a flood of too many games, often of poor or cloned qualities, and the sector saw competition from inexpensive [[personal computer]]s and new types of games being developed for them. The crash prompted Japan's video game industry to take leadership of the market, which had only suffered minor impacts from the crash. [[Nintendo]] released its [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] in the United States in 1985, helping to rebound the failing video games sector. The latter part of the 1980s and early 1990s included video games driven by improvements and standardization in personal computers and the [[console war]] competition between Nintendo and [[Sega]] as they fought for market share in the United States. The first major [[handheld video game console]]s appeared in the 1990s, led by Nintendo's [[Game Boy]] platform.

In the early 1990s, advancements in microprocessor technology gave rise to real-time [[3D graphics|3D polygonal graphic rendering]] in game consoles, as well as in PCs by way of [[graphics card]]s. Optical media via [[CD-ROM]]s began to be incorporated into personal computers and consoles, including [[Sony Computer Entertainment|Sony's]] fledgling [[PlayStation]] console line, pushing Sega out of the console hardware market while diminishing Nintendo's role. By the late 1990s, the [[Internet]] also gained widespread consumer use, and video games began incorporating online elements. [[Microsoft]] entered the console hardware market in the early 2000s with its [[Xbox]] line, fearing that Sony's PlayStation, positioned as a game console and entertainment device, would displace personal computers. While Sony and Microsoft continued to develop hardware for comparable top-end console features, Nintendo opted to focus on innovative gameplay. Nintendo developed the [[Wii]] with motion-sensing controls, which helped to draw in non-traditional players and helped to resecure Nintendo's position in the industry; Nintendo followed this same model in the release of the [[Nintendo Switch]].

From the 2000s and into the 2010s, the industry has seen a shift of demographics as [[mobile game|mobile gaming]] on [[smartphone]]s and [[tablet computer|tablet]]s displaced handheld consoles, and [[casual game|casual gaming]] became an increasingly larger sector of the market, as well as a growth in the number of players from China and other areas not traditionally tied to the industry. To take advantage of these shifts, traditional revenue models were supplanted with ongoing revenue stream models such as [[free-to-play]], [[freemium]], and subscription-based games. As [[AAA (video game industry)|triple-A]] video game production became more costly and risk-averse, opportunities for more experimental and innovative [[independent game development]] grew over the 2000s and 2010s, aided by the popularity of mobile and casual gaming and the ease of [[digital distribution]]. Hardware and software technology continues to drive improvement in video games, with support for [[high-definition video]] at high framerates and for [[virtual reality|virtual]] and [[augmented reality]]-based games.

==Early history (1948–1970)==
{{Main|Early history of video games|Early mainframe games}}
[[File:Spacewar!-PDP-1-20070512.jpg|upright|thumb|''[[Spacewar!]]'' is credited as the first widely available and influential computer game.]]
The term "video game" was originally used only for games that sent a video signal to a screen, such as a [[cathode-ray tube]] (CRT) or [[oscilloscope]].{{Sfn|Wolf|2007|pp=4–5}} Over time, the definition broadened to include any interactive electronic game that displays visuals for the player.{{Sfn|Wolf|2007|p=5}} The earliest known attempt at such a game was the [[cathode-ray tube amusement device]], patented in 1947, which simulated missile fire on an oscilloscope.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peckham |first=Matt |date=November 8, 2008 |title=Tennis for Two: The World's First Video Game? |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/531954/first_video_game.html |access-date=August 27, 2025 |website=[[PC World]] |language=en}}</ref> However, it was never mass-produced.<ref name="VG2472">{{Cite web |last=Rignall |first=Jaz |date=March 23, 2018 |title=The Ten Most Important Early Computer and Video Games |url=https://www.vg247.com/the-ten-most-important-early-computer-and-video-games |access-date=August 27, 2025 |website=[[VG247]] |language=en}}</ref> In 1948, [[Alan Turing]] and [[D. G. Champernowne|David Champernowne]] designed ''[[Turochamp]]'', a [[chess]] program, but it was too complex to run on the computers available at the time.{{Sfn|Donovan|2010|p=16}}

In the 1950s, games began to appear alongside early digital computers like [[EDSAC|Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator]] (EDSAC).{{Sfn|Stanton|2015|p=18}} For example, [[Josef Kates]] built ''[[Bertie the Brain]]'' in 1950, a [[tic-tac-toe]] machine intended for exhibition rather than personal use.<ref name="VG2472" /> The following year, the Ferranti company demonstrated [[Nimrod (computer)|Nimrod]], a computer programmed specifically to play the game of [[Nim]].{{Sfn|Donovan|2010|p=13}} In 1952, [[Christopher Strachey]] created a ''[[Checkers (video game)|Checkers]]'' game for the [[Ferranti Mark 1]] computer,<ref name="VG2472" /> inspiring [[Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)|Arthur Samuel]] to develop one of the first checkers-playing artificial intelligence programs on [[IBM]] hardware.{{Sfn|Donovan|2010|p=14}} Military and research simulations, like CARMONETTE (Combined Arms Computer Model), which modeled ground combat scenarios, were also developed,{{sfn|Turnitsa|Blais|Tolk|2022|p=7}} though most of these games were dismantled or forgotten once their immediate purpose was completed.{{Sfn|Donovan|2010|p=17}}

By the early 1950s, interactive visual games started to emerge. [[Sandy Douglas]] created ''[[OXO (video game)|OXO]]'' (1952) on the EDSAC, allowing players to play tic-tac-toe on a CRT screen.{{sfn|Kowert|Quandt|2015|p=3}} Around the same time, Strachey and [[Stanley Gill]] experimented with visual games, while the [[Whirlwind I]] computer at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] featured an early real-time ball simulation.{{sfn|Tavinor|2009|p=34}} The [[University of Michigan]] developed a pool game using MIDSAC, one of EDSAC's successors, in 1954, which continuously updated graphics on screen.<ref name="VG2472" /> In 1958, [[William Higinbotham]] created ''[[Tennis for Two]]'' at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]], displaying a simplified [[tennis]] match on an oscilloscope;<ref>{{cite news |last=Lambert |first=Bruce |date=2008-11-07 |title=Brookhaven Honors a Pioneer Video Game |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/nyregion/long-island/09videoli.html?_r=2 |access-date=2009-03-23 |work=[[The New York Times]] |page=LI1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The History of Video Games|last1=Herman|first1=Leonard|last2=Horwitz|first2=Jer|last3=Kent|first3=Steve|last4=Miller|first4=Skyler|url=http://gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/index.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090609150407/http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/index.html|archivedate=June 9, 2009|year=2002|work=Gamespot|publisher=CNET|accessdate=September 24, 2009}}</ref> this is considered one of the first games created specifically for entertainment rather than research.{{sfn|Kowert|Quandt|2015|p=2}}

In 1962, ''[[Spacewar!]]'' was developed for the [[PDP-1]] minicomputer at MIT by [[Steve Russell (computer scientist)|Steve Russell]] and colleagues.{{sfn|Donovan|2010|p=18}} It became the first widely shared video game, circulating across universities that had PDP-1 computers.{{sfn|Donovan|2010|p=19}} Modifications introduced features like a moving starfield, simulated gravity, and external controllers.{{sfn|Donovan|2010|pp=18–19}} Despite the PDP-1’s high cost and rarity, ''Spacewar!'' inspired others in programming communities to create their own games.{{sfn|Donovan|2010|pp=18–19}} During the 1960s, other games also appeared on mainframes, including ''[[The Sumerian Game]]'' by [[Mabel Addis]]<ref name="VG2472" /> and early simulations written in general-purpose languages like [[BASIC]].{{sfn|Ahl|1978|p=11}} In 1966, while working at [[Sanders Associates]], [[Ralph H. Baer|Ralph Baer]] began developing a [[television]]-based interactive game system. With a small team, he created the "Brown Box" prototype by 1968. It could run multiple games, including forms of [[table tennis]] and [[volleyball]], directly on a TV set.{{Sfn|Wolf|2007|p=74}}

==1970s==
{{Main|1970s in video games}}

===Mainframe computer games===
[[File:ADVENT -- Will Crowther's original version (vector).svg|thumb|right|The on-screen instructions from [[Will Crowther]]'s 1976 game ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure]]''.]]
In the 1960s, a number of computer games were created for mainframe and [[minicomputer]] systems, but these failed to achieve wide distribution due to the continuing scarcity of computer resources, a lack of sufficiently trained programmers interested in crafting entertainment products, and the difficulty in transferring programs between computers in different geographic areas.  By the end of the 1970s, however, the situation had changed drastically. The BASIC and [[C (programming language)|C]] high-level [[programming language]]s were widely adopted during the decade, which were more accessible than earlier more technical languages such as [[FORTRAN]] and [[COBOL]], opening up computer game creation to a larger base of users.  With the advent of [[time-sharing]], which allowed the resources of a single mainframe to be parceled out among multiple users connected to the machine by terminals, computer access was no longer limited to a handful of individuals at an institution, creating more opportunities for students to create their own games.  Furthermore, the widespread adoption of the [[PDP-10]], released by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) in 1966, and the portable [[UNIX]] [[operating system]], developed at [[Bell Labs]] in 1971 and released generally in 1973, created common programming environments across the country that reduced the difficulty of sharing programs between institutions.  Finally, the founding of the first magazines dedicated to computing like ''[[Creative Computing]]'' (1974), the publication of the earliest program compilation books like ''[[101 BASIC Computer Games]]'' (1973), and the spread of wide-area networks such as the [[ARPANET]] allowed programs to be shared more easily across great distances.  As a result, many of the mainframe games created by college students in the 1970s influenced subsequent developments in the video game industry in ways that, ''Spacewar!'' aside, the games of the 1960s did not.

In the arcade and on home consoles, fast-paced action and [[Turns, rounds and time-keeping systems in games#Real-time|real-time]] gameplay were the norm in genres like [[racing game|racing]] and [[shooting game|target shooting]].  On the mainframe, however, such games were generally not possible due both to the lack of adequate displays (many computer terminals continued to rely on [[teleprinter|teletype]]s rather than monitors well into the 1970s and even most CRT terminals could only render character-based graphics) and insufficient processing power and memory to update game elements in real time. While 1970s mainframes were more powerful than arcade and console hardware of the period, the need to parcel out computing resources to dozens of simultaneous users via time-sharing significantly hampered their abilities.  Thus, programmers of mainframe games focused on strategy and puzzle-solving mechanics over pure action.  Notable games of the period include the tactical combat game ''[[Star Trek (text game)|Star Trek]]'' (1971) by [[Mike Mayfield]], the [[hide-and-seek]] game ''[[Hunt the Wumpus]]'' (1972) by [[Gregory Yob]], and the strategic war game ''[[Empire (1977 video game)|Empire]]'' (1977) by [[Walter Bright]].  Perhaps the most significant game of the period was ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure]]'' (or simply ''Adventure''), created in 1976 by [[Will Crowther]] by combining his passion for caving with concepts from the newly released tabletop role-playing game (RPG) ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' (D&D).  Expanded by [[Don Woods (programmer)|Don Woods]] in 1977 with an emphasis on the high fantasy of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], ''Adventure'' established a new genre based around exploration and inventory-based puzzle solving that made the transition to personal computers in the late 1970s.

While most games were created on hardware of limited graphic ability, one computer able to host more impressive games was the [[PLATO system]] developed at the [[University of Illinois]].  Intended as an educational computer, the system connected hundreds of users all over the United States via remote terminals that featured high-quality [[plasma display]]s and allowed users to interact with each other in real time.  This allowed the system to host an impressive array of graphical and/or multiplayer games, including some of the earliest known computer RPGs, which were primarily derived, like ''Adventure'', from ''D&D'', but unlike that game placed a greater emphasis on combat and character progression than puzzle solving.  Starting with top-down [[dungeon crawl]]s like ''The Dungeon'' (1975) and ''The Game of Dungeons'' (1975), more commonly referred to today by their filenames, ''[[pedit5]]'' and ''[[dnd (video game)|dnd]]'', PLATO RPGs soon transitioned to a first-person perspective with games like ''[[Moria (PLATO)|Moria]]'' (1975), ''Oubliette'' (1977), and ''[[Avatar (PLATO system video game)|Avatar]]'' (1979), which often allowed multiple players to join forces to battle monsters and complete quests together.  Like ''Adventure'', these games ultimately inspired some of the earliest personal computer games.

===The first arcade video games and home consoles===
{{See also|First generation of video game consoles|History of arcade games|History of arcade video games}}
[[File:Magnavox-Odyssey-Console-Set.jpg|thumb|The [[Magnavox Odyssey]], the first home console]]

The modern video game industry grew out of the concurrent development of the first [[arcade video game]] and the first [[home video game console]] in the early 1970s in the United States.

The arcade video game industry grew out of the pre-existing [[arcade game]] industry, which was previously dominated by [[electro-mechanical game]]s (EM games). Following the arrival of [[Sega]]'s EM game ''[[Periscope (arcade game)|Periscope]]'' (1966), the arcade industry was experiencing a "technological renaissance" driven by "audio-visual" EM novelty games, establishing the arcades as a healthy environment for the introduction of commercial video games in the early 1970s.<ref name="Smith">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Alexander |title=They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982 |date=19 November 2019 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-0-429-75261-2 |pages=119–20, 188–91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cxy_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119}}</ref> In the late 1960s, a college student [[Nolan Bushnell]] had a part-time job at an arcade where he became familiar with EM games, watching customers play and helping to maintain the machinery while learning how it worked and developing his understanding of how the game business operates.<ref name="NGen23">{{cite magazine |title=The Great Videogame Swindle? |magazine=[[Next Generation (magazine)|Next Generation]] |issue=23  |date=November 1996 |pages=211–229 |url=https://archive.org/details/NextGeneration23Nov1996P2/page/n72}}</ref>

In 1966, while working at [[Sanders Associates]], [[Ralph H. Baer|Ralph Baer]] came up with an idea for an entertainment device that could be hooked up to a television monitor. Presenting this to his superiors at Sanders and getting their approval, he, along with William Harrison and William Rusch, refined Baer's concept into the "Brown Box" prototype of a [[home video game console]] that could play a simple table tennis game. The three patented the technology, and Sanders, not in the commercialization business, sold licenses to the patents to [[Magnavox]] to commercialize. With Baer's help, Magnavox developed the [[Magnavox Odyssey]], the first commercial home console, in 1972.

[[File:Pong.svg|right|thumb|''[[Pong]]'' was the first [[arcade video game]] to ever receive universal acclaim.]]

Concurrently, Nolan Bushnell and [[Ted Dabney]] had the idea of making a coin-operated system to run ''Spacewar!'' By 1971, the two had developed ''[[Computer Space]]'' with [[Nutting Associates]], the first arcade video game.<ref>{{cite book |title=They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry |volume=1: 1971 – 1982 |last=Smith |first=Alexander |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |date=November 27, 2019 |isbn=978-1-138-38990-8|pages=309–310}}</ref> Bushnell and Dabney struck out on their own and formed [[Atari, Inc.|Atari]]. Bushnell, inspired by the [[table tennis]] game on the Odyssey, hired [[Allan Alcorn]] to develop an arcade version of the game, this time using discrete [[transistor–transistor logic]] (TTL) electronic circuitry. Atari's ''[[Pong]]'' was released in late 1972 and is considered the first successful arcade video game. It ignited the growth of the arcade game industry in the United States from both established coin-operated game manufacturers like [[WMS Industries|Williams]], Chicago Coin, and the [[Midway Games|Midway]] subsidiary of [[Bally Manufacturing]], and new startups such as Ramtek and [[Centuri|Allied Leisure]]. Many of these were ''Pong'' clones using ball-and-paddle controls, and led to saturation of the market in 1974, forcing arcade game makers to try to innovate new games in 1975. Many of the newer companies created in the wake of ''Pong'' failed to innovate on their own and shut down, and by the end of 1975, the arcade market had fallen by about 50% based on new game sale revenues.<ref name="down many times">{{cite book | last = Ernkvist | first = Mirko  | chapter = Down many times, but still playing the game: Creative destruction and industry crashes in the early video game industry 1971-1986 | year = 2008 | pages = 161–191 | title = History of Insolvancy and Bankruptcy | publisher = Södertörns högskola | editor-first=  Karl | editor-last=Gratzer | editor-first2=Dieter | editor-last2=Stiefel | isbn = 978-91-89315-94-5 }}</ref> Further, Magnavox took Atari and several other of these arcade game makers to court over violations of Baer's patents. Bushnell settled the suit for Atari, gaining perpetual rights for the patents for Atari as part of the settlement.<ref>{{cite book |title=Atari Inc.: Business Is Fun |last1=Goldberg |first1=Marty |last2=Vendel |first2=Curt |publisher=Syzygy Press |date=November 25, 2012 |isbn=978-0-9855974-0-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/atariincbusiness0000gold | page=204  }}</ref> Others failed to settle, and Magnavox won around {{US$|100 million|long=no}} in damages from these patent infringement suits before the patents expired in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/12/08/369405270/inventor-ralph-baer-the-father-of-video-games-dies-at-92 |title=Inventor Ralph Baer, The 'Father Of Video Games,' Dies at 92 |date=December 8, 2014 |last=Mullis |first=Steve |work=[[NPR|National Public Radio]] |access-date=May 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322121715/http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2014/12/08/369405270/inventor-ralph-baer-the-father-of-video-games-dies-at-92 |archive-date=March 22, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Arcade video games caught on quickly in Japan due to partnerships between American and Japanese corporations that kept the Japan companies abreast of technology developments within the United States. The [[Nakamura Amusement Machine Manufacturing Company]] (Namco) partnered with Atari to import ''Pong'' into Japan in late 1973. Within the year, [[Taito]] and [[Sega]] released ''Pong'' clones in Japan by mid-1973. Japanese companies began developing novel games and exporting or licensing them through partners in 1974.<ref name="gamestudies geemu">{{cite journal | url = http://www.gamestudies.org/1302/articles/picard | title = The Foundation of Geemu: A Brief History of Early Japanese video games | first = Martin | last= Picard | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | issn = 1604-7982 | journal = [[Game Studies]] }}</ref> Among these included Taito's ''[[Gun Fight]]'' (originally ''Western Gun'' in its Japanese release), which was licensed to Midway. Midway's version, released in 1975, was the first arcade video game to use a [[microprocessor]] rather than discrete TTL components.<ref>[[Steve L. Kent]] (2001), ''[[The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world]]'', p. 64, Prima, {{ISBN|0-7615-3643-4}}</ref> This innovation drastically reduced the complexity and time to design of arcade games and the number of physical components required to achieve more advanced gameplay.<ref name="gamasutra history atari">{{cite web | url = https://www.gamedeveloper.com/business/the-history-of-atari-1971-1977 | title = The History of Atari: 1971-1977 | first=  Steve | last =Fulton | date = November 6, 2007 | access-date = September 11, 2018 | work = [[Gamasutra]] }}</ref>

===The dedicated console market===
{{Main|First generation of video game consoles}}
[[File:APF TV Fun (with paddle model).jpg|thumb|right|''Pong'' clones like the [[APF TV Fun]] ''(pictured)'' over-saturated the market in the late 1970s.]]
The Magnavox Odyssey never caught on with the public, due largely to the limited functionality of its primitive discrete electronic component technology.<ref name="down many times"/> By mid-1975, [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) microchips had become inexpensive enough to be incorporated into a consumer product.<ref name="down many times"/> In 1975, Magnavox reduced the part count of the Odyssey using a three-chip set created by Texas Instruments and released two new systems that only played ball-and-paddle games, the [[Magnavox Odyssey 100]] and [[Magnavox Odyssey 200]]. Atari, meanwhile, entered the consumer market that same year with the single-chip Home ''Pong'' system. The next year, [[General Instrument]] released a "Pong-on-a-chip" LSI and made it available at a low price to any interested company. Toy company [[Coleco]] Industries used this chip to create the million-selling [[Telstar (game console)|Telstar]] console model series (1976–77).

These initial home video game consoles were popular, leading to a large influx of companies releasing ''Pong'' and other [[video game clone]]s to satisfy consumer demand. While there were only seven companies that were releasing home consoles in 1975, there were at least 82 by 1977, with more than 160 different models that year alone that were easily documented. A large number of these consoles were created in East Asia, and it is estimated that over 500 ''Pong''-type home console models were made during this period.<ref name="down many times"/> As with the prior paddle-and-ball saturation in the arcade game field by 1975 due to consumer weariness, dedicated console sales dropped sharply in 1978, disrupted by the introduction of programmable systems and [[Handheld electronic game]]s.<ref name="down many times"/>

Just as dedicated consoles were waning in popularity in the West, they briefly surged in popularity in Japan. These ''TV geemu'' were often based on licensed designs from the American companies, manufactured by television manufacturers such as [[Toshiba]] and [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]]. Notably, [[Nintendo]] entered the video game market during this period alongside its current traditional and electronic toy product lines, producing the series of [[Color TV-Game]] consoles in partnership with [[Mitsubishi]].<ref name="gamestudies geemu"/>

===Growth of video game arcades and the golden age===
{{Main|Golden age of arcade video games}}
[[File:Space Invaders - Midway's.JPG|thumb|right|''[[Space Invaders]]'' was popular in arcades and introduced many elements which became standard in video games.]]
After the ball-and-paddle market saturation in 1975, game developers began looking for new ideas for games, buoyed by the ability to use programmable microprocessors rather than analog components. Taito designer [[Tomohiro Nishikado]], who had developed ''Gun Fight'' previously, was inspired by Atari's ''[[Breakout (video game)|Breakout]]'' to create a shooting-based game, ''[[Space Invaders]]'', first released in Japan in 1978.<ref name="verge life death arcade"/> ''Space Invaders'' introduced or popularized several important concepts in arcade video games, including play regulated by [[life (video games)|lives]] instead of a timer or set score, gaining [[Life (video games)#Extra lives|extra lives]] through accumulating points, and the tracking of the [[score (game)|high score]] achieved on the machine.  It was also the first game to confront the player with waves of targets that shot back at the player and the first to include background music during game play, albeit a simple four-note loop.<ref name="IGN-10">{{cite web |url=http://games.ign.com/articles/840/840621p1.html |title=IGN's Top 10 Most Influential Games |website=[[IGN]] |author=Geddes, Ryan |author2=Hatfield, Daemon |date=December 10, 2007 |access-date=July 11, 2008 |archive-date=February 14, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214180351/http://games.ign.com/articles/840/840621p1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Space Invaders'' was an immediate success in Japan, with some arcades created solely for ''Space Invaders'' machines.<ref name="verge life death arcade"/> While not quite as popular in the United States, ''Space Invaders'' became a hit as Midway, serving as the North American manufacturer, moved over 60,000 cabinets in 1979.<ref>{{citation |title=Genesis II, creation and recreation with computers |author=Dale Peterson |publisher=[[Prentice Hall|Reston Publishing]] |year=1983 |isbn=0-8359-2434-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DL1YAAAAMAAJ |access-date=May 1, 2011 |page=175 |quote=By 1980, some 300,000 Space Invader video arcade games were in use in Japan, and an additional 60,000 in the United States.|author-link=Dale Peterson}}</ref>

[[File:US Marine playing Defender.jpg|thumb|right|An American [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] playing ''[[Defender (1981 video game)|Defender]]'' aboard a naval ship in 1982]]
''Space Invaders'' led off what is considered to be the golden age of arcade games which lasted from 1978 to 1982. Several influential and best-selling arcade games were released during this period from Atari, Namco, Taito, Williams, and Nintendo, including ''[[Asteroids (video game)|Asteroids]]'' (1979), ''[[Galaxian]]'' (1979), ''[[Defender (1981 video game)|Defender]]'' (1980), ''[[Missile Command]]'' (1980), ''[[Tempest (video game)|Tempest]]'' (1981), and ''[[Galaga]]'' (1981). ''[[Pac-Man]]'', released in 1980, became a [[popular culture]] icon, and a new wave of games appeared that focused on identifiable characters and alternate mechanics such as navigating a maze or traversing a series of platforms.  Aside from ''Pac-Man'' and its sequel, ''[[Ms. Pac-Man]]'' (1982), the most popular games in this vein during the golden age were ''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]'' (1981) and ''[[Q*bert]]'' (1982).<ref name="verge life death arcade"/> Games like ''Pac-Man'', ''Donkey Kong'' and ''Q*bert'' also introduced the concept of narratives and characters to video games, which led companies to adopt these later as mascots for marketing purposes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lebowitz |first1=Josiah |last2=Klug |first2=Chris |title=Interactive Storytelling for Video Games: A Player-centered Approach to Creating Memorable Characters and Stories |date=2011 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0-240-81717-0 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QUrarEcvaO8C&pg=PA14 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425124157/https://books.google.com/books?id=QUrarEcvaO8C&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first = Nathan | last = Altice | title = I Am Error: The Nintendo Family Computer / Entertainment System Platform | chapter = Chapter 2: Ports | pages =53–80 | isbn = 9780262028776 | publisher = [[MIT Press]] | date = 2015 }}</ref>

According to trade publication ''Vending Times'', revenues generated by coin-operated video games on location in the United States jumped from $308 million in 1978 to $968 million in 1979 to $2.8 billion in 1980. As ''Pac Man'' ignited an even larger video game craze and attracted more female players to arcades, revenues jumped again to $4.9 billion in 1981. According to trade publication ''Play Meter'', by July 1982, total coin-op collections peaked at $8.9 billion, of which $7.7 billion came from video games.<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263"/> Dedicated [[video game arcade]]s grew during the golden age, with the number of arcades (locations with at least ten arcade games) more than doubling between July 1981 and July 1983 from over 10,000 to just over 25,000.<ref name="verge life death arcade">{{cite web | url = https://www.theverge.com/2013/1/16/3740422/the-life-and-death-of-the-american-arcade-for-amusement-only | title = For Amusement Only: The Life and Death of the American Arcade | first = Laura | last = June | date = January 16, 2013 | access-date = March 8, 2021 | work = [[The Verge]] }}</ref><ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263"/> These figures made arcade games the most popular entertainment medium in the country, far surpassing both pop music (at $4 billion in sales per year) and Hollywood films ($3 billion).<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263">{{Cite book|title=Silicon Valley fever: growth of high-technology culture|author1=Everett M. Rogers |author2=Judith K. Larsen |publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=1984|isbn=0-465-07821-4|url=https://archive.org/details/siliconvalleyfev00roge|url-access=registration|access-date=April 23, 2011|page=[https://archive.org/details/siliconvalleyfev00roge/page/263 263]}}</ref>

===Introduction of cartridge-based home consoles===
{{Main|Second generation of video game consoles}}
[[File:Intellivision.jpg|thumb|right|An [[Intellivision]] home console system with an assortment of [[ROM cartridge]]s]]
Development costs of dedicated game hardware for arcade and home consoles based on discrete component circuitry and [[application-specific integrated circuit]]s (ASICs) with only limited consumer lifespans drove engineers to find alternatives. Microprocessors had dropped far enough in price by 1975 to make these a viable option for developing programmable consoles that could load in game software from a form of swappable media.<ref name="atari fun chp5">{{cite book | title = Atari Inc: Business is Fun | first1 = Marty | last1 = Goldberg | first2 = Curt | last2 = Vendel | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-0985597405 | publisher = Sygyzy Press | chapter=Chapter 5 }}</ref>

The [[Fairchild Channel F]] by [[Fairchild Camera and Instrument]] was released in 1976. It is the first home console to use programmable [[ROM cartridge]]s - allowing players to swap games - as well as being the first home console to use a microprocessor which reads instructions from the ROM cartridge. Atari and Magnavox followed suit in 1977 and 1978, respectively, with the release of the [[Atari Video Computer System]] (VCS, later known as the Atari 2600) and the [[Magnavox Odyssey 2]], both systems also introducing the use of cartridges. As to complete the Atari VCS quickly, Bushnell sold Atari to [[Warner Communications]] {{USD|28 million|long=no}}, providing the necessary cash infusion to complete the system's design by the end of 1977.<ref name="gamasutra history atari"/> The initial market for these new consoles were initially modest as consumers were still wary after the saturation of dedicated home consoles.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qsa-BAAAQBAJ&q=atari+vcs+christmas+1979&pg=PP10|title=101 Amazing Atari 2600 Facts|last=Russell|first=Jimmy|date=December 3, 2012|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=9781782344957|language=en}}</ref> However, there was still newfound interest in video games, and new players were drawn to the market, such as [[Mattel Electronics]] with the [[Intellivision]].<ref name="down many times"/> In contrast to the dedicated home ''Pong'' consoles, programmable cartridge-based consoles had a higher barrier of entry with the costs of [[research & development]] and large-scale production, and fewer manufacturers entered the market during this period.<ref name="down many times"/>

This new line of consoles had its breakthrough moment when Atari obtained a license from Taito to create the Atari VCS version of the arcade hit ''Space Invaders'', which was released in 1980. ''Space Invaders'' quadrupled sales of the Atari VCS, making it the first "[[killer app]]" in the video game industry, and the first video game to sell over one million copies and eventually sold over 2.5 million by 1981.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ultimate History of Video Games |first=Steven |last=Kent |page=190 |publisher=[[Three Rivers Press]] |isbn=0-7615-3643-4 |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Weiss |first=Brett |title=Classic home video games, 1972–1984: a complete reference guide |year=2007 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-0-7864-3226-4 |page=108}}</ref>  Atari's consumer sales almost doubled from $119 million to nearly $204 million in 1980 and then exploded to over $841 million in 1981, while sales across the entire video game industry in the United States rose from $185.7 million in 1979 to just over $1 billion in 1981.  Through a combination of conversions of its own arcade games like ''Missile Command'' and ''Asteroids'' and licensed conversions like ''Defender'', Atari took a commanding lead in the industry, with an estimated 65% market share of the worldwide industry by dollar volume by 1981.  Mattel settled into second place with roughly 15%-20% of the market, while Magnavox ran a distant third, and Fairchild exited the market entirely in 1979.<ref name="down many times"/>

Another critical development during this period was the emergence of third-party developers. Atari management did not appreciate the special talent required to design and program a game and treated them like typical software engineers of the period, who were not generally credited for their work or given royalties; this led to [[Warren Robinett]] secretly programming his name in one of the earliest [[Easter egg (media)|Easter eggs]] into his game ''[[Adventure (1980 video game)|Adventure]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/technology/easter-eggs-tesla-google.html|title=The Secret History of 'Easter Eggs'|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 8, 2019|last=Pogue|first=David|access-date=August 8, 2019}}</ref><ref name="paste mar2016">{{Cite web | url = http://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2016/03/easter-eggs-the-hidden-secrets-of-videogames.html | title = Easter Eggs: The Hidden Secrets of Videogames | first = Jack | last =Yarwood | work = [[Paste (magazine)|Paste]] | date = March 27, 2016 | access-date = March 27, 2016 }}</ref> Atari's policies drove four of the company's programmers, David Crane, Larry Kaplan, Alan Miller, and Bob Whitehead, to resign and form their own company [[Activision]] in 1979, using their knowledge of developing for the Atari VCS to make and publish their own games. Atari sued to stop Activision's activities, but the companies settled out of court, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their game sales as a license fee to Atari.<ref name="gamasutra activision">{{Cite web | url = http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131956/a_history_of_gaming_platforms_.php| title = A History of Gaming Platforms: Atari 2600 Video Computer System/VCS | first1 = Matt | last1 = Barton | first2= Bill | last2 = Loguidice | work = [[Gamasutra]] | date = February 28, 2008 | access-date = April 5, 2016 }}</ref> Another group of Atari and Mattel developers left and formed [[Imagic]] in 1981, following Activision's model.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=11832 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070108225158/http://gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=11832 | url-status=dead | archive-date=January 8, 2007 | title=Playing Catch Up: Night Trap's Rob Fulop | publisher=CMP | work=Gamasutra | access-date=April 9, 2007}}</ref>

Atari's dominance of the market was challenged by Coleco's [[ColecoVision]] in 1982. As ''Space Invaders'' had done for the Atari VCS, Coleco developed a licensed version of Nintendo's arcade hit ''Donkey Kong'' as a bundled game with the system. While the Colecovision only had 17% of the hardware market in 1982 compared to the Atari VCS' share of 58%, it outsold Atari's newer console, the [[Atari 5200]].<ref name="gallager innovation">{{cite journal | title = Innovation and Competition in Standard-Based Industries: A Historical Analysis of the U.S. Home Video Game Market | first1 = Scott | last1=  Gallager | first2 = Seung | last2 =Ho Park | date = February 2002 | journal = IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management | volume = 49 | issue = 1 | pages = 67–82 | doi = 10.1109/17.985749 | bibcode = 2002ITEM...49...67G }}</ref><ref name="down many times"/>

A few games from this period have been considered milestones in the history of video games, and some of the earliest in popular genres. Robinett's ''Adventure'' was inspired from the text adventure ''Colossal Cave Adventure'', and is considered one of the first graphic adventure and [[action-adventure game]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | title = Adventure Before Adventure Games: A New Look at Crowther and Woods's Seminal Program | journal = [[Games & Culture]] | first1 = Jonathan | last1 =Lessard | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages =119–135 | doi =  10.1177/1555412012473364 | date = February 21, 2013 }}</ref>{{sfn|Donovan|2010|p=119}} and first cartridge fantasy-themed game.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Electronic Games]]|date=June 1983|volume=1|issue=16|editor-last=Katz|editor-first=Arnie|title=The Players Guide to Fantasy Games|pages=50, 53|quote=When Atari picked "Adventure" as the title of the video game field's first fantasy cartridge, the company did so with a profound sense of history.}}</ref> Activision's ''[[Pitfall!]]'', beside being one of the more successful third-party games, also established the foundation of side-scrolling [[platform game]]s.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Morales|first=Aaron|date=January 25, 2013|title=The 10 best Atari games|url=http://www.ew.com/article/2013/01/25/the-10-best-atari-games|access-date=April 17, 2016|magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115174334/http://ew.com/article/2013/01/25/the-10-best-atari-games/|archive-date=January 15, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Utopia (1981 video game)|Utopia]]'' for the Intellivision was the first [[city-building game]] and considered one of the first [[real-time strategy game]]s.<ref name="arstechnica2">{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2017/09/build-gather-brawl-repeat-the-history-of-real-time-strategy-games/|title=Build, gather, brawl, repeat: The history of real-time strategy games|last=Moss|first=Richard|date=September 15, 2017|website=[[Ars Technica]]|access-date=October 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928023807/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2017/09/build-gather-brawl-repeat-the-history-of-real-time-strategy-games/|archive-date=September 28, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Loguidice">{{cite book|title=Vintage Games: An Insider Look at the History of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the Most Influential Games of All Time|last1=Loguidice|first1=Bill|last2=Barton|first2=Matt|date=2009|publisher=[[Focal Press]]|isbn=978-0240811468|location=Boston|page=238}}</ref>

===Early hobbyist computer games===
[[File:Home or Personal Computers from 1977 - Commodore PET 2001, Apple II, TRS-80 Model I, together called 'Trinity77' (edited image).jpg|thumb|right|The "1977 Trinity" (L-R): [[Commodore PET]], [[Apple II (original)|Apple II]], and [[TRS-80]]]]

The fruit of retail development in early video games appeared mainly in video arcades and home consoles, but at the same time, there was a growing market in [[home computer]]s. Such home computers were initially a hobbyist activity, with [[minicomputer]]s such as the [[Altair 8800]] and the [[IMSAI 8080]] released in the early 1970s. Groups like the [[Homebrew Computer Club]] in Menlo Park, California envisioned how to create new hardware and software from these minicomputer systems that could eventually reach the home market.<ref>{{cite book|last1=DeMaria|first1=Rusel|last2=Wilson|first2=Johnny L.|title=High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games|date=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne|location=New York|isbn=0-07-223172-6|page=52|edition=2}}</ref> Affordable home computers began appearing in the late 1970s with the arrival of the "1977 Trinity": the [[Commodore PET]], the [[Apple II (original)|Apple II]], and the [[TRS-80]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm |title=Most Important Companies |access-date=November 4, 2019 |date=September 1995 |work=[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618072507/http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm |archive-date=June 18, 2008}}</ref> Most shipped with a variety of pre-made games as well as the [[BASIC|BASIC programming language]], allowing their owners to program simple games.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.fastcompany.com/90432140/how-atari-took-on-apple-in-the-1980s-home-pc-wars | title= How Atari took on Apple in the 1980s home PC wars | first= Benj | last = Edwards | date = December 21, 2019 | access-date = March 6, 2021 | work = [[Fast Company]] }}</ref>

[[Hobby]]ist groups for the new computers soon formed and [[PC game]] software followed. Soon many of these games—at first clones of mainframe classics such as ''Star Trek'', and then later ports or clones of popular arcade games such as ''[[Space Invaders]]'', ''[[Frogger]]'',<ref name="Enterprise-1982">{{cite web|title=Cash in on the Video Game Craze |work=[[Black Enterprise]] |date=December 1982 |volume=12 |issue=5 |issn=0006-4165 |pages=41–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6pacvfrf0wC&pg=PA41 |access-date=May 1, 2011 |last1=Earl g. Graves |first1=Ltd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914022211/https://books.google.com/books?id=N6pacvfrf0wC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=September 14, 2016 }}</ref> ''[[Pac-Man]]'' (see [[List of Pac-Man clones|''Pac-Man'' clones]])<ref name="Markoff-1981">{{cite web|title=Atari acts in an attempt to scuttle software pirates|author=John Markoff|work=[[InfoWorld]]|date=November 30, 1981|volume=3|issue=28|issn=0199-6649|pages=28–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA28|access-date=May 1, 2011}}</ref> and ''[[Donkey Kong]]''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Strategic management: an integrated approach|author1=Charles W. L. Hill |author2=Gareth R. Jones |edition=8|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2007|isbn=978-0-618-89469-7}}</ref>—were being distributed through a variety of channels, such as printing the game's [[source code]] in books (such as David Ahl's ''[[BASIC Computer Games]]''), magazines (''[[Electronic Games]]'' and ''[[Creative Computing (magazine)|Creative Computing]]''), and newsletters, which allowed users to [[type-in program|type in the code for themselves]].<ref name="time basic language">{{cite magazine | first =  Harry | last = McCracken | url = https://time.com/69316/basic/ | title = Fifty Years of BASIC, the Programming Language That Made Computers Personal | magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date = April 29, 2014 | access-date = March 5, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Plunkett | first =  Luke | url = http://kotaku.com/5435951/a-little-background-on-the-worlds-first-ever-video-game-magazine | title = A Little Background On The World's First Ever Video Game Magazine | work = [[Kotaku]] | date = December 29, 2009 | access-date = March 5, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ahl |first=David H. |title=Birth of a Magazine (History of Creative Computing) |encyclopedia=The Best of Creative Computing Volume 1 |date=1976 |pages=2–3 |url=http://www.atariarchives.org/bcc1/showpage.php?page=2 }}</ref>

[[File:Mystery House - Apple II render emulation - 2.png|thumb|''Mystery House'' is one of the first graphical adventure games.]]

Whereas hobbyist programming in the United States was seen as a pastime while more players flocked to video game consoles, such "bedroom coders" in the [[United Kingdom]] and other parts of Europe looked for ways to profit from their work.<ref name="e&p uk history">{{cite journal | title = Industry evolution and cross-sectoral skill transfers: a comparative analysis of the video game industry in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom  | first1= Hiro | last1= Izushi | first2 = Yuko | last2=  Aoyama | date = 2006 | journal = Environment and Planning A | volume = 38 | issue= 10 | pages = 1843–1861 | doi = 10.1068/a37205 | bibcode= 2006EnPlA..38.1843I | s2cid= 143373406 }}</ref><ref name="bbc uk vg history">{{cite web | url = https://www.bbc.com/timelines/zt23gk7 | title = How British video games became a billion pound industry | date = December 2014 | access-date = September 30, 2019 | publisher = [[BBC]] }}</ref> Programmers distributed their works through the physical mailing and selling of floppy disks, cassette tapes, and [[read-only memory|ROM]] cartridges.<ref name="bbc uk vg history"/> Possibly the first computer game to be sold commercially was ''[[Microchess]]'' in 1976 by [[Peter R. Jennings]], who also started possibly the first computer game publishing company, [[Microware (publisher)|Microware]].<ref name="CHMJenningsinterview">{{cite web |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/orl-4334404555680/ |title=Oral History of Peter Jennings |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=February 1, 2005 |access-date=July 27, 2023}}</ref> Soon a small [[cottage industry]] was formed, with amateur programmers selling disks in plastic bags put on the shelves of local shops or sent through the mail.<ref name="bbc uk vg history"/>

Mainframe and minicomputer games were still largely developed by students and others during this period using the more powerful languages afforded on these systems. A team of [[MIT]] students, [[Tim Anderson (Zork)|Tim Anderson]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Bruce Daniels]], and [[Dave Lebling]], were inspired by ''Colossal Cave Adventure'' to create the text adventure game ''[[Zork]]'' across 1977 and 1979, and later formed [[Infocom]] to republish it commercially in 1980.<ref name="rgamer77">{{cite magazine | title=The making of ''Zork'' | magazine=Retro Gamer | issue=77 | pages=32–33 | date= May 2010 | publisher = [[Imagine Publishing]] }}</ref> The first graphical adventure games from [[Sierra On-Line]] such as ''[[Mystery House]]'', using simple graphics alongside text, also emerged around the same time. ''[[Rogue (video game)|Rogue]]'', the namesake of the [[roguelike]] genre, was developed in 1980 by [[Glenn Wichman]] and Michael Toy who wanted a way to randomize the gameplay of ''Colossal Cave Adventure''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/132404/the_history_of_rogue_have__you_.php | title = The History of Rogue: Have @ You, You Deadly Zs | first1 = Matt | last1 = Barton | first2= Bill | last2= Loguidice | work = [[Gamasutra]] | date = May 9, 2009 | access-date = June 12, 2014 }}</ref>

===First handheld LED/VFD/LCD games===
[[File:Entex Baseball 3, Model 6007, Made In Taiwan, Copyright 1980 (Electronic Handheld Game).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Entex's ''Baseball 3'', an electronic LCD game]]
Handheld electronic games, using all computerized components but typically using [[light-emitting diode|LED]] or [[Vacuum fluorescent display|VFD]] lights for display, first emerged in the early 1970s. [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] displays became inexpensive for consumer products by the mid-1970s and replaced LED and VFD in such games, due to their lower power usage and smaller size. Most of these games were limited to a single game due to the simplicity of the display. Companies like [[Mattel Electronics]], [[Coleco]], [[Entex Industries]], [[Bandai]], and [[Tomy]] made numerous electronics games over the 1970s and early 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=DeMaria|first1=Rusel|last2=Wilson|first2=Johnny L.|title=High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games|date=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne|location=New York|isbn=0-07-223172-6|pages=30–31|edition=2}}</ref>

Coupled with inexpensive microprocessors, handheld electronic games paved the way for the earliest handheld video game systems by the late 1970s. In 1979, [[Milton Bradley Company]] released the first handheld system using interchangeable cartridges, [[Microvision]], which used a built-in [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] matrix screen. While the handheld received modest success in its first year of production, the lack of games, screen size and video game crash of 1983 brought about the system's quick demise.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2006/03/03/a-brief-history-of-handheld-video-games/ |title=A Brief History of Handheld Video Games |first=Donald |last=Melanson |publisher=Weblogs |date=March 3, 2006 |access-date=September 20, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618191810/http://www.engadget.com/2006/03/03/a-brief-history-of-handheld-video-games/ |archive-date=June 18, 2009 }}</ref>

In 1980, Nintendo released the first of its [[Game & Watch]] line, [[handheld electronic game]]s using LCD screens.<ref name="vice yokoi">{{cite web | url =  https://www.vice.com/en/article/how-gunpei-yokoi-reinvented-nintendo/ | title = How Gunpei Yokoi Reinvented Nintendo | first = Matt | last = Alt | date = November 12, 2020 | access-date = February 22, 2021 | work = [[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] }}</ref> Game & Watch spurred dozens of other game and toy companies to make their own portable games, many of which were copies of Game & Watch games or adaptations of popular arcade games. [[Tiger Electronics]] borrowed this concept of videogaming with cheap, affordable handhelds and still produces games on this model to the present day.

==1980s==
{{Main|1980s in video games}}
The video games industry experienced its first major growing pains in the early 1980s; the lure of the market brought many companies with little experience to try to capitalize on video games, and contributors towards the industry's crash in 1983, decimating the North American market. In the wake of the crash, Japanese companies became the leaders in the industry, and as the industry began to recover, the first major [[video game publisher|publishing houses]] appeared, maturing the industry to prevent a similar crash in the future.

===Video game crash of 1983===
{{Main|Video game crash of 1983}}
[[File:Atari E.T. Dig- Alamogordo, New Mexico (14036097792).jpg|thumb|right|Unsold Atari VCS games in a landfill]]
Activision's success as a third-party developer for the Atari VCS and other home consoles inspired other third-party development firms to emerge in the early 1980s; by 1983, at least 100 different companies claimed to be developing software for the Atari VCS.<ref name="down many times"/> This had been projected to led to a glut in sales, with only 10% of games producing 75% of sales for 1983 based on 1982 estimates.<ref name="mj198212262">{{cite news|date=December 26, 1982|title=Stream of video games is endless|pages=Business 1|work=Milwaukee Journal|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nwsdAAAAIBAJ&pg=3635%2C1989311|access-date=January 10, 2015|archive-date=March 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093025/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=|url-status=dead}}</ref> Further, there were questions on the quality of these games. While some of these firms hired experts in game design and programming to build quality games, most were staffed by novice programmers backed by venture capitalists without experience in the area. As a result, the Atari VCS market became watered down with large quantities of poor quality games. These games did not sell well, and retailers discounted their prices to try to get rid of their inventory. This further impacted sales of high-quality games, since consumers would be drawn to purchase bargain-bin priced games over quality games marked at a regular price.<ref>{{cite web|last=Flemming|first=Jeffrey|title=The History Of Activision|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/business/the-history-of-activision|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122651/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the_history_of_activision.php?print=1|archive-date=December 20, 2016|access-date=December 30, 2016|work=Gamasutra}}</ref>

At the end of 1983, several factors, including a market flooded with poor-quality games and loss of publishing control, the lack of consumer confidence in market leader Atari due to the poor performance of several high-profile games, and home computers emerging as a new and more advanced platform for games at nearly the same cost as video game consoles, caused the North American video game industry to experience a severe downturn.<ref name="gallager innovation"/> The 1983 crash bankrupted several North American companies that produced consoles and games from late 1983 to early 1984. The {{US$|3 billion|long=no}} U.S. market in 1983 dropped to {{US$|100 million|long=no}} by 1985,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Boyd|first=Andy|title=No. 3038: The Video Game Crash of 1983|url=https://www.uh.edu/engines/epi3038.htm|access-date=September 30, 2020|website=www.uh.edu}}</ref> while the global video game market estimated at {{US$|42 billion|long=no}} in 1982 fell to {{US$|14 billion|long=no}} by 1985.<ref name="vgmarket">{{cite web | url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-23/peak-video-game-top-analyst-sees-industry-slumping-in-2019 | title = Peak Video Game? Top Analyst Sees Industry Slumping in 2019 | first=  Yuki | last = Naramura | date = January 23, 2019 | access-date = January 29, 2019 | work = [[Bloomberg L.P.]] }}</ref> Warner Communications sold off Atari to [[Jack Tramiel]] in 1984,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Senger|first=Emily|title=The ODE: Atari (1972-2013)|work=Canadian Business}}</ref> while Magnavox and Coleco exited the industry.

The crash had some minor effects on Japanese companies with American partners impacted by the crash, but as most of the Japanese companies involved in video games at this point have long histories, they were able to weather the short-term effects. The crash set the stage for Japan to emerge as the leader in the video game industry for the next several years, particularly with Nintendo's introduction of the rebranded Famicom, the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], back into the U.S. and other Western regions in 1985, maintaining strict publishing control to avoid the same factors that led to the 1983 crash.<ref name="odeonnel nes10">{{cite journal | title = The Nintendo Entertainment System and the 10NES Chip: Carving the Video Game Industry in Silicon | first = Casey | last = O'Donnell | date = 2011 | journal = [[Games and Culture]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–100 | doi =  10.1177/1555412010377319 | s2cid = 53358125 }}</ref>

===The rise of computer games===
====Second wave of home computers====
[[File:Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg|thumb|Children playing ''[[Paperboy (video game)|Paperboy]]'' on an [[Amstrad CPC|Amstrad CPC 464]] in 1988]]

Following the success of the [[Apple II]] and [[Commodore PET]] in the late 1970s, a series of cheaper and incompatible home computers emerged in the early 1980s. This second batch included the [[VIC-20]] and [[Commodore 64]]; Sinclair [[ZX80]], [[ZX81]] and [[ZX Spectrum]]; [[PC-8000 Series|NEC PC-8000]], [[NEC PC-6001|PC-6001]], [[PC-8801|PC-88]] and [[NEC PC-9801|PC-98]]; [[X1 (computer)|Sharp X1]] and [[X68000]]; [[Fujitsu FM Towns]], and [[Atari 8-bit computers]], [[BBC Micro]], [[Acorn Electron]], [[Amstrad CPC]], and [[MSX]] series. Many of these systems found favor in regional markets.

These new systems helped catalyze both the home computer and game markets, by raising awareness of computing and gaming through their competing advertising campaigns. This was most notable in the United Kingdom where the [[BBC]] encouraged computer education and backed the development of the BBC Micro with Acorn.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hormby |first=Thomas |title=Acorn and the BBC Micro: From education to obscurity |work=Low End Mac |date=February 8, 2007 |url=http://lowendmac.com/2007/acorn-and-the-bbc-micro-from-education-to-obscurity/ |access-date=March 1, 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070303004213/http://lowendmac.com/orchard/07/0228.html |archive-date=March 3, 2007 |url-status= live}}</ref> Between the BBC Micro, the ZX Spectrum, and the Commodore 64, a new wave of "bedroom coders" emerged in the United Kingdom and started selling their own software for these platforms, alongside those developed by small professional teams.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2004/jan/24/games.gameswatch | title = Death of the bedroom coder | date = January 24, 2004 | access-date = September 30, 2019 | work = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-46757989|title=How the UK became a major player in the gaming world|last=Blake|first=Jimmy|date=January 6, 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=January 7, 2019|language=en-GB|quote=The gaming industry as it now exists formed around the same time back in the late 70s early 80s - there were a small number of influential people in programming.}}</ref><ref name="bbc260418">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-43907248|title=Sinclair Spectrum designer Rick Dickinson dies in US|date=April 26, 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=April 27, 2018|quote=the machines had "spawned a generation" of coders that had helped to establish the UK's reputation as a creative, game-making powerhouse}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17776666|title=Sinclair's ZX Spectrum turns 30|last=Kelion|first=Leo|date=April 23, 2012|work=BBC News|access-date=April 26, 2018|quote=The success was also driven by videogame sales - the machines were originally marketed as an educational tool but you ensured titles were ready at launch.}}</ref> Small publishing and distribution companies such as [[Acornsoft]] and [[Mastertronic]] were established to help these individuals and teams to create and sell copies of their games. [[Ubisoft]] started out as such a distributor in France in the mid-1980s before they branched out into video game development and publishing.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2011/12/06/ubi-uncensored.aspx |title=Ubi Uncensored: The History Of Ubisoft By The People Who Wrote It |first=Matt |last=Bertz |date=December 6, 2011 |access-date=October 8, 2018 |magazine=[[Game Informer]] |archive-date=October 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005071745/https://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2011/12/06/ubi-uncensored.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> In Japan, systems like the MSX and the NEC PC line were popular, and several development houses emerged developing arcade clones and new games for these platforms. These companies included [[HAL Laboratory]], [[Square (video game company)|Square]], and [[Enix]], which all later became some of the first third-party developers for the Nintendo Famicom after its release in 1983.<ref name="gamestudies geemu"/>

Games from this period include the first ''[[Ultima I: The First Age of Darkness|Ultima]]'' by [[Richard Garriott]] and the first ''[[Wizardry: Proving Grounds of the Mad Overlord|Wizardry]]'' from [[Sir-Tech]], both fundamental role-playing games on the personal computer. The space trading and combat simulation game ''[[Elite (video game)|Elite]]'' by [[David Braben]] and [[Ian Bell (programmer)|Ian Bell]] introduced a number of new graphics and gameplay features, and is considered one of the first [[open world]] and [[sandbox game]]s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Breslin|first=Steve|date=July 16, 2009|title=The History and Theory of Sandbox Gameplay|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/the-history-and-theory-of-sandbox-gameplay|access-date=May 2, 2020|work=[[Gamasutra]]}}</ref> Early installments in a number of long-running franchises such as ''[[Castlevania]]'', ''[[Metal Gear]]'', ''[[Bubble Bobble]]'', ''[[Gradius]]'', as well as ports of console games and [[visual novel]]s appeared on Japanese platforms like the PC88, X68000, and MSX.

[[File:Amiga-Computer.jpg|thumb|right|A child playing ''[[Turrican]]'' on an [[Amiga 500]]]]
Games dominated home computers' software libraries. A 1984 compendium of reviews of Atari 8-bit software used 198 pages for games compared to 167 for all others.<ref name="aw1984">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/Atari_Software_1984#page/n3/mode/2up |title=The Addison-Wesley Book of Atari Software 1984 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |author1=Stanton, Jeffrey |author2=Wells, Robert P. |author3=Rochowansky, Sandra |author4=Mellin, Michael |year=1984 |pages=TOC |isbn=020116454X |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103161051/https://archive.org/stream/Atari_Software_1984 |archive-date=January 3, 2015 }}</ref> By that year the computer game market took over from the console market following the crash of that year; computers offered equal ability and, since their simple design allowed games to take complete command of the hardware after power-on, they were nearly as simple to start playing with as consoles.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Later in the 1980s the next wave of personal computers emerged, with the [[Amiga]] and [[Atari ST]] in 1985. Both computers had more advanced graphics and sound capabilities than the prior generation of computers, and made for key platforms for video game development, particularly in the United Kingdom. The bedroom coders had since formed development teams and started producing games for these systems professionally. These included [[Bullfrog Productions]], founded by [[Peter Molyneux]], with the release of ''[[Populous (video game)|Populous]]'' (the first such [[god game]]), [[DMA Design]] with ''[[Lemmings (video game)|Lemmings]]'', [[Psygnosis]] with ''[[Shadow of the Beast (1989 video game)|Shadow of the Beast]]'', and [[Team17]] with ''[[Worms (1995 video game)|Worms]]''.<ref name="guardian amiga">{{cite web | url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jul/23/commodore-amiga-at-30-the-computer-that-made-the-uk-games-industry | title = Commodore Amiga at 30 – the computer that made the UK games industry | first = Keith | last = Stuart | date = July 23, 2015 | access-date  = September 30, 2019 | work = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref>

====IBM PC compatible====
While the second wave of home computer systems flourished in the early 1980s, they remained as closed hardware systems from each other; while programs written in BASIC or other simple languages could be easily copied over, more advanced programs would require porting to meet the hardware requirements of the target system. Separately, [[IBM]] released the first of its [[IBM Personal Computer]]s (IBM PC) in 1981, shipping with the [[MS-DOS]] operating system. The IBM PC was designed with an [[open architecture]] to allow new components to be added to it, but IBM intended to maintain control on manufacturing with the proprietary [[BIOS]] developed for the system.<ref name="apple ibm platform control">{{cite journal | last1= Den Hartigh | first1= Erik | first2= J. Roland | last2= Ortt | first3= Geerten  | last3 = Van de Kaa | first4 = Claire CM | last4= Stolwijk | title = Platform control during battles for market dominance: The case of Apple versus IBM in the early personal computer industry | journal = [[Technovation]] | volume = 48 | pages = 4–12 | year = 2016 }}</ref> As IBM struggled to meet demand for its PC, other computer manufacturers such as [[Compaq]] worked to [[reverse engineer]] the BIOS and created [[IBM PC compatible]] computers by 1983.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1981-12/1981_12_BYTE_06-12_Computer_Games#page/n315/mode/2up | title=Bytelines | work=BYTE | date=December 1981 | access-date=January 29, 2015 | author=Libes, Sol | pages=314–318}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_OhaFDePS4C&pg=PA5 | title=Lookalikes From Home & Abroad | work=PC Magazine | date=February–March 1982 | access-date=October 20, 2013 | pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VDAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA29 | title=Let's keep those systems open | work=InfoWorld | date=August 23, 1982 | access-date=January 29, 2015 | author=Zussman, John Unger | page=29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/06/10/business/corporate-triumph-then-death-in-a-ferrari.html |title=Corporate Triumph, Then Death in a Ferrari |last=Barmash |first=Isadore |date=June 10, 1983 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 19, 2019 |page=A1 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="mace19840109_16">{{cite news | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ey4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA79 | title=IBM PC clone makers shun total compatibility | work=InfoWorld | date=January 9–16, 1984 | access-date=February 4, 2015 | author=Mace, Scott | pages=79–81}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSzKzjWHeVEC&pg=PA39 | title=PC-Compatible Portables | work=PC Magazine | date=January 24, 1984 | access-date=October 23, 2013 |author1=Cook, Karen |author2=Langdell, James | pages=39}}</ref> By 1987, IBM PC compatible computers dominated the home and business computer market.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/5/|title=Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures|last=Reimer|first=Jeremy |website=Ars Technica|date=December 15, 2005|access-date=September 13, 2008}}</ref>

From a video games standpoint, the IBM PC compatible invigorated further game development. A software developer could write to meet IBM PC compatible specifications and not worry about which make or model was being used. While the initial IBM PC supported only monochromatic text games, game developers nevertheless ported mainframe and other simple text games to the PC, such as Infocom with ''Zork''. IBM introduced video display controllers such as the [[Color Graphics Adapter]] (CGA) (1981), the [[Enhanced Graphics Adapter]] (EGA) (1984) and the [[Video Graphics Array]] (VGA) (1987) that expanded the computer's ability to display color graphics, though even with the VGA, these still lagged behind those of the Amiga. The first dedicated [[sound card]]s for IBM PC compatibles were released starting in 1987, which provided digital sound conversion input and output far exceeding the computer's internal speakers, and with [[Creative Labs]]' [[Sound Blaster]] in 1989, the ability to plug in a game controller or similar device.

In 2008, [[Sid Meier]] listed the IBM PC as one of the three most important innovations in the history of video games.<ref name="totilo20080303">{{cite news|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1582662/the-three-most-important-moments-in-gaming-and-other-lessons-from-sid-meier-in-gamefile/ |title=The Three Most Important Moments In Gaming, And Other Lessons From Sid Meier, In GameFile |work=MTV News |date=March 3, 2008 |access-date=July 7, 2014 |author=Totilo, Stephen |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715192325/http://www.mtv.com/news/1582662/the-three-most-important-moments-in-gaming-and-other-lessons-from-sid-meier-in-gamefile/ |archive-date=July 15, 2014 }}</ref>  The advancement in graphic and sound capabilities of the IBM PC compatible led to several influential games from this period. Numerous games that were already made for the earlier home computers were later ported to IBM PC compatible system to take advantage of the larger consumer base, including the ''Wizardry'' and ''Ultima'' series, with future installments released for the IBM PC. [[Sierra On-Line]]'s first graphical adventure games launched with the ''[[King's Quest]]'' series. The first ''[[SimCity]]'' game by [[Maxis]] was released in 1989.<ref name="pcgamers most important games">{{cite web | url = https://www.pcgamer.com/most-important-pc-games/ | title =  The 50 most important PC games of all time | date = January 18, 2016 | access-date = March 11, 2021 | work = [[PC Gamer]] }}</ref>

The Apple [[Macintosh 128K|Macintosh]] also arrived at this time. In contrast to the IBM PC, Apple maintained a more closed system on the Macintosh, creating a system based around a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI)-driven operating system. As a result, it did not have the same market share as the IBM PC compatible, but still had a respectable software library including video games, typically ports from other systems.<ref name="apple ibm platform control"/>

The first major [[video game publisher]]s arose during the 1980s, primarily supporting personal computer games on both IBM PC compatible games and the popular earlier systems along with some console games. Among the major publishers formed at this time included [[Electronic Arts]],<ref name="polygon ea history">{{cite web | url = https://www.polygon.com/a/how-ea-lost-its-soul/ | title = How Electronic Arts Lost Its Soul | first1 = Colin | last1 = Campbell | first2= Andres | last2= Gurman | date = July 14, 2015 | access-date = March 17, 2021 | work = [[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] }}</ref> and [[Broderbund]], while Sierra On-Line expanded its own publishing capabilities for other developers.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1989/04/24/screen-play-software-adventure-games-for-personal-computers/c40aa762-3c1d-408a-b542-2b243c5559ef/ | title = Software Adventure Games For Personal Computers | first = Stephan | last = Jones | date = April 24, 1989 | access-date=  March 19, 2021 | newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] }}</ref> Activision, still recovering from the financial impacts of the 1983 video game crash, expanded out to include other software properties for the office, rebranding itself as Mediagenic until 1990.<ref name="gamasutra activision"/>

===Early online games===
{{See also|History of massively multiplayer online games}}
[[Dial-up Internet access|Dial-up]] [[bulletin board system]]s were popular in the 1980s, and sometimes used for online gaming. The earliest such systems were in the late 1970s and early 1980s and had a crude plain-text interface. Later systems made use of terminal-control codes (the so-called [[ANSI art]], which included the use of IBM-PC-specific characters not part of an [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) standard) to get a [[Box-drawing character|pseudo-graphical]] interface. Some BBSs offered access to various games which were playable through such an interface, ranging from text adventures to gambling games like [[blackjack]] (generally played for "points" rather than real money). On some multiuser BBSs (where more than one person could be online at once), there were games allowing users to interact with one another.

[[SuperSet Software]] created ''[[Snipes (video game)|Snipes]]'', a text-mode networked computer game in 1983 to test a new [[IBM Personal Computer]]–based computer network and demonstrate its abilities. ''Snipes'' is officially credited as being the original inspiration for [[NetWare]]. It is believed to be the first network game ever written for a commercial personal computer and is recognized alongside 1974 game ''[[Maze (1973 video game)|Maze War]]'' (a networked multiplayer maze game for several research machines) and ''[[Spasim]]'' (a 3D multiplayer space simulation for time shared [[mainframe computer|mainframes]]) as the precursor to multiplayer games such as 1987's ''[[MIDI Maze]]'', and ''[[Doom (1993 video game)|Doom]]'' in 1993. In 1995, iDoom (later [[Kali (software)|Kali.net]]) was created for games that only allowed local network play to connect over the internet.  Other services such as [[Kahn (software)|Kahn]], [[Total Entertainment Network|TEN]], [[Mplayer.com|Mplayer]], and [[Heat.net]] soon followed.  These services ultimately became obsolete when game producers began including their own online software such as [[Battle.net]], [[World Opponent Network|WON]] and later [[Steam (service)|Steam]].

The first user interfaces were plain-text—similar to BBSs—but they operated on large mainframe computers, permitting larger numbers of users to be online at once. By the end of the decade, inline services had fully graphical environments using software specific to each personal computer platform. Popular text-based services included [[CompuServe]], [[The Source (online service)|The Source]], and [[GEnie]], while platform-specific graphical services included [[PlayNET]] and [[Quantum Link]] for the [[Commodore 64]], [[AppleLink]] for the [[Apple II]] and [[Mac (computer)|Macintosh]], and [[AOL#History|PC Link]] for the [[IBM Personal Computer|IBM PC]]—all of which were run by the company which eventually became [[AOL|America Online]]—and a competing service, [[Prodigy (online service)|Prodigy]]. Interactive games were a feature of these services, though until 1987 they used text-based displays, not graphics.

Meanwhile, schools and other institutions gained access to [[ARPANET]], the precursor to the modern [[internet]], in the mid-1980s. While the ARPANET connections were intended for research purposes, students explored ways to use this connectivity for video games. ''[[MUD1|Multi-User Dungeon]]'' (''MUD'') originally was developed by Roy Trubshaw and [[Richard Bartle]] at the [[University of Essex]] in 1978 as a multiplayer game but limited to the school's mainframe system, but was adapted to use ARPANET when the school gained access to it in 1981, making it the first internet-connected game, and the first such [[Multi-user dungeon|MUD]] and an early title of [[massively multiplayer online game]]s.<ref>{{cite book  | last1 = Mulligan | first1 = Jessica | last2 = Patrovsky | first2 = Bridgette | year = 2003  | title = Developing Online Games: An Insider's Guide | publisher = New Riders | page = 444 | quote = 1980 ... Final version of ''MUD1'' completed by Richard Bartle.  Essex goes on the ARPANet, resulting in Internet MUDs | isbn = 1-59273-000-0 }}</ref>

===The home console recovery===
====8-bit consoles====
{{Main|Third generation of video game consoles}}
{{multiple image
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While the 1983 video game crash devastated the United States market, the Japanese video game sector remained unscathed. That year, Nintendo introduced the [[Famicom]] (short for Family Computer), while newcomer [[Sega]] used its arcade game background to design the [[SG-1000]]. The Famicom quickly became a commercial success in Japan, with 2.5 million consoles sold by the start of 1985. Nintendo wanted to introduce the system into the weak United States market but recognized the market was still struggling from the 1983 crash and video games still had a negative perception there.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Nintendo's Final Solution|magazine=[[Electronic Games]]|date=March 1985|volume=4|issue=36|url=https://archive.org/stream/electronic-games-magazine-1985-03/Electronic_Games_Issue_36_Vol_04_01_1985_Mar#page/n7/mode/2up|access-date=February 5, 2012|page=9}}</ref> Working with its [[Nintendo of America]] division, Nintendo rebranded the Famicom as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), giving it the appearance of a [[video cassette recorder]] rather than a toy-like device, and launched the system in the United States in 1985 with accessories like [[R.O.B.]] (Robotic Operating Buddy) to make the system appear more sophisticated than prior home consoles.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2013/07/time-to-feel-old-inside-the-nes-on-its-30th-birthday/ | title = The NES turns 30: How it began, worked, and saved an industry | first=  Andrew | last=  Cunningham | date = July 15, 2013 | access-date = September 21, 2018 | work = [[Ars Technica]] }}</ref> The NES revitalized the U.S. video game market, and by 1989, the U.S. market has resurged to {{USD|5 billion|long=no}}. Over 35 million NES systems were sold in the U.S. through its lifetime, with nearly 62 million units sold globally.<ref>{{citation |title=Playing with Power in Movies, television, and Video Games: From Muppet Babies to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles |first=Marsha |last=Kinder |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=0-520-07776-8 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=raDNu1lThHQC&pg=PA90 |access-date=April 26, 2011}}</ref>

Besides revitalizing the U.S. market, the Famicom/NES console had a number of other long-standing impacts on the video game industry. Nintendo used the [[razor and blades model]] to sell the console at near manufacturing cost while profiting from sales of games.<ref name="down many times"/> Because games sales were critical to Nintendo, it initially controlled all game production, but at requests from companies like Namco and [[Hudson Soft]], Nintendo allowed third-party developers to create games for the consoles, but strictly controlled the manufacturing process, limited these companies to five games per year, and required a 30% licensing fee per game sale, a figure that has been used throughout console development to the present.<ref>{{cite web | url  = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-08-19/epic-games-fortnite-battle-with-apple-and-google-can-be-traced-to-nintendo-tax | title = Epic's Battle With Apple and Google Actually Dates Back to Pac-Man |first1 = Takahashi | last1 = Mochizuki | first2=Vlad | last2 =Savov | date = August 25, 2020 | access-date = August 25, 2020 | work = [[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Nintendo's control of Famicom games led to a bootleg market of unauthorized games from Asian countries. When the NES launched, Nintendo took the lessons it learned from its own bootleg problems with the Famicom, and from the oversaturation of the U.S. market that led to the 1983 crash, and created the [[10NES]] lockout system for NES games that required a special chip to be present in cartridges to be usable on NES systems. The 10NES helped to curb, though did not eliminate, the bootleg market for NES games. Nintendo of America also created the "Nintendo Seal of Approval" to mark games officially licensed by Nintendo and dissuade consumers from purchasing unlicensed third-party games, a symptom of the 1983 crash.<ref name="lockout">{{cite news |title= The Games Played For Nintendo's Sales|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/21/business/the-games-played-for-nintendo-s-sales.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=June 28, 2010|date =December 21, 1989|work=[[The New York Times]] | first=Anthony | last=Ramirez}}</ref><ref name="odeonnel nes10"/> Within the United States, Nintendo of America set up a special telephone help line to provide players with help with more difficult games and launched ''[[Nintendo Power]]'' magazine to provide tips and tricks as well as news on upcoming Nintendo games.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/business/nintendo-power-remembering-america-s-longest-lasting-game-magazine|title=Nintendo Power: Remembering America's Longest-Lasting Game Magazine|last=Cifaldi|first=Frank|date=December 11, 2012|website=[[Gamasutra]]|access-date=July 12, 2019}}</ref>

Sega's SG-1000 did not fare as well against the Famicom in Japan, but the company continued to refine it, releasing [[Sega Mark III]] (also known as the Master System) in 1985. Whereas Nintendo had more success in Japan and the United States, Sega's Mark III sold well in Europe, Oceania, and Brazil.<ref>http://www.gamepilgrimage.com/book/export/html/10920 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331202752/http://www.gamepilgrimage.com/book/export/html/10920 |date=March 31, 2016 }} Sega Master System vs Nintendo Entertainment System – Game Pilgrimage</ref><ref name="consolidatedsales">{{cite web|url=http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/library/historical_data/pdf/consolidated_sales_e0912.pdf |title=Consolidated Sales Transition by Region |access-date=February 14, 2010 |date=January 27, 2010 |publisher=Nintendo |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5nXieXX2B |archive-date=February 14, 2010 |url-status=dead  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nintendo.com/systemsclassic?type=nes |title=NES |access-date=December 4, 2007 |publisher=Nintendo |work=Classic Systems |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804161605/http://www.nintendo.com/systemsclassic?type=nes |archive-date=August 4, 2007}}</ref>

Numerous fundamental video game franchises got their start during the Famicom/NES and Mark III/Master System period, mostly out of Japanese development companies. While [[Mario]] had already appeared in ''Donkey Kong'' and the Game & Watch and arcade game ''[[Mario Bros.]]'', ''[[Super Mario Bros.]]'', debuting in 1985, established Mario as Nintendo's [[mascot]] as well as the first of the ''[[Super Mario]]'' franchise.<ref name="gamestudies geemu"/> Sega also introduced its first mascot characters, the Opa-Opa ship from ''[[Fantasy Zone]]'' in 1986 and later replaced by [[Alex Kidd]] via ''[[Alex Kidd in Miracle World]]'' in 1986, though neither gained the popular recognition that Mario had obtained.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://kotaku.com/remembering-segas-exiled-mascot-5789284 | title = Remembering Sega's Exiled Mascot | first=  Luke | last = Plunkett | date = April 6, 2011 | access-date = March 10, 2021 | work = [[Kotaku]] }}</ref> Other key Nintendo franchises were born out of the games ''[[The Legend of Zelda (video game)|The Legend of Zelda]]'' and ''[[Metroid (video game)|Metroid]]'', both released in 1986. The formulative center of turn-based [[computer role-playing game]]s were launched with ''[[Dragon Quest (video game)|Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) from [[Chunsoft]] and [[Enix]], ''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'' (1987) from [[Square (video game company)|Square]], and ''[[Phantasy Star (video game)|Phantasy Star]]'' (1987) from Sega. [[Capcom]]'s ''[[Mega Man (1987 video game)|Mega Man]]'' (1987), and [[Konami]]'s ''[[Castlevania (1986 video game)|Castlevania]]'' (1986) and ''[[Metal Gear (video game)|Metal Gear]]'' (1987) also have ongoing franchises, with ''Metal Gear'' also considered to be the first mainstream [[stealth game]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The sneaky history of stealth games: Hide and seek through the ages|author=Shane Patterson|publisher=[[GamesRadar]]|date=February 3, 2009|url=http://www.gamesradar.com/the-sneaky-history-of-stealth-games/|access-date=June 21, 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523181200/http://www.gamesradar.com/the-sneaky-history-of-stealth-games/|archive-date=May 23, 2012}}</ref>

With Nintendo's dominance, Japan became the epicenter of the video game market, as many of the former American manufacturers had exited the market by the end of the 1980s.<ref name="cgw_50">{{Cite book|author1=Don L. Daglow|title=[[Computer Gaming World]]|date=August 1988|issue=50|page=18|chapter=Over the River and Through the Woods: The Changing Role of Computer Game Designers|quote=I'm sure you've noticed that I've made no reference to the Nintendo craze that has repeated the Atari and Mattel Phenomenon of 8 years ago. That's because for American game designers the Nintendo is a non-event: virtually all the work to date has been done in Japan. Only the future will tell if the design process ever crosses the Pacific as efficiently as the container ships and the letters of credit now do.}}</ref> At the same time, software developers from the home computer side recognized the strength of the consoles, and companies like [[Epyx]], [[Electronic Arts]], and [[LucasArts]] began devoting their attention to developing console games<ref>{{cite magazine | title=The Good, The Bad & The Uncertain | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=November 1989 |page=4 |url=https://archive.org/details/Computer_Gaming_World_Issue_65 |issue=65}}</ref> By 1989 the market for cartridge-based console games was more than $2 billion, while that for disk-based computer games was less than $300 million.<ref>{{cite news | title=Soaring Into 1989 | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=February 1989 | page=8}}</ref>

====16-bit consoles====
{{Main|Fourth generation of video game consoles}}
[[File:TurboGrafx16-Console-Set.jpg|thumb|The [[TurboGrafx-16]]]]
NEC released its PC Engine in 1987 in Japan, rebranded as the [[TurboGrafx-16]] in North America. While the CPU was still an 8-bit system, the TurboGrafx-16 used a 16-bit graphics adapter, and NEC chose to heavily rely on marketing the system as a "16 bit" system to differentiate it from the 8-bit NES. This ploy led to the use of processor bit size as a key factor in marketing video game consoles over the next decade, a period known as the "bit wars".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Therrien|first1=Carl|last2=Picard|first2=Martin|date=April 29, 2015|title=Enter the bit wars: A study of video game marketing and platform crafting in the wake of the TurboGrafx-16 launch|journal=[[New Media & Society]]|volume=18|issue=10|pages=2323–2339|doi=10.1177/1461444815584333|s2cid=19553739}}</ref>

Sega released its next console, the [[Sega Genesis|Mega Drive]] in Japan in 1988, and rebranded as the Sega Genesis for its North American launch in 1989. Sega wanted to challenge the NES's dominance in the United States with the Genesis, and the initial campaign focused on the 16-bit power of the Genesis over the NES as well as a new line of sports games developed for the console. Failing to make a significant dent in NES' dominance, Sega hired [[Tom Kalinske]] to president of Sega of America to run a new campaign. Among Kalinske's changes was a significant price reduction in the console, and the bundling of Sega's newest game ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game)|Sonic the Hedgehog]]'', featuring Sega's newest mascot [[Sonic the Hedgehog|of the same name]], with the console. Kalinske's changes gave Genesis the edge over the NES by 1991 and led off the start of a [[console war]] between Sega and Nintendo. Nintendo's 16-bit console, the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] (SNES) struggled on its initial launch in the United States due to the strength of the Genesis. This console war between Sega and Nintendo lasted until 1994 when [[Sony Computer Entertainment]] disrupted both companies with the release of the [[PlayStation]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://venturebeat.com/2015/11/28/the-art-and-legacy-of-the-90s-console-war/ | title = The art and legacy of the '90s console war | first = Gavin | last = Greene | date = November 28, 2015 | access-date = February 22, 2021 | work = [[Venture Beat]] }}</ref>

Among other aspects of the console war between Sega and Nintendo, this period brought a revolution in [[sports video game]]s. While these games had existed since the first arcade and console games, their limited graphics required gameplay to be highly simplified. When Sega of America first introduced the Genesis to the United States, it had gotten naming rights from high-profile people in the various sports, such as ''[[Pat Riley Basketball]]'' and ''[[Joe Montana Football]]'', but the games still lacked any complexity. Electronic Arts, under [[Trip Hawkins]], were keen to make a more realistic football game for the Genesis which had the computation capabilities for this, but did not want to pay the high licensing fees that Sega were asking for developing on the Genesis. They were able to secure naming rights for [[John Madden]] and reverse engineer the Genesis as to be able to produce ''[[John Madden Football (1990 video game)|John Madden Football]]'', one of the first major successful sports games.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.espn.com/espn/eticket/story?page=100805/madden&redirected=true | title=The Franchise | publisher=ESPN | date=August 5, 2010 | access-date=January 23, 2015 | author=Hruby, Patrick}}</ref> Electronic Arts subsequently focused heavily on sports games, expanding into other sports like basketball, hockey and golf.<ref name="polygon ea history"/>

[[SNK Playmore|SNK]]'s [[Neo Geo (system)|Neo-Geo]] was the most costly console by a wide margin when released in 1990. The Neo-Geo used similar hardware as SNK's arcade machines, giving its games a quality better than other 16-bit consoles, but the system was commercially non-viable. The Neo-Geo was notably the first home console with support for [[memory card]]s, allowing players to save their progress in a game, not only at home but also shared with compatible Neo-Geo arcade games.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Bridging the Gap: The Neo Geo, the Media Imaginary, and the Domestication of Arcade Games | first = Benjamin | last=  Nicoll | journal = [[Games and Culture]] | volume = 12 | issue =2 | pages = 1–22 | date = 2015  |doi =  10.1177/1555412015590048 | s2cid = 147981978 }}</ref>

==1990s==
{{Main|1990s in video games}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2014}}
The 1990s were a decade of marked [[innovation]] in video games. It was a decade of transition from [[raster graphics]] to [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] and gave rise to several genres of video games including [[first-person shooter]], [[real-time strategy]], and [[Massively multiplayer online game|MMO]]. Handheld games become more popular throughout the decade, thanks in part to the release of the [[Game Boy]] in 1989.<ref>Nintendo Power Magazine</ref> Arcade games experienced a resurgence in the early-to-mid-1990s, followed by a decline in the late 1990s as [[Video game console|home consoles]] became more common.

As arcade games declined, however, the home video game industry matured into a more mainstream form of entertainment in the 1990s, but their video games also became more and more [[video game controversies|controversial]] because of their violent nature, especially in games of ''[[Mortal Kombat (1992 video game)|Mortal Kombat]]'', ''[[Night Trap]]'', and ''[[Doom (1993 video game)|Doom]]'', leading to the formation of the [[Interactive Digital Software Association]] and their rating games by signing them their [[ESRB]] ratings since 1994.<ref name='Wired-kohler-chris-2009-07-29'>{{cite magazine|first=Chris |last=Kohler |title=July 29, 1994: Videogame Makers Propose Ratings Board to Congress |date=July 29, 2009 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |url=https://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2009/07/dayintech_0729/  |access-date=April 20, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218213902/http://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2009/07/dayintech_0729/ |archive-date=February 18, 2014 }}</ref> Major developments of the 1990s include the popularizing of [[3D computer graphics]] using polygons (initially in arcades, followed by home consoles and computers), and the start of a larger consolidation of publishers, higher budget games, increased size of production teams, and collaborations with both the music and motion picture industries. Examples of this include [[Mark Hamill]]'s involvement with ''[[Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger|Wing Commander III]]'', the introduction of [[QSound]] with [[arcade system board]]s such as [[Capcom]]'s [[CP System II]], and the high production budgets of games such as [[Squaresoft]]'s ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' and [[Sega]]'s ''[[Shenmue]]''.

===Transition to optical media===
By end of the 1980s, console games were distributed on ROM cartridges, while PC games shipped on [[floppy disk]]s, formats that had limitations in storage capacity. [[Optical media]], and specifically the [[CD-ROM]], had been first introduced in the mid-1980s for music distribution and by the early 1990s, both the media and CD drives had become inexpensive to be incorporated into consumer computing devices, including for both home consoles and computers.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1992/06/29/76592/index.htm | title = CD-ROM: The Next PC Revolution | first = Mark | last = Alpert | date = June 29, 1992 | access-date = March 11, 2021 | work = [[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] }}</ref> Besides offering more capacity for gameplay content, optical media made it possible to include long video segments into games, such as [[full motion video]], or animated or pre-rendered [[cutscene]]s, allowing for more narrative elements to be added to games.<ref name="Wolf 2007 chp22"/>

Prior to the 1990s, some arcade games explored the use of [[laserdisc]]s, the most notable being ''[[Dragon's Lair (1983 video game)|Dragon's Lair]]'' in 1983. These games are considered as [[interactive movies]] and used [[full motion video]] from the laserdisc, prompting the player to respond via controls at the right time to continue the game.<ref name="Wolf 2007 chp22">{{cite book |last=Therrien |first=Carl |editor-last=Wolf |editor-first=Mark |date=2007 |title=The Video Game Explosion |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=121–126 |chapter=Chapter 22: CD-ROM Games|isbn=978-0313338687}}</ref><ref name="Wolf 2007 chp23">{{cite book |last=Perron |first=Bernard |editor-last=Therrien |editor-first=Mark |date=2007 |title=The Video Game Explosion |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=127–134 |chapter=Chapter 23: Interactive Movies|isbn=978-0313338687}}</ref> While these games were popular in the early 1980s, the prohibitive cost of laserdisc technology at the time limited their success. When optical media technology matured and dropped in price by the 1990s, new laserdisc arcade games emerged, such as ''[[Mad Dog McCree]]'' in 1990.<ref name="Wolf 2007 chp22"/> [[Pioneer Corporation]] released the [[LaserActive]] game console in 1993 that used only laserdiscs, with expansion add-ons to play games from the Sega Genesis and NEC TurboGrafx-16 library, but with a base console price of {{USD|1000|long=no}} and add-ons at {{USD|600|long=no}}, the console did not perform well.<ref>{{cite magazine | url = https://www.wired.com/2009/09/laseractive/ | title = LaserActive, Gaming's Greatest Boondoggle  |first= Chris | last = Kohler | date = September 18, 2009 |access-date= March 15, 2021 | magazine = [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] }}</ref>

For consoles, optical media were cheaper to produce than ROM cartridges, and batches of CD-ROMs could be produced in a week while cartridges could take two to three months to assemble, in addition to the larger capacity.<ref name="rp japanese industry">{{cite journal | title = Hardware gimmick or cultural innovation? Technological, cultural, and social foundations of the Japanese video game industry | first1 = Yuko | last1 = Aoyama | first2= Hiro  |last2= Izushi | journal = [[Research Policy]] | volume = 32 | issue =3 | date = 2003 | pages = 423–444 |  doi = 10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00016-1 }}</ref> Add-ons were made for the 16-bit consoles to use CD media, including the PC Engine and the Mega Drive. Other manufacturers made consoles with dual-media, such as NEC's [[TurboDuo]]. [[Philips]] launched the [[CD-i]] in 1990, a console using only optical media, but the unit had limited gaming capabilities and had a limited game library.<ref>{{cite web|author=Cowan, Danny|date=April 25, 2006|title=CDi: The Ugly Duckling|url=http://www.1up.com/features/15-years-cd-i?pager.offset=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104035709/http://www.1up.com/features/15-years-cd-i?pager.offset=1|archive-date=November 4, 2012|access-date=March 8, 2012|work=[[1UP.com]]}}</ref> Nintendo had similarly worked with Sony to develop a CD-based [[SNES]], known as the [[Super NES CD-ROM]], but this deal fell through just prior to its public announcement, and as a result, Sony went on to develop to the PlayStation console released in 1994, that exclusively used optical media.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2020-02-13-ultra-rare-nintendo-playstation-prototype-up-for-auction | title = Ultra-rare Nintendo PlayStation prototype up for auction | first=  Tom | last =Philips | date = February 13, 2020 | access-date = February 13, 2020 | work = [[Eurogamer]] }}</ref> Sony was able to capitalize on how the Japanese market handled game sales in Japan for the PlayStation, by producing only limited numbers of any new CD-ROM game with the ability to rapidly produce new copies of a game should it prove successful, a factor that could not easily be realized with ROM cartridges where due to how fast consumers' tastes changed, required nearly all cartridges expected to sell to be produced upfront. This helped Sony overtake Nintendo and Sega in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite conference | last1 = Tomaselli | first1 = Fernando Claro | first2= Luiz Carlos | last2= Di Serio | first3 = Luciel Henrique | last3= de Oliveira | title = Value chain management and competitive strategy in the home video game industry | conference= 19th Annual Conference POMS | date= 2008 }}</ref> A key PlayStation game that adapted to the CD format was ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'', released in 1997; Square's developers wanted to transition the series from the series' 2D presentation to using 3D models, and though the series had been exclusive to Nintendo consoles previously, Square determined it would be impractical to use cartridges for distribution while the PlayStation's CD-ROM gave them the space for all the desired content including pre-rendered cutscenes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/a/final-fantasy-7 |title=Final Fantasy 7: An oral history |last=Leone |first=Matt |work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 9, 2017 |access-date=January 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109201832/http://www.polygon.com/a/final-fantasy-7 |archive-date=January 9, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Final Fantasy VII'' became a key game, as it expanded the idea of console role-playing games to console game consumers.<ref name="Wolf 2007 chp22"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/gaming/2006-08-29-dirge-of-cerberus_x.htm |title='Dirge of Cerberus' defies expectations, for better and worse |first=Alex |last=Kraus |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=August 30, 2006 |access-date=August 6, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629090116/http://www.usatoday.com/tech/gaming/2006-08-29-dirge-of-cerberus_x.htm |archive-date=June 29, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Since the PlayStation, all home gaming consoles have relied on optical media for physical game distribution, outside the Nintendo 64 and Switch.<ref name="rp japanese industry"/>

On the PC side, CD drives were initially available as peripherals for computers before becoming standard components within PCs. CD-ROM technology had been available as early as 1989, with [[Cyan Worlds]]' ''[[The Manhole]]'' being one of the first games distributed on the medium.<ref name="Wolf 2007 chp22"/> While CD-ROMs served as a better means to distribute larger games, the medium caught on with the 1993 releases of Cyan's ''[[Myst]]'' and [[Trilobyte (company)|Trilobyte]]'s ''[[The 7th Guest]]'', adventure games that incorporated full motion video segments among fixed pre-rendered scenes, incorporating the CD-ROM medium into the game itself. Both games were considered killer apps to help standardize the CD-ROM format for PCs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Parrish, Jeremy |url=http://www.1up.com/features/essential-50-myst |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604014208/http://www.1up.com/features/essential-50-myst |archive-date=June 4, 2011 |title=When SCUMM Ruled the Earth |website=[[1UP.com]] |access-date=May 2, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=August 1, 2000|url=http://pc.ign.com/articles/082/082913p1.html|title=PC Retroview: Myst|website=IGN|access-date=April 21, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120054557/http://pc.ign.com/articles/082/082913p1.html|archive-date=January 20, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Introduction of 3D graphics===
In addition to the transition to optical media, the industry as a whole had a major shift toward real-time [[3D computer graphics]] across games during the 1990s. There had been a number of arcade games that used simple [[Wire-frame model|wireframe]] [[vector graphics]] to simulate 3D, such as ''[[Battlezone (1980 video game)|Battlezone]]'', ''[[Tempest (video game)|Tempest]]'', and ''[[Star Wars (1983 video game)|Star Wars]]''. A unique challenge in 3D computer graphics is that [[Real-time computer graphics|real-time rendering]] typically requires [[Floating-point arithmetic|floating-point calculations]], which until the 1990s, most video game hardware was not well-suited for. Instead, many games simulated 3D effects such as by using [[parallax]] rendering of different background layers, scaling of sprites as they moved towards or away from the player's view, or other rendering methods such as the SNES's [[Mode 7]]. These tricks to simulate 3D-rendeder graphics through 2D systems are generally referred to as [[2.5D]] graphics.

[[File:Virtua Racing screenshot 2007.png|thumb|right|''[[Virtua Racing]]'' was an early example of true polygonal 3D graphics]]

True real-time 3D rendering using polygons were soon popularized by [[Yu Suzuki]]'s [[Sega AM2]] games ''[[Virtua Racing]]'' (1992) and ''[[Virtua Fighter (arcade game)|Virtua Fighter]]'' (1993), both running on the [[Sega Model 1]] [[arcade system board]];<ref name=vracing>{{cite web|title=Virtua Racing – Arcade (1992)|url=http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/15influential/p13_01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412225953/http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/15influential/p13_01.html|archive-date=April 12, 2010|work=15 Most Influential Games of All Time|publisher=[[GameSpot]]|access-date=January 19, 2014|date=March 14, 2001}}</ref> some of the [[Sony Computer Entertainment]] (SCE) staff involved in the creation of the original [[PlayStation (console)|PlayStation]] [[video game console]] credit ''Virtua Fighter'' as inspiration for the PlayStation's 3D graphics hardware. According to SCE's former producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama, the PlayStation was originally being considered as a [[2D computer graphics|2D]]-focused hardware, and it wasn't until the success of ''Virtua Fighter'' in the arcades that they decided to design the PlayStation as a 3D-focused hardware.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/09/how-virtua-fighter-saved-playstations-bacon/ |title=How Virtua Fighter Saved PlayStation's Bacon – WIRED |magazine=WIRED |date=September 5, 2012 |access-date=October 13, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014093913/http://www.wired.com/2012/09/how-virtua-fighter-saved-playstations-bacon/ |archive-date=October 14, 2014 |last1=Feit |first1=Daniel }}</ref> [[Texture mapping]] and [[texture filtering]] were soon popularized by 3D racing and fighting games.<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 9, 2019|title=A Brief History of 3D Texturing in Video Games|url=https://discover.therookies.co/2019/05/09/a-brief-history-of-3d-texturing-in-video-games/|access-date=December 1, 2020|website=Discover {{!}} The Rookies|language=en}}</ref>

Home video game consoles such as the PlayStation, the [[Sega Saturn]], and [[Nintendo 64]] also became able to produce texture-mapped 3D graphics. Nintendo had already released ''[[Star Fox (1993 video game)|Star Fox]]'' in 1993 which included the [[Super FX]] graphics co-processor chip built into the game cartridge to support polygonal rendering for the SNES, and the Nintendo 64 included a graphics coprocessor on the console directly.

On personal computers, [[John Carmack]] and [[John Romero]] of [[id Software]] had been experimenting with real-time rendering of 3D games through ''[[Hovertank 3D]]'' and ''[[Catacomb 3-D]]''. These led to the release of ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' in 1992, considered to be the original [[first-person shooter]] as it rendered the game's world fast enough to keep up with the player's movements. However, at this point, ''Wolfenstein 3D''{{'s}} maps were restricted to a single flat level.<ref name="tr 3d history"/> Improvements would come with ''[[Ultima Underworld]]'' from [[Blue Sky Productions]], which included floors of different heights and ramps, which took longer to render but was considered acceptable in the role-playing game, and id's ''[[Doom (1993 video game)|Doom]]'', adding lighting effects among other features, but still with limitations that maps were effectively two-dimensional and with most enemies and objects represented by sprites in-game. id had created one of the first [[game engine]]s that separated the content from the gameplay and rendering layers, and licensed this engine to other developers, resulting in games such as ''[[Heretic (video game)|Heretic]]'' and ''[[Hexen: Beyond Heretic|Hexen]]'', while other game developers built their own engines based on the concepts of the [[Doom engine|''Doom'' engine]], such as ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' and ''[[Marathon (video game)|Marathon]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last= Fiadotau | first =  Mikhail | title = Dezaemon, RPG Maker, NScripter: Exploring and classifying game 'produsage' in 1990s Japan | journal =  Journal of Gaming & Virtual Worlds  | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages=215–230 | date = 2019 | doi = 10.1386/jgvw.11.3.215_1| s2cid = 213694676 }}</ref> In 1996, id's ''[[Quake (video game)|Quake]]'' was the first computer game with a true 3D game engine with in-game character and object models, and as with the ''Doom'' engine, id licensed the [[Quake engine|''Quake'' engine]], leading to a further growth in first-person shooters.<ref name="tr 3d history">{{cite web | url = https://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/the-evolution-of-3d-games-700995 | title = The evolution of 3D games | date = July 11, 2010 | access-date = March 15, 2021 | work = [[TechRadar]] }}</ref> By 1997, the first consumer dedicated 3D [[graphics card]]s were available on the market driven by the demand for first-person shooters, and numerous 3D game engines were created in the years that followed, including [[Unreal Engine]], [[GoldSrc]], and [[CryEngine]], and establishing 3D as the new standard in most computer video games.<ref name="tr 3d history"/>

===Resurgence and decline of arcades===
[[File:Time Crisis II, Spain, 2017 03.jpg|thumb|right|A ''[[Time Crisis II]]'' light gun arcade game]]
The 1991 release of [[Capcom]]'s ''[[Street Fighter II]]'' popularized competitive one-on-one [[fighting game]]s.<ref name="tao2">Spencer, Spanner, [http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/a_taoofbeatemups_pt2_retro The Tao of Beat-'em-ups (part 2)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715094144/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/a_taoofbeatemups_pt2_retro |date=July 15, 2011 }}, ''EuroGamer'', February 12, 2008, Accessed March 18, 2009</ref> Its success led to a wave of other popular fighting games, such as ''[[Mortal Kombat]]'' and ''[[The King of Fighters]]''. [[Sports game]]s such as ''[[NBA Jam (1993 video game)|NBA Jam]]'' also briefly became popular in arcades during this period.

Further drawing players from arcades were the latest home consoles which were now capable of playing "arcade-accurate" games, including the latest 3D games. Increasing numbers of players waited for popular arcade games to be ported to consoles rather than pumping coins into arcade kiosks.<ref>{{cite conference | last1 = Grabarczyk | first1 = Pawel | first2 = Espen | last2= Aarseth | title = Port or conversion? An ontological framework for classifying game versions | conference = DiGRA Conference 2019 | date = 2019 }}</ref> This trend increased with the introduction of more realistic peripherals for computer and console game systems such as [[Haptic technology#Video games|force feedback]] aircraft joysticks and racing wheel/pedal kits, which allowed home systems to approach some of the realism and immersion formerly limited to the arcades.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} To remain relevant, arcade manufacturers such as Sega and Namco continued pushing the boundaries of 3D graphics beyond what was possible in homes. ''[[Virtua Fighter 3]]'' for the [[Sega Model 3]], for instance, stood out for having real-time 3D graphics approaching the quality of [[Computer animation|CGI]] [[full motion video]] (FMV) at the time.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=News: Virtua Fighter 3|magazine=[[Computer and Video Games]]|date=May 1996| issue=174|pages=10–11}}</ref> Likewise, Namco released the [[Namco System 23]] to rival the Model 3. By 1998, however, Sega's [[Sixth generation of video game consoles|new console]], the [[Dreamcast]], could produce 3D graphics on-par with the [[Sega Naomi]] arcade machine. After producing the more powerful [[Sega Hikaru|Hikaru]] board in 1999 and [[Sega Naomi 2|Naomi 2]] in 2000, Sega eventually stopped manufacturing custom arcade system boards, with their subsequent arcade boards being based on either consoles or commercial PC components.

As patronage for arcades declined, many were forced to close down by the late 1990s and early 2000s. Classic coin-operated games had largely become the province of dedicated hobbyists and as a tertiary attraction for some businesses, such as movie theaters, [[batting cage]]s, [[miniature golf]] courses, and arcades attached to game stores such as [[Trans World Entertainment|F.Y.E.]] The gap left by the old corner arcades was partly filled by large amusement centers dedicated to providing clean, safe environments and costly game control systems unavailable to home users. These newer arcade games offer driving or other sports games with specialized cockpits integrated into the arcade machine, [[rhythm game]]s requiring unique controllers like ''[[Guitar Freaks]]'' and ''[[Dance Dance Revolution]]'', and path-based [[light gun]] shooting gallery games like ''[[Time Crisis]]''.<ref name="verge life death arcade"/> Arcade establishments expanded out to include other entertainment options, such as food and drink, such as the adult-oriented [[Dave & Buster's]] and [[GameWorks]] franchises, while [[Chuck E. Cheese's]] is a similar type of business for families and young children.<ref name="verge life death arcade"/>

===Handhelds come of age===
In 1989, Nintendo released the cartridge-based [[Game Boy]], the first major [[handheld game console]] since the [[Microvision]] 10 years earlier. Included with the system was ''[[Tetris (Game Boy video game)|Tetris]]'', which became one of the best-selling video games of all time, drawing many that would not normally play video games to the handheld.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/video-games/10877456/Tetris-at-30-a-history-of-the-worlds-most-successful-game.html |title=Tetris at 30: a history of the world's most successful game |last=Sparkes |first=Matthew |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=June 6, 2014 |access-date=April 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427004705/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/video-games/10877456/Tetris-at-30-a-history-of-the-worlds-most-successful-game.html |archive-date=April 27, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Several rival handhelds made their debut in the early 1990s, including the [[Game Gear]] and [[Atari Lynx]] (the first handheld with color LCD display). Although these systems were more technologically advanced and intended to match the performance of home consoles, they were hampered by higher battery consumption and less third-party developer support. While some of the other systems remained in production until the mid-1990s, the Game Boy and its successive incarnations, the [[Game Boy Pocket]], [[Game Boy Color]] and [[Game Boy Advance]], were virtually unchallenged for dominance in the handheld market through the 1990s.<ref name="vice yokoi" /> The Game Boy family also introduced the first installments in the ''[[Pokémon (video game series)|Pokémon]]'' series with [[Pokémon Red and Blue|''Pokémon Red'' and ''Blue'']], which remains one of the best-selling video game franchises for Nintendo.<ref name="Figures">{{cite web|url=https://corporate.pokemon.co.jp/en/aboutus/figures/|title=Pokémon in Figures|website=[[The Pokémon Company]]|date=March 2020|access-date=July 31, 2020|archive-date=October 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010084800/https://corporate.pokemon.co.jp/en/aboutus/figures/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Computer games===
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With the introduction of 3D graphics and a stronger emphasis on console games, smaller developers, particularly those working on personal computers, were typically shunned by publishers as they had become risk-averse.<ref>{{cite news|author=Prince|first1=Marcelo|last2=Roth|first2=Peter|date=December 21, 2004|title=Videogame Publishers Place Big Bets on Big-Budget Games|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB110243451698593254|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200210052050/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB110243451698593254|archive-date=February 10, 2020|access-date=July 1, 2013|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> [[Shareware]], a new method of distributing games from these smaller teams, came out of the early 1990s. Typically a shareware game could be requested by a consumer, which would give them a portion of the game for free outside of shipping charges. If the consumer liked the game, they could then pay for the full game. This model was later expanded to basically include the "demo" version of a game on the insert CD-ROM media for gaming magazines, and then later as digital downloads from various sites like [[Tucows]]. id Software is credited with successfully implementing the idea for both ''Wolfenstein 3D'' and ''Doom'', which was later used by Apogee (now [[3D Realms]]), Epic MegaGames (now [[Epic Games]]).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.polygon.com/2019/11/15/20962788/indie-development-history-handmade-pixels | title = The indie explosion that's been going on for 30 years (give or take) | first = Jesper | last = Juul  | date = November 15, 2019 | access-date = November 15, 2019 | work = [[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] }}</ref>

Several key genres were established during this period. ''Wolfenstein 3D'' and ''Doom'' are the formative games of the [[first-person shooter]] (FPS); the genre itself had gone by "''Doom'' clones" until about 2000 when FPS became the more popular term.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Video Game Genre, Evolution and Innovation | first = Dominic | last = Arsenault | journal = Eludamos. Journal for Computer Game Culture | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | year =2009 |pages = 149–176 | doi = 10.7557/23.6003 | s2cid = 62171492 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Graphic adventure games rose to prominence during this period; including the forementioned ''Myst'' and ''The 7th Guest'', [[LucasArts adventure games|several of LucasArts adventure games]] including the ''[[Monkey Island (series)|Monkey Island]]'' series. However, the adventure game genre was considered dead by the end of the 1990s due to the rising popularity of the FPS and other action genres.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20070515/cook_01.shtml |title=The Circle of Life: An Analysis of the Game Product Life-cycle |publisher=[[Gamasutra]] |date=May 15, 2007 |access-date=July 15, 2008 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514070841/http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20070515/cook_01.shtml |archive-date=May 14, 2008 }}</ref> The first [[immersive sim]]s, games that gave the player more agency and choices through flexible game systems, came along after the rise of FPS games, with games like ''[[Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss]]'' and ''[[Thief: The Dark Project]]''. ''Thief'' also expanded the idea of stealth games and created the idea of "first person sneaker" games where combat was less a focus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/1999/02/10/looking-glass-prepares-to-shock-gamers-again |title=Looking Glass Prepares To Shock Gamers Again |date=February 10, 1999 |access-date=May 28, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710154035/http://www.ign.com/articles/1999/02/10/looking-glass-prepares-to-shock-gamers-again |archive-date=July 10, 2015 }}</ref>

[[Real-time strategy game]]s also grew in popularity in 1990s, with seminal games ''[[Dune II]]'', ''[[Warcraft: Orcs & Humans]]'' and ''[[Command & Conquer (1995 video game)|Command & Conquer]]''.  The first [[4X]] (short for "Explore, Expand, Exploit, Exterminate") strategy games also emerged during this decade, popularized by ''[[Civilization (video game)|Sid Meyer's Civilization]]'' in 1991. ''[[Alone in the Dark (1992 video game)|Alone in the Dark]]'' in 1992 established many elements of the [[survival horror]] genre that were in the console game ''[[Resident Evil (1996 video game)|Resident Evil]]''.<ref>{{cite web| first=Michael | last=Harradence | date=October 28, 2019 | url=https://www.psu.com/news/complete-history-of-resident-evil-games/ |title=The Complete History of the Resident Evil Games |publisher=Psu.com |access-date=March 30, 2022}}</ref> [[Simulation game]]s became popular, including those from [[Maxis]] starting with ''[[SimCity (1989 video game)|SimCity]]'' in 1989, and which culminated with ''[[The Sims]]'', which was first released in early 2000.

Online connectivity in computer games has become increasingly important. Building on the growing popularity of the text-based MUDs of the 1980s, [[graphical MUD]]s like ''[[Habitat (video game)|Habitat]]'' used simple graphical interfaces alongside text to visualize the game experience. The first [[massively multiplayer online role-playing game]]s adapted the new 3D graphics approach to create virtual worlds on screen, starting with ''[[Meridian 59]]'' in 1996 and popularized by the success of ''[[Ultima Online]]'' in 1997 and ''[[EverQuest]]'' and ''[[Asheron's Call]]'' in 1999. Online connective play also became important in genres like FPS and RTS, allowing players to connect to human opponents over phone and Internet connectivity. Some companies have created clients to help with connectivity, such as [[Blizzard Entertainment]]'s [[Battle.net]].

During the 1990s, Microsoft introduced its initial versions of the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system for personal computers, a graphical user interface intended to replace MS-DOS. Game developers found it difficult to program for some of the earlier versions of Windows, as the operating system tended to block their programmatic access to input and output devices. Microsoft developed [[DirectX]] in 1995, later integrated into [[Microsoft Windows 95]] and future Windows products, as a set of libraries to give game programmers direct access to these functions. This also helped to provide a standard interface to normalize the wide array of graphics and sound cards available for personal computers by this time, further aiding in ongoing game development.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.pcgamer.com/history-direct-x-windows-microsoft/ | title = How DirectX defined PC gaming... with help from a shotgun-toting Bill Gates | first = Samual | last = Willetts | date = July 27, 2020 | access-date = December 7, 2020 | work = [[PC Gamer]] }}</ref>

===32- and 64-bit home consoles===
{{Main|Fifth generation of video game consoles}}
[[File:PSX-Console-wController.jpg|thumb|right|The [[PlayStation (console)|Sony PlayStation]]]]
Sony's introduction of the first PlayStation in 1994 had hampered both Nintendo and Sega's console war, as well as made it difficult for new companies to enter the market. The PlayStation brought in not only the revolution in CD-ROM media but built-in support for polygonal 3D graphics rendering. Atari attempted to re-enter the market with the 32-bit [[Atari Jaguar]] in 1993, but it lacked the game libraries offered by Nintendo, Sega or Sony. [[The 3DO Company]] released the [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer]] in 1993, but it also suffered from a higher price compared to other consoles on the market. Sega has placed a great deal of emphasis on the 32-bit [[Sega Saturn]], released in 1994, to follow the Genesis, and though initially fared well in sales with the PlayStation, soon lost ground to the PlayStation's larger range of popular games. Nintendo's next console after the SNES was the [[Nintendo 64]], a 64-bit console with polygonal 3D rendering support. However, Nintendo opted to continue to use the ROM cartridge format, which caused it to lose sales against the PlayStation, and allowing Sony to become the dominant player in the console market by 2000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kent |first=Steven L. |author-link=Steven L. Kent |title=The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World |date=2002 |publisher=Random House International  | location=New York |isbn=978-0-7615-3643-7 | oclc=59416169 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTrcTeAqeaEC}}</ref>

''Final Fantasy VII'', as previously described, was an industry landmark title, and introduced the concept of role-playing games to console players. The origin of [[music video game]]s emerged with the PlayStation game ''[[PaRappa the Rapper]]'' in 1997, coupled with the success of arcade games like ''[[beatmania]]'' and ''[[Dance Dance Revolution]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2009/03/ne-music-game-feature/|title=Roots of rhythm: a brief history of the music game genre|last=Webster|first=Andrew|work=[[Ars Technica]]|date=March 4, 2009|access-date=July 5, 2014}}</ref> ''Resident Evil'' and ''[[Silent Hill (video game)|Silent Hill]]'' formed the basis of the current [[survival horror]] genre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://retro.ign.com/articles/104/1040759p5.html|title=IGN Presents the History of Survival Horror|page=5|author=Fahs, Travis|work=[[IGN]]|date=October 30, 2009|access-date=June 9, 2011}}</ref> Nintendo had its own critical successes with ''[[GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game)|GoldenEye 007]]'' from [[Rare (company)|Rare]], the first first-person shooter for a console that introduced staple features for the genre, and ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time]]'', one of the [[List of video games considered the best|most critically acclaimed games of all time]].

===Video gaming in Latin America===
Japanese video game consoles were released in South American countries such as [[Video gaming in Colombia|Colombia]] and [[Video gaming in Brazil|Brazil]] nearly simultaneously with the United States throughout the 1980s and 1990s, even though local game development was minimal in these regions until the 2000s.<ref name="Video Games Around the World">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZb5CAAAQBAJ&dq=video+gaming+in+colombia&pg=PA144|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|title=Video Games Around the World|last1=Wolf|first1=Mark J.P.|last2=Iwatni|first2=Toru|page=137|date=2015-05-15|isbn=978-0262527163}}</ref>

Sega's console sales were in decline in both the United States, Europe and Japan by the end of the 1990s, but due to a licensing agreement with [[Tectoy]] in Brazil, as well as the country's strict import taxes, Sega remained a big player in the country. Brazil is one of the world's largest video game markets, and by developing games and game systems locally through Tectoy, Sega managed to dominate the local console market. As of 2015, Tectoy still releases new cheap or portable versions of the [[Master System]] and [[Sega Genesis]] in the country, while companies such as [[Sony]] and [[Microsoft]] have difficulty retailing their modern hardware.<ref name="Sega in Brazil">{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/brazil-is-a-video-game-alternate-universe-where-sega-beat-nintendo|work=[[Atlas Obscura]]|title=Brazil is an Alternate Video Game Universe Where Sega Beat Nintendo|last=Smith|first=Ernie|date=2015-07-25}}</ref>

==2000s==
{{Main|2000s in video games}}
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2007}}
The 2000s (decade) showed innovation on both consoles and PCs, and an increasingly competitive market for portable game systems. The impact of wider availability of the Internet led to new gameplay changes, changes in gaming hardware and the introduction of online services for consoles.

The phenomenon of user-created [[Mod (video games)|video game modifications]] (commonly referred to as "mods") for games, one trend that began during the ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' and ''[[Doom (1993 video game)|Doom]]''-era, continued into the start of the 21st century. The most famous example is that of ''[[Counter-Strike (video game)|Counter-Strike]]''; released in 1999, it is still one of the most popular online first-person shooters, even though it was created as a mod for ''[[Half-Life (video game)|Half-Life]]'' by two independent programmers. Eventually, game designers realized the potential of mods and custom content in general to enhance the value of their games, and so began to encourage its creation. Some examples of this include ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'', which allowed players to import 3dsmax scenes to use as character models, and [[Maxis]]' ''[[The Sims]]'', for which players could create custom objects.

In China, video game consoles were banned in June 2000. This has led to an explosion in the popularity of computer games, especially MMOs.
Consoles and the games for them are easily acquired however, as there is a robust grey market importing and distributing them across the country. Another side effect of this law has been increased copyright infringement of video games.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/gaming/gaming-news/lenovos-kinect-clone-evades-chinese-ban-on-video-game-consoles/article4104133/ |title=Lenovo's Kinect-clone evades Chinese ban on video-game consoles |author=Leslie Hook |date=June 18, 2012 |access-date=August 20, 2012 |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608053047/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/gaming/gaming-news/lenovos-kinect-clone-evades-chinese-ban-on-video-game-consoles/article4104133/ |archive-date=June 8, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/features/9263-Console-Revolution |title=Console Revolution |author=Luke Ume |date=December 15, 2011 |access-date=August 20, 2012 |work=The Escapist |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512170149/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/features/9263-Console-Revolution |archive-date=May 12, 2012 }}</ref>

===The changing home console landscape===
{{Main|Sixth generation of video game consoles|Seventh generation of video game consoles}}
Sony's dominance of the console market at the start of the 2000s caused a major shift in the market. Sega attempted one more foray into console hardware with the [[Dreamcast]] in 1998, notably the first console with a built-in Internet connection for online play. However, Sega's reputation had been tarnished from the Saturn, and with Sony having recently announced its upcoming [[PlayStation 2]], Sega left the hardware console market after the Dreamcast, though remained in the arcade game development as well as developing games for consoles. The Dreamcast's library has some groundbreaking games, notably the ''[[Shenmue (series)|Shenmue series]]'' which are regarded as a major step forward for 3D [[Open world|open-world]] gameplay<ref>{{cite web|title=Top 5 Underappreciated Innovators: Five genre-defining games that didn't get their due|author=Scott Sharkey|website=[[1UP.com]]|url=http://www.1up.com/features/top-5-underappreciated-innovators|access-date=April 1, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018143104/http://www.1up.com/features/top-5-underappreciated-innovators|archive-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref> and has introduced the [[quick time event]] mechanic in its modern form.<ref>Adam LaMosca, [http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/columns/waypoints/1310-On-Screen-Help-In-Game-Hindrance On-Screen Help, In-Game Hindrance] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201191746/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/columns/waypoints/1310-On-Screen-Help-In-Game-Hindrance |date=February 1, 2014 }}, ''[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]]''</ref>

[[File:Xbox-console.jpg|thumb|The [[Xbox (console)|Xbox]], Microsoft's entry into the video game console industry]]
Sony released the PlayStation 2 (PS2) in 2000, the first console to support the new [[DVD]] format and with capabilities of playing back DVD movie disks and CD audio disks, as well as playing PlayStation games in a [[backward compatible]] mode alongside PS2 games. Nintendo followed the Nintendo 64 with the [[GameCube]] in 2001, its first console to use optical discs, though specially formatted for the system. However, a new player entered the console picture at this point, [[Microsoft]] with its first [[Xbox (console)|Xbox]] console, also released in 2001. Microsoft had feared that Sony's PS2 would become a central point of electronic entertainment in the living room and squeeze out the PC in the home, and after having recently developing the [[DirectX]] set of libraries to standardize game hardware interfaces for Windows-based computers, used this same approach to create the Xbox.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://venturebeat.com/2011/11/14/making-of-the-xbox-1/ |title=The making of the Xbox: How Microsoft unleashed a video game revolution (part 1) |date=November 14, 2011 |website=VentureBeat |access-date=June 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601215722/https://venturebeat.com/2011/11/14/making-of-the-xbox-1/ |archive-date=June 1, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The PS2 remained the leading platform for the first part of the decade, and remains the best-selling home console of all time with over 155 million units sold. This was in part due to a number of critical games released on the system, including ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', ''[[Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty]]'', and ''[[Final Fantasy X]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.theguardian.com/games/2020/mar/04/sony-playstation-2-at-20-console-future-of-gaming | title = PlayStation 2 at 20: the console that revealed the future of gaming | first = Keith | last = Stuart | date = March 4, 2020 | access-date = March 15, 2021 | work = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref> The Xbox was able to gain second-place to the PS2 sales, but at a significant lost to Microsoft. However, to Microsoft, the loss was acceptable, as it proved to them they could compete in the console space. The Xbox also introduced Microsoft's flagship title, ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'', which relied on the Xbox's built-in Ethernet functionality to support online gameplay.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2005/09/26/forbes-xbox-lost-microsoft-4-billion-and-counting/ |title=Forbes: Xbox lost Microsoft $4 billion (and counting) |access-date=July 18, 2007 |author=Cole, Vladimir |date=September 26, 2005 |publisher=Joystiq |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807195611/http://www.joystiq.com/2005/09/26/forbes-xbox-lost-microsoft-4-billion-and-counting/ |archive-date=August 7, 2007 }}</ref>

[[File:Wii-console.jpg|thumb|right|The Nintendo Wii]]

By the mid-2000s, only Sony, Nintendo, and Microsoft were considered major players in the console hardware space. All three introduced their next generation of hardware between 2005 and 2006, starting with Microsoft's [[Xbox 360]] in 2005 and Sony's [[PlayStation 3]] (PS3) in 2006, followed by Nintendo's [[Wii]] later that year. The Xbox 360 and PS3 showed a convergence with personal computer hardware: both consoles shipped with support for high-definition graphics, higher-density optical media like [[Blu-ray]]s, internal hard drives for storage of games, and had built-in Internet connectivity. Microsoft and Sony also had developed online digital services, [[Xbox Live]] and [[PlayStation Network]] that helped players connect to friends online, matchmake for online games, and purchase new games and content from online stores. In contrast, the Wii was designed as part of a new [[Blue Ocean Strategy|blue ocean strategy]] by Nintendo after poor sales of the GameCube. Instead of trying to compete feature for feature with Microsoft and Sony, Nintendo designed the Wii to be a console for innovative gameplay rather than high performance, and created the [[Wii Remote]], a [[motion detection]]-based controller. Gameplay designed around the Wii Remote provided instant hits, such as ''[[Wii Sports]]'', ''[[Wii Sports Resort]]'', and ''[[Wii Fit]]'', and the Wii became one of the fastest selling consoles in its few years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2009/06/12/nintendo-wii-sets-record-as-fastest-selling-console-in-the-us/ |title=Wii becomes fastest selling console in the United States |author=Melanson, Donald |date=June 12, 2009 |access-date=September 29, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814005736/http://www.engadget.com/2009/06/12/nintendo-wii-sets-record-as-fastest-selling-console-in-the-us/ |archive-date=August 14, 2009 }}</ref> The success of the Wii's motion controls partially led to Microsoft and Sony to develop their own motion-sensing control systems, the [[Kinect]] and the [[PlayStation Move]].

A major fad in the 2000s was the rapid rise and fall of [[rhythm game]]s which use special game controllers shaped like musical instruments such as guitars and drums to match notes while playing licensed songs. ''[[Guitar Hero (video game)|Guitar Hero]]'', based on the arcade game ''[[Guitar Freaks]]'', was developed by [[Harmonix]] and published by [[Red Octane]] in 2005 on the PS2, and was a modest success. Activision acquired Red Octane and gained the publishing rights to the series, while Harmonix was purchased by [[Viacom (2005–2019)|Viacom]], where they launched ''[[Rock Band]]'', a similar series but adding in drums and vocals atop guitars. Rhythm games because a highly-popular property second only to action games, representing 18% of the video game market in 2008, and drew other publishers to the area as well.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-18/new-rock-band-game-said-to-be-developed-for-latest-consoles | title = New Rock Band Game Said to Be Developed for Latest Consoles | first = Danielle | last = Burger | publisher = [[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] | date = February 19, 2015 | access-date = February 19, 2015 }}</ref> While Harmonix approached the series by adding new songs as downloadable content, Activision focused on releasing new games year after year in the ''Guitar Hero'' series; by 2009, they had six different ''Guitar Hero''-related games planned for the year. The saturation of the market, in addition to the fad of these instrument controllers, quickly caused the {{USD|1.4 billion|long=no}} market in 2008 to fall by 50% in 2009.<ref name="market size">{{cite news|last=Bruno|first=Antony|date=December 18, 2009|title=Sales Of Music Video Games Plummet In 2009|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-2009-games-idUSTRE5BH5DS20091218|url-status=live|access-date=December 20, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322012948/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-2009-games-idUSTRE5BH5DS20091218|archive-date=March 22, 2016}}</ref> By 2011, Activision had stopped publishing ''Guitar Hero'' games (though returned one time in 2015 with ''[[Guitar Hero Live]]''), while Harmonix has continued to develop ''Rock Back'' after a hiatus between 2013 and 2015.

[[File:Nintendo-DS-Fat-Blue.png|thumb|right|The [[Nintendo DS]]]]
Nintendo still dominated the handheld games market during this period. The [[Game Boy Advance]], released in 2001, maintained Nintendo's market position with a high-resolution, full-color LCD screen and 32-bit processor allowing ports of SNES games and simpler companions to N64 and GameCube games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nintendo.com/techspecgba|title=Game Boy: Technical Specs|website=Nintendo|archive-date=October 3, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051003203011/http://www.nintendo.com/techspecgba|access-date=July 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The next two major handhelds, the [[Nintendo DS]] and Sony's [[PlayStation Portable]] (PSP) within a month of each other in 2004. While the PSP boasted superior graphics and power, following a trend established since the mid-1980s, Nintendo gambled on a lower-power design but featuring a novel control interface. The DS's two screens, with one being a touch-sensitive screen, proved extremely popular with consumers, especially young children and middle-aged gamers, who were drawn to the device by Nintendo's ''[[Nintendogs]]'' and ''[[Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day!|Brain Age]]'' series respectively, as well as introducing localized Japanese [[visual novel]]-type games such as the ''[[Ace Attorney]]'' and ''[[Professor Layton]]'' series to the Western regions. The PSP attracted a significant portion of veteran gamers in North America and was very popular in Japan; its ad-hoc networking capabilities worked well within the urban Japanese setting, which directly contributed to spurring the popularity of Capcom's ''[[Monster Hunter]]'' series.<ref name="pcgamer history">{{cite web | url = http://www.pcgamer.com/how-monster-hunter-rose-from-niche-import-to-an-international-sensation/ | title = How Monster Hunter rose from niche import to an international sensation | first = James | last = Miekle | date = January 30, 2018 | access-date = January 30, 2018 | work = [[PC Gamer]] }}</ref>

===MMOs, esports, and online services===
[[File:The International 2016 picture.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The International 2016]]'', an [[esports]] event]]
{{Main|History of online games}}
As affordable broadband Internet connectivity spread, many publishers turned to online games as a way of innovating. [[Massively multiplayer online role-playing game]]s (MMORPGs) featured significant PC games like ''[[RuneScape]]'', ''[[EverQuest]]'', and ''[[Ultima Online]]'', with ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' as one of the most successful.<ref name="bartle muds to mmos">{{cite book | last= Bartle | first = Richard A. | chapter = From MUDs to MMORPGs: The History of Virtual Worlds | editor-last = Hunsinger | editor-first = Jeremy | editor-last2 = Klastrup | editor-first2= Lisbeth | editor-last3 = Allen | editor-first3= Matthew | title = International Handbook of Internet Research | publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1402097881 }}</ref> Other large-scale massively-multiplayer online games also were released, such as ''[[Second Life]]'' which focused mostly on social interactions with virtual player [[Avatar (computing)|avatars]] and user creations, rather than any gameplay elements.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harris|first1=H.|last2=Bailenson|first2=J.N.|last3=Nielsen|first3=A.|last4=Yee|first4=N.|s2cid=1339472|title=The evolution of social behavior over time in second life|journal=Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments|date=2009|volume=18|issue=6|pages=434–448|doi=10.1162/pres.18.6.434|citeseerx=10.1.1.363.6225}}</ref>

Historically, console-based MMORPGs have been few due to the lack of bundled Internet connectivity options for the platforms. This made it hard to establish a large enough subscription community to justify the development costs. The first significant console MMORPGs were ''[[Phantasy Star Online]]'' on the Sega [[Dreamcast]] (which had a built in modem and aftermarket Ethernet adapter), followed by ''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' for the Sony [[PlayStation 2]] (an aftermarket Ethernet adapter was shipped to support this game).<ref name="bartle muds to mmos"/> Every major platform released since the Dreamcast has either been bundled with the ability to support an Internet connection or has had the option available as an aftermarket add-on. Microsoft's Xbox also had its own online service called [[Xbox Live]]. Xbox Live was a huge success and proved to be a driving force for the Xbox with games like ''[[Halo 2]]'' that were highly popular.

The first major [[esports]] (electronic sports) competitions also began in the 2000s. While ''Street Fighter II'' and other fighting games of the 1990s had introduced organized video game competitions earlier, professional esports emerged from [[South Korea]] around 2000, with many of their events around current fighting games and various RTS games like ''[[StarCraft]]'' and ''[[WarCraft III]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Korea's Online Gaming Empire |first=Dal Yong |last=Jin |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/06/11/BUG8SQC59E1.DTL |title=League beginning for video gamers |publisher=Sfgate.com |date=June 11, 2007 |access-date=June 4, 2012 |first=Ryan |last=Kim}}</ref> By 2010, numerous international esports tournaments had been established across various game genres.<ref name="FieldOfStreams">{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/9/30/4719766/twitch-raises-20-million-esports-market-booming |title=Field of Streams: How Twitch Made Video Games a Spectator Sport |work=The Verge |author=Ben Popper |date=September 30, 2013 |access-date=October 9, 2013}}</ref>

===Browser, casual, and social games===
[[File:QWOP screenshot.jpg|thumb|right|''[[QWOP]]'', a [[browser game]]]]
{{see also|Browser game|Casual game|Social network game}}
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Internet accessibility and new online technologies flourished, such as [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Adobe Flash]]. Though Adobe Flash was initially intended to be a tool to develop fully interactive websites, Flash lost favor in this area but individual developers found ways to use the tool for animations and games, aided by the ease of the development tools for this purpose. The website [[Newgrounds]] was created to help people share and promote their Flash works. Though these [[browser game|Flash games]] lack the complexity of gameplay of games on consoles or computers, they were available for free and sparked creative ideas that would carry forward; for example, ''[[Crush the Castle]]'' directly inspired the popular mobile game ''[[Angry Birds]]'', while the founder of Newgrounds, Tom Fulp, teamed with animator [[Dan Paladin]] to create ''[[Alien Hominid]]'' as a Flash game, which they later built upon into the more complete ''[[Castle Crashers]]'' under the studio [[The Behemoth]].<ref name="gi flash games">{{cite magazine|last=Reeves|first=Ben|date=December 22, 2018|title=How Flash Games Changed Video Game History|url=https://www.gameinformer.com/2018/12/22/how-flash-games-changed-video-game-history|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921205129/https://www.gameinformer.com/2018/12/22/how-flash-games-changed-video-game-history|archive-date=September 21, 2021|access-date=March 15, 2021|magazine=[[Game Informer]]}}</ref>

Flash and other in-browser platforms created a new trend in [[casual game]]s, with limited complexity and designed for shortened or impromptu play sessions.<ref name="gi flash games"/> Many were puzzle games, such as [[Beverage can|Popcap's]] ''[[Bejeweled (video game)|Bejeweled]]'' and [[PlayFirst]]'s ''[[Diner Dash]]'' while others were games with a more relaxed pace and open-ended play. Sites like [[Kongregate]] and developers like PopCap, [[Zynga]] and [[King (company)|King]] emerged as leaders in this area.<ref name="gi flash games"/> Casual games also entered into more mainstream computer games with numerous [[simulation games]]. The biggest hit was ''[[The Sims]]'' by [[Maxis]], which went on to become the best selling computer game of all time, surpassing ''Myst''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/strategy/simslivinlarge/news_2857556.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119043947/http://www.gamespot.com/pc/strategy/simslivinlarge/news_2857556.html |archive-date=January 19, 2010 |title=The Sims overtakes Myst |access-date=March 15, 2008 |author=Walker, Trey |date=March 22, 2002 |work=[[GameSpot]] |publisher=[[CNET]] |url-status=dead  }}</ref>

As [[social media]] sites started to grow, the first [[social network game]]s emerged on social platforms. These games, often based on casual game mechanics, typically rely on users to interact with their friends via the social media site as to gain a form of "energy" to continue to play. ''[[Happy Farm]]'', released in China in 2008, is considered the first such major social game.<ref name="wired_influential14">{{cite magazine|last=Kohler |first=Chris |title=14. Happy Farm (2008) |url=https://www.wired.com/gamelife/2009/12/the-15-most-influential-games-of-the-decade/2/ |department=The 15 Most Influential Games of the Decade |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=September 10, 2011 |date=December 24, 2009 |page=2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002143503/http://www.wired.com/gamelife/2009/12/the-15-most-influential-games-of-the-decade/2 |archive-date=October 2, 2011 }}</ref> Influenced by the [[History of Eastern role-playing video games|Japanese console RPG]] series ''[[Story of Seasons (series)|Story of Seasons]]'',<ref name="techgearx1" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Nutt |first=Christian |title=GDC China: Chinese Indie Game Trends and Opportunities |url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/game-platforms/gdc-china-chinese-indie-game-trends-and-opportunities |website=[[Gamasutra]] |access-date=September 10, 2011 |date=October 11, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019055602/http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=25601 |archive-date=October 19, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="wired_farm" /> ''Happy Farm'' attracted 23 million daily active users in China.<ref name="dayoo">{{cite web|url=http://game.dayoo.com/200911/20/68602_100420554.htm |title=外媒關注開心農場：中國擁有最多「在線農民」&nbsp;– 大洋新聞 |publisher=Game. dayoo.com |access-date=May 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101013063300/http://game.dayoo.com/200911/20/68602_100420554.htm |archive-date=October 13, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="rww">{{cite web|url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/china_social_gaming_landscape_whats_coming_next.php |title=China's Social Gaming Landscape: What's Coming Next |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |access-date=May 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501024742/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/china_social_gaming_landscape_whats_coming_next.php |archive-date=May 1, 2010  }}</ref> It soon inspired many clones such as ''Sunshine Farm'', ''Happy Farmer'', ''Happy Fishpond'', ''Happy Pig Farm'',<ref name="techgearx1">{{cite web|url=http://www.techgearx.com/china%E2%80%99s-growing-addiction-online-farming-games/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20091102084242/http://www.techgearx.com/china%E2%80%99s-growing-addiction-online-farming-games/|archive-date=November 2, 2009 |title=China's growing addiction: online farming games &#124; |publisher=Techgearx.com |date=October 29, 2009 |url-status=usurped|access-date=May 6, 2010}}</ref><ref name="venturebeat">{{cite news|author=Elliott Ng |url=https://venturebeat.com/2009/10/29/china-qq-farm-happy-farm-games/ |title=China's growing addiction: online farming games |work=VentureBeat |date=October 29, 2009 |access-date=May 6, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507012442/http://venturebeat.com/2009/10/29/china-qq-farm-happy-farm-games/ |archive-date=May 7, 2010 }}</ref> and Facebook games such as ''[[FarmVille]]'', ''[[FarmVille|Farm Town]]'', ''Country Story'', ''Barn Buddy'', ''Sunshine Ranch'', ''Happy Harvest'', ''Jungle Extreme'', and ''Farm Villain''.<ref name="wired_farm">{{cite news|last=Kohler |first=Chris |title=Farm Wars: How Facebook Games Harvest Big Bucks |url=https://www.wired.com/gamelife/2010/05/farm-wars/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=September 12, 2011 |date=May 19, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925061929/http://www.wired.com/gamelife/2010/05/farm-wars |archive-date=September 25, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Facebook》到開心農場歡呼收割 |url=http://life.chinatimes.com/2009Cti/Channel/Life/life-article/0,5047,100304+112009090100272,00.html |work=[[China Times]] |access-date=September 12, 2011 |date=September 1, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324084517/http://life.chinatimes.com/2009Cti/Channel/Life/life-article/0%2C5047%2C100304%20112009090100272%2C00.html |archive-date=March 24, 2012  }} (http%3A%2F%2Flife. chinatimes. com%2F2009Cti%2FChannel%2FLife%2Flife-article%2F0%2C5047%2C100304%2B112009090100272%2C00.html&act=url Translation])</ref> ''Happy Farm'' served as direct inspiration for ''[[FarmVille]]'', which had over 80 million active users worldwide by 2010.<ref name="wired_influential14" /><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/welcome-to-farmville-population-80-million-1906260.html | title = Welcome To Farmville: Population 80 Million | first = Tim | last = Walker | date = February 22, 2010 | access-date = August 18, 2020 | work = [[The Independent]] | archive-date = July 28, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200728232219/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/welcome-to-farmville-population-80-million-1906260.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Rise of mobile gaming===
{{see also|Mobile game}}
Separately, gaming on mobile devices had limited success until the mid-2000s. [[Nokia]] had installed ''[[Snake (1998 video game)|Snake]]'' onto its line of mobile phones since the [[Nokia 6110]] in 1997.<ref name="Snake">{{cite web |url=http://www.webpronews.com/snake-phone-game-15-2012-02 |website=www.webpronews.com|title=Snake, Classic Phone Game, Turns 15 |last=Walton |first=Zach |date=February 3, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004133717/http://www.webpronews.com/snake-phone-game-15-2012-02/ |archive-date=October 4, 2015 |access-date=August 22, 2015 }}</ref> Similar manufacturers of phones, [[personal digital assistants]] and other devices also included built-in games, but these were designed to pass the time and not as engaging. As phone technology improved, a [[Japanese mobile phone culture]] grew around 2003 with games ranging from [[Puzzle video game|puzzle game]]s and [[Digital pet|virtual pet]] games that use [[camera phone]] and [[Fingerprint recognition|fingerprint scanner]] technologies to [[3D computer graphics|3D]] games with [[PlayStation (console)|PlayStation]]-quality graphics. Older [[Arcade game|arcade-style games]] became very popular on mobile phones, which were an ideal platform for arcade-style games designed for shorter play sessions. Namco made attempts to introduce mobile games to Europe in 2003.<ref name="bbc_mobile">{{cite news|last=Hermida |first=Alfred |title=Japan leads mobile game craze |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3186345.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=September 22, 2011 |date=August 28, 2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202013316/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3186345.stm |archive-date=December 2, 2011 }}</ref> Nokia released its [[N-Gage (device)|N-Gage]], a hybrid phone/handheld game system, in 2003 but had limited success compared to Nintendo's [[Game Boy Advance]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2146487/nokia-holds-fire-mobile-gaming |title=Nokia holds fire on mobile gaming |access-date=January 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112091157/http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2146487/nokia-holds-fire-mobile-gaming |archive-date=January 12, 2008 | first = Iain | last = Thomson | date = November 23, 2005 }}</ref>

Around 2005, the first [[smartphone]]s were available on the market, which offered data connectivity alongside phone services. Carriers licensed games to be made available for sale on a storefront, but this did not catch on due to the disparate storefronts and differences between phone models, and the games could not be as sophisticated as on consoles or handhelds due to limited hardware on the smartphones.<ref name="mayra history">{{cite book | chapter = Mobile Games | first = Frans | last =  Mäyrä | title = The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society | editor-first1 = Robin | editor-last1 = Mansell | editor-first2= Peng Hwa | editor-last2= Ang  | publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] | date = 2015 | doi = 10.1002/9781118290743.wbiedcs014 | doi-broken-date = July 12, 2025 }}</ref> In 2007, [[Apple, Inc.]] introduced its [[iPhone]] which was technologically more advanced than other smartphones on the market, and unveiled its [[App Store (iOS)|App Store]] in 2008 through which new apps could be purchased. With the App Store, developers, once signed up as a partner, could then develop and publish their own apps through the store. This allowed developers of any size to participate in the App Store marketplace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gameacademy.com/the-indie-revolution/ |title=The Indie Revolution: How little games are making big money |date=October 9, 2013 |access-date=January 7, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103021523/https://www.gameacademy.com/the-indie-revolution/ |archive-date=January 3, 2015 }}</ref> Google, which developed the competing [[Android (operating system)|Android]] mobile operating system, released its own version of an app store in 2008, later named as [[Google Play]] in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |first=Joshua |last=Topolsky |title=Hello, Google Play: Google launches sweeping revamp of app, book, music, and video stores |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/3/6/2848223/google-play-store-rebranded-android-market |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 6, 2012 |access-date=February 23, 2017}}</ref>

The use of Apple's and Google's app storefronts for gaming applications quickly took off with early successes like ''[[Angry Birds (video game)|Angry Birds]]'' and ''[[Bejeweled (video game)|Bejeweled]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliverchiang/2010/12/29/10-years-of-popcap-games-beyond-bejeweled/ | title = 10 Years Of PopCap Games: Beyond Bejeweled | first = Oliver | last =Chiang | date = December 29, 2010 | access-date = August 19, 2020 | work = [[Forbes (magazine)|Forbes]] }}</ref><ref name="telecompol iphone">{{cite journal | title = Browsing as the killer app: Explaining the rapid success of Apple's iPhone | first1 = Joel | last1 =West | first2=Michael | last2 = Mace | journal = Telecommunications Policy | volume =34 | pages = 270–286 | year=2010 | issue = 5–6 | doi = 10.1016/j.telpol.2009.12.002 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.493.5940 }}</ref> When Apple introduced in-app purchases (IAP) in October 2009, a number of developers found ways to monetize their mobile games uniquely compared to traditional games, establishing the [[freemium]] model where a game is usually free to download and play but players are encouraged to speed up their progress through IAPs. Games like ''[[Candy Crush Saga]]'' and ''[[Puzzle & Dragons]]'', both in 2012, established this approach as highly-profitable business models for mobile games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/king-com-dumps-advertising-on-its-games/540214 |title=King.com Dumps Advertising on its Games |first=Brandy |last=Shaul |date=June 11, 2013 |access-date=December 14, 2016 |work=[[Adweek]]}}</ref> Many of the social network game developers worked to either integrate a mobile version with their existing version, or completely shift their game to the mobile platform, as mobile gaming became more popular.  A further rise in the popularity of mobile games was from China, where most residents do not own computers and where imported consoles were banned by the government starting in 2000, though eventually eased in 2014 and completely lifted in 2015.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-gamesconsoles/china-suspends-ban-on-video-game-consoles-after-more-than-a-decade-idUSBREA0606C20140107 | title = China suspends ban on video game consoles after more than a decade| last1 = Carsten| first1 =Paul | date = January 6, 2014 | access-date = March 22, 2021 | publisher = [[Reuters]] }}</ref> Instead, most players in China used mobile phones or accessed subscription-based games through [[PC bang|PC cafe]]s. Mobile games also proved popular and financially-successful there as well, with a ten-fold growth of China's video game market between 2007 and 2013.<ref>{{cite book | title = Mobile Gaming in Asia | editor-first1 = D.Y. | editor-last = Jin | date = 2017 | doi = 10.1007/978-94-024-0826-3_6 | publisher = [[Springer Nature|Springer]] | chapter = The Impact of the Rise of Mobile Games on the Creativity and Structure of the Games Industry in China | first = Anthony | last = Fung  | series = Mobile Communication in Asia: Local Insights, Global Implications | pages = 91–103 | isbn = 978-94-024-0824-9 }}</ref><ref name="vgmarket" />

Coupled with the growth of mobile games was the introduction of [[microconsole]]s, low-cost home consoles that used the Android operating system as to take advantage of the large library of games already made for mobile devices.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://fortune.com/2014/10/16/android-tv-video-games-google/ | title = How Android TV is a (video) game changer | first=  John | last = Gaudiosi | date = October 16, 2014 | access-date = June 21, 2021 | work = [[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] }}</ref> However, mobile gaming also displaced the handheld console market: both the [[Nintendo 3DS]] and the [[PlayStation Vita]] (both 2011 releases) had major drops in sales from their predecessors, the [[Nintendo DS]] and [[PlayStation Portable]] respectively (both 2004 releases), following the rapid growth of mobile gaming. Sony has since exited the handheld console arena.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.theverge.com/2021/6/24/22545198/playstation-vita-10-year-anniversary-sony-handheld | title = 'The Little Handheld That Could': Examining The Vita's Impact A Decade Later | first=  George | last= Yang | date = June 24, 2021 | access-date = June 24, 2021 | work = [[The Verge]] }}</ref>

Since 2007, the fast growing mobile market in African countries such as [[Video games in Nigeria|Nigeria]] and [[Video games in Kenya|Kenya]] has also resulted in a growth in mobile game development. Local developers have taken advantage of the recent increase in mobile internet connection in countries where [[broadband]] is rarely available and console games are costly, though locally developed applications have difficulty competing against millions of western applications available on the [[Google Play Store]]<ref name="Aljazeera">{{cite web|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/28/nigeria-gaming.html |title=Video game culture takes hold across Nigeria |publisher=Aljazeera America |last=Vourlias |first=Christopher |date=December 28, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010082432/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/28/nigeria-gaming.html |archive-date=October 10, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="The Guardian Africa">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/sep/26/african-videogames-nigeria|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|title=African videogames level up|last=Mark|first=Monica|date=September 26, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Polygon">{{cite web|url=http://www.polygon.com/features/2013/7/3/4483276/kenya-games-industry|title=Big Game: The Birth of Kenya's Game Industry|website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|last=Moss|first=Richard|date=July 3, 2013}}</ref>

===The AAA video game industry and the emergence of indie games===
{{see also|AAA (video game industry)|Indie game}}[[File:Fez (video game) cover art.png|upright|thumb|right|''[[Fez (video game)|Fez]]'', one of the early successful indie games]]
Entering the 2000s, video game production experienced a sharp increase in development budgets,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/a/final-fantasy-7|title=Final Fantasy 7: An oral history|website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=January 9, 2017|access-date=February 2, 2018}}</ref> as studios began treating projects with financial and creative ambitions comparable to [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] filmmaking.<ref name=":0" /> Titles such as ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' and ''[[Shenmue (video game)|Shenmue]]'' reached estimated budgets of $40–45 million and $47–70 million respectively, excluding marketing,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/may/02/shenmue-sega-classic-14-years-too-late |title=Shenmue – discovering the Sega classic 14 years too late |last=Diver |first=Mike |date=May 2, 2015 |website=The Guardian |access-date=June 30, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626163813/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/may/02/shenmue-sega-classic-14-years-too-late |archive-date=June 26, 2015 }}</ref> prompting large developers to allocate funds not only for core development, distribution, and marketing but also for in-game cinematography, professional voice acting, licensed properties, and extensive promotional campaigns.<ref name=":0">{{cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/22/business/news-and-analysis-video-game-makers-go-hollywood-uh-oh.html | title = Video Game Makers Go Hollywood. Uh-Oh. | first = Evelyn | last = Nussenbaum | date = August 22, 2004 | access-date = March 20, 2021 | work = [[The New York Times]] }}</ref> This expansion in production scope led to the classification of high-budget releases and their creators as “AAA” or “triple-A,” a term that emerged by the late 1990s and early 2000s to describe [[Blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]]-scale games.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Demaria |first1=Rusel |last2=Wilson |first2=John |title=High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games |date=2002 |edition=1st |publisher=McGraw-Hill Osborne Media |isbn=0-07-222428-2}}</ref> Technological advancements and these larger budgets enabled the rise of narrative-driven design that integrated storytelling directly into gameplay, eliminating reliance on pre-rendered cutscenes and fostering cinematic presentation within the game engine.<ref name="gamasutra gameplay narrative">{{cite web | url = https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/the-uneasy-merging-of-narrative-and-gameplay | title = The Uneasy Merging of Narrative and Gameplay | first = Ara | last=  Shirinian | date = January 26, 2010 | access-date = March 20, 2021 | work = [[Gamasutra]] }}</ref> The emphasis on narrative mechanics contributed to the decline of the adventure game genre during this period,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2011/01/history-of-graphic-adventures/ |title=A truly graphic adventure: the 25-year rise and fall of a beloved genre |date=January 26, 2011 |access-date=November 10, 2015 |first=Richard |last=Moss |work=[[Ars Technica]] |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102012924/http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2011/01/history-of-graphic-adventures/ |archive-date=November 2, 2015 }}</ref> as exemplified by influential releases such as ''[[Half-Life 2]]'', ''[[Portal (video game)|Portal]]'', ''[[Batman: Arkham Asylum]]'', ''[[BioShock]]'',<ref name="gamasutra gameplay narrative" /> and the first installments of ''[[Call of Duty]]'' and ''[[Assassin's Creed|Assassin’s Creed]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last= Parker | first =  Felan | title= Canonizing BioShock: cultural value and the prestige game | journal = [[Games and Culture]] | volume = 12 | issue= 7–8 | year = 2017 | pages = 739–763 | doi =  10.1177/1555412015598669 | s2cid = 148319261 }}</ref>

Independent game development, which originated with hobbyist and homebrew projects on early home computers in the late 1970s and 1980s and evolved into shareware distribution in the 1990s, faced diminished visibility with the rise of 3D gaming and the dominance of console-based AAA titles that made publishers increasingly averse to experimental or unconventional projects.<ref name="pcgamer indie" /> In the late 2000s and 2010s, indie games gained substantial market presence as developers and audiences sought innovation beyond the standardized formulas of large-budget productions.<ref name="pcgamer indie"/> The Flash game boom of the mid-2000s brought media attention to small teams and individual creators,<ref name="gi flash games"/><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.vice.com/en/article/tracing-the-sprawling-roots-of-flash-preservation/ | title = Tracing the Sprawling Roots of Flash Preservation | first= Khee Hoon | last=  Chan | date = March 18, 2021| access-date = March 18, 2021 |work = [[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] }}</ref> while the concurrent expansion of mobile gaming provided independent studios with access to app store platforms.<ref name="gi flash games"/><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.polygon.com/2018/9/28/17911372/there-are-too-many-video-games-what-now-indiepocalypse | title = There are too many video games. What now? | first = Steven | last = Wright | date = September 28, 2018 | access-date = October 15, 2019 | work = [[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] }}</ref> [[Crowdfunding]] through services like [[Kickstarter]] offered an alternative funding model beginning in the late 2000s, growing rapidly into the mid-2010s,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://variety.com/2019/gaming/columns/the-changing-face-of-video-game-crowdfunding-1203165542/ | title = The Changing Face of Video Game Crowdfunding | first = Michael | last=  Futter | date = March 18, 2019 | access-date = March 18, 2021 | work = [[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] }}</ref> and early access distribution became viable after the success of ''[[Minecraft]]'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/33961/Minecraft_Draws_Over_33_Million_In_Revenue_From_18M_Paying_Customers.php | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110408063046/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/33961/Minecraft_Draws_Over_33_Million_In_Revenue_From_18M_Paying_Customers.php | url-status = dead | archive-date = April 8, 2011 |title= Minecraft Draws Over $33 Million In Revenue From 1.8M Paying Customers |publisher= [[Gamasutra]] |date= April 6, 2011 |access-date= October 16, 2013 |first= Kyle |last= Orland }}</ref> [[Valve Corporation|Valve]]’s inclusion of indie titles on [[Steam (service)|Steam]] alongside AAA games and Microsoft’s 2004 launch of Xbox Live Arcade facilitated broader digital distribution,<ref name="pcgamer indie">{{cite web | url =http://www.pcgamer.com/from-shareware-superstars-to-the-steam-gold-rush-how-indie-conquered-the-pc/ | title = From shareware superstars to the Steam gold rush: How indie conquered the PC | first = Richard | last = Cobbett | date = September 22, 2017 | access-date = September 25, 2017 | work = [[PC Gamer]] }}</ref> with Sony and Nintendo adopting comparable programs in the early 2010s.<ref name="indies on consoles">{{cite web | url = https://www.gamedeveloper.com/game-platforms/how-indies-made-an-impact-on-a-generation-of-game-consoles | title = How indies made an impact on a generation of game consoles | first = Mike | last = Rose | date = November 19, 2013 | access-date = August 26, 2020 | work = [[Gamasutra]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/magazine/15videogames-t.html?pagewanted=all | title = Can D.I.Y. Supplant the First-Person Shooter? | work = [[The New York Times]] | first = Joshuah | last = Bearman | date = November 15, 2009 | access-date = September 23, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906121102/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/magazine/15videogames-t.html?pagewanted=all | archive-date = September 6, 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> The era produced critically acclaimed and commercially visible indie releases such as ''[[Super Meat Boy]]'', ''[[Fez (video game)|Fez]]'', and ''[[Braid (video game)|Braid]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=94025221 |title=Xbox's 'Braid' A Surprise Hit, For Surprising Reasons |first=Heather |last=Chaplin |date=August 27, 2008 |work=NPR |access-date=February 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://kotaku.com/5724989/why-minecraft-is-so-damn-popular |title=Why Minecraft Is So Damn Popular |work=[[Kotaku]] |first=Luke |last=Plunkett |date=January 4, 2011 |access-date=February 4, 2011}}</ref>

==2010s==
{{Main|2010s in video games}}
In the 2010s, the traditional model of racing to a five-year console life cycle was reduced.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2010/feb/26/games-microsoft |title=Natal vs Sony Motion Controller: is the console cycle over? |author=Stuart, K. |access-date=May 13, 2010 |location=London |work=The Guardian |date=February 26, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105231735/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2010/feb/26/games-microsoft |archive-date=November 5, 2013 }}</ref> Reasons included the challenge and massive expense of creating consoles that were graphically superior to the then-current generation, with Sony and Microsoft still looking to recoup development costs on their current consoles and the failure of content creation tools to keep up with the increased demands placed upon the people creating the games.

On June 14, 2010, during E3, Microsoft revealed its new Xbox 360 S or Slim. It is smaller and quieter, with a 250&nbsp;GB hard drive and 802.11n WiFi.<ref name="Slim Specs">{{cite web|last=Totilo |first=Stephen |title=These Are The New Xbox 360 Specs |url=http://kotaku.com/5563225/new-xbox-360-specs |website=Kotaku |date=June 14, 2010 |access-date=May 22, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629044058/http://kotaku.com/5563225/new-xbox-360-specs |archive-date=June 29, 2011 }}</ref> It started shipping to US stores the same day, and in Europe on July 13.

The [[OnLive]] cloud-based gaming system is one of the first cloud gaming services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mangalindan|first=J. P.|date=October 15, 2020|title=Cloud gaming's history of false starts and promising reboots|url=https://www.polygon.com/features/2020/10/15/21499273/cloud-gaming-history-onlive-stadia-google|access-date=November 1, 2020|website=Polygon|language=en}}</ref>

===High-definition graphics in video game hardware===
{{Main|Eighth generation of video game consoles}}
Cathode ray tube-based display units had begun to phase out in the 2000s, replaced by inexpensive [[flat-panel display|flat-screen]] televisions and monitors which had far higher screen resolution and refresh rates. Video game hardware began introducing support for the new [[HDMI|High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)]] standard, allowing for resolutions up to [[4K resolution|4K]] (3840 × 2160 pixels), which itself stressed the need for more powerful GPU cards with faster processors and larger memory. Game engines such as Unreal, Unity, and DirectX have added support for improved texture mapping to support high-resolution textures to give photorealistic graphics in games.

[[File:Xbox-One-Kinect.jpg|thumb|right|The Xbox [[Kinect]]]]

Microsoft and Sony both released their next console generations, the [[Xbox One]] and [[PlayStation 4]], in 2013. Both expanded on features from their previous consoles with the added support for high-resolution graphics, and more support for digital distribution of content with additional storage space. The Xbox One had an initial flubbed launch, as Microsoft wanted to require users to be always connected to the Internet, along with persistent use of the Kinect motion sensor, which in turn would have given certain benefits to players. However, these decisions were met with negative feedback in the months prior to release over their privacy concerns, and Microsoft revamped their policies. The Kinect, though initially bundled with the Xbox One, was made optional, and a year after launch, Microsoft opted to end Kinect's production for the Xbox One.

Nintendo still kept to its own path. The company decided that the Wii may have lost a portion of its core gamers and developed the [[Wii U]] to draw this group back in. The Wii U, released in 2012, included a tablet-like [[Wii U GamePad]] that included controls and a touchscreen display that acted as a second screen during gameplay, along with support for Wii Remote controllers, and included backward compatibility with Wii games. The Wii U was a commercial failure for Nintendo following the Wii; while the Wii had sold more than 100 million units, the Wii U only sold about 13 million in its lifetime. Nintendo attributed this to both the marketing of the Wii U which failed to make clear the purpose of the GamePad and which made consumers believe it was just another tablet system, and to the lack of third-party support on the console which dropped off quickly once initial console sale numbers were obtained.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twinfinite.net/2016/03/every-single-way-the-nintendo-wii-u-failed/|title=Every Single Way the Nintendo Wii U Failed|date=March 2, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://videogamesuncovered.com/features/why-the-wii-u-really-failed/|title=Why the Wii U Really Failed|first=Liam|last=Gittins|website=VGU|date=July 3, 2015 }}</ref> and marketing reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.polygon.com/2014/8/5/5970787/wii-u-nintendo-bad-name|title=The Wii U name is still hurting Nintendo|first=Ben|last=Kuchera|website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=August 5, 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Nintendo-Switch-wJoyCons-BlRd-Standing-FL.jpg|thumb|right|The Nintendo Switch]]
Nintendo had already been working on its next console once the Wii U had been released, but pushed ahead as to get another console to release sooner to financially recover from the Wii U.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mashable.com/2018/01/31/nintendo-switch-wii-u-failure-success/#KvMr7kP1Ziq3|title=Thank Nintendo's failed Wii U for the Switch's wild success|first=Peter Allen|last=Clark|website=mashable.com|date=January 31, 2018}}</ref> Again, staying with their past blue ocean strategy to focus on innovation rather than technical superiority of their competitors, Nintendo released the [[Nintendo Switch]] in 2017, one of the first hybrid consoles, with the ability to be played as a handheld device but also can be placed into a docking station connected to a television and played like a home console. The Switch uses a detachable [[Joy-Con]] which function as both regular controllers and as motion-sensing devices like the Wii Remote. Alongside the Switch, Nintendo sought out third-party support for the console from both triple-A studios and indie developers. The Switch proved to be very successful; as of 2022, it is Nintendo's best-selling home console, succeeding the Wii, and helped Nintendo regain position in the hardware market.

The handheld market began to wane in the 2010s as mobile gaming supplanted it. Nintendo continued to refine the DS line; it released the [[Nintendo 3DS]] in 2011, which included a screen with an [[autostereoscopic]] display as to create a 3D effect without the need for special glasses. Sony released the [[PlayStation Vita]] in 2012 as a successor to the PSP, which included a front touch screen and a back-facing touchpad in addition to existing control.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2011/09/13/playstation-vita-hits-japan-on-december-17.aspx |title=PlayStation Vita hit Japan on December 17 |author=Kollar, Phil |magazine=[[Game Informer]] |date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118013405/http://www.gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2011/09/13/playstation-vita-hits-japan-on-december-17.aspx |archive-date=November 18, 2011 }}</ref> The Vita failed to gain significant market share, and after Sony discontinued the product, have stated they have no plans for further handheld systems. Nintendo, on the other hand, released a modified version of the Switch, the [[Nintendo Switch Lite]], in 2019. The Switch Lite is a lower-cost version that directly integrates the Joy-Con into the unit and removes other features, as to create a device that supports handheld gameplay directly, but is otherwise fully compatible with the existing Switch library.

In personal computers, the graphics card market centered on progress made by industry leaders NVidia and [[AMD]], who also supplied GPUs for the new consoles. Starting in the late 2010s, the power of these GPU cards were being used by [[cryptocurrency]] "miners", as they were lower cost than other computing hardware for the same purposes, and created a run on GPU cards that inflated prices and card shortages over extended periods.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.cnbc.com/2018/01/22/amd-nvidia-must-do-more-to-stop-cryptominers-from-causing-shortages.html | title = AMD, Nvidia must do more to stop cryptominers from causing PC gaming card shortages, price gouging | first = Tae | last = Kim | date = January 22, 2018 | access-date = March 16, 2021 | work = [[CNBC]] }}</ref> [[Solid-state drive]]s (SSDs), which had been used for [[flash cartridge|flash card]] storage for video game consoles in the past, had advanced far enough to become consumer options for large volume storage. Compared to the traditional [[hard disk drive]] (HDD) which used electromechanical parts, SSD drives have no mechanical componentry and are capable of much higher data throughput, which made them popular options for computers designed for video games.

===Further advancements in online gaming: Cross-platform play and cloud gaming===
{{See also|Cross-platform play|Cloud gaming}}
Until the 2010s, online play for most platforms was limited to players on that same platform, though some games such as ''Final Fantasy XI'' had experimented with limited models. As new gaming consoles converged in design to personal computers and with common middleware libraries, it became technically feasible to allow for cross-platform play between different platforms, but business objectives by Microsoft, Nintendo, and Sony, looking to maintain control on their online services, initially rejected this, most notably by Sony who had stated they wanted to maintain a family-friendly environment for its online services.<ref>{{Cite web | url= https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2013/10/console-makers-making-noises-about-relaxing-multiplayer-exclusivity/ | title = Console makers making noises about relaxing multiplayer exclusivity | first=  Kyle | last = Orland | date = October 15, 2013 | access-date  = March 17, 2016 | work = [[Ars Technica]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-03-17-sonys-shuhei-yoshida-on-playstation-4-and-xbox-one-cross-network-play | title = So, will Sony actually allow PS4 and Xbox One owners to play together? | work = [[Eurogamer]] | first = Tom | last= Phillips | date = March 17, 2016 | access-date = March 17, 2016 }}</ref> [[Epic Games]]' ''[[Fortnite Battle Royale]]'' first released in 2017, proved an instrumental driver of cross-platform play. ''Fortnite'' had quickly gained popularity in its first few months of release, and Epic had been able to prove the ease with which cross-platform play could be implemented between the Xbox, Windows, and mobile platforms with its backend libraries. Nintendo followed by allowing cross-play on the Switch, and eventually, by 2018, Sony agreed to allow selected games such as ''Fortnite'' to have cross-platform play.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://kotaku.com/sony-is-finally-allowing-cross-play-on-the-ps4-1829326043 | title = Sony Is Finally Allowing Cross-Play On The PS4 | first = Luke | last=  Plunkett | date = September 26, 2018 | access-date = September 26, 2018 | work = [[Kotaku]] }}</ref> Since then, numerous games have gained or were released with cross-platform play support across consoles, computers, and mobile devices.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2020-05-13-epic-games-announces-unreal-engine-5-with-first-ps5-footage | title = Epic Games announces Unreal Engine 5 with first PS5 footage | first = Rebekah | last = Valentine | date = May 13, 2020 | access-date = May 13, 2020 | work = [[GamesIndustry.biz]] }}</ref>

The first [[cloud gaming]] services emerged in 2009. These services allowed players to play games where the processing power was performed on a computer system at a hosted location, while the game's output and player's input were sent to that system over the Internet, using the power of [[cloud computing]]. This eliminated the need for a costly console or dedicated gaming computer for players. Early services like [[OnLive]] and [[Gaikai]] showed that cloud gaming was possible but was very much tied to the player's [[Network delay|latency]], as a slow network could easily stall the game's performance.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kelly |first=Kevin |url=http://www.joystiq.com/2009/03/24/gdc09-rearden-studios-introduces-onlive-game-service-and-micro/ |title=GDC09: Rearden Studios introduces OnLive game service and 'microconsole' |publisher=Joystiq.com |access-date=March 25, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325070851/http://www.joystiq.com/2009/03/24/gdc09-rearden-studios-introduces-onlive-game-service-and-micro/ |archive-date=March 25, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slashgear.com/wow-streamed-to-ipad-makes-fans-all-excited-0384076/|title=WoW streamed to iPad gets fans excited|date=May 3, 2010|access-date=May 26, 2011}}</ref>

Cloud gaming became more refined in the 2010s as total network capacity around the world increased with higher bandwidths made available to consumers, in addition to new technologies to try to overcome the latency issue. Sony acquired both OnLive and Gaikai in the mid-2010s, and used the former as the basis for its [[PlayStation Now]] cloud gaming service, allowing players to play older PlayStation games on newer consoles. Other players in the cloud gaming arena that emerged in this period include NVidia's [[GeForce Now]], Microsoft's [[Xbox Cloud Gaming|xCloud]], Google's [[Google Stadia|Stadia]], and [[Amazon Luna]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.ft.com/content/811ed9d0-6759-4f2a-8cd1-9ce97d26a5c8 | title = Gamers prepare for cloud computing power-up | first = Patrick | last= Mulholland | date = March 8, 2021 | access-date = March 20, 2021 | work = [[Financial Times]] }}</ref>

===New revenue models for video games===
{{see also|Video game monetization}}
With game development budgets for triple-A games growing larger, developers and publishers looked for ways to gain additional revenue for games beyond the first sale of the game. Multiple factors from the prior decade including the growth of the mobile game market and the introduction of in-app purchases, subscription-based games such as MMOs, and the digital distribution market, led to new avenues for recurring revenue by treating [[games as a service]] (GaaS).<ref>{{cite journal | last= McCaffrey | first= Matthew | title = The macro problem of microtransactions: The self-regulatory challenges of video game loot boxes | journal = [[Business Horizons]] | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | date = 2019 | pages = 483–495 | doi = 10.1016/j.bushor.2019.03.001 | s2cid= 86550018 }}</ref>

Larger expansions and downloadable content had existed prior to the mid-2000s, and players had become accustomed to the subscription-based model for MMOs by that point. Microsoft enabled developers to offer [[microtransaction]]s, content sold at a small price point typically under {{USD|5|long=no}}, for their games on the Xbox 360 around 2005, with one of the most well-known examples being a horse armor package for ''[[The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion]]'' in 2006. While mostly a cosmetic item in the game, the armor pack was one of the most popular items sold in for ''Oblivion'' by 2009, and cemented the idea of microtransactions.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://kotaku.com/5143151/top-oblivion-dlc-revealed-horse-armor-surprisingly-popular | title = Top Oblivion DLC Revealed, Horse Armor Surprisingly Popular | first = Michael | last = McWhertor | date = January 30, 2009 | access-date = October 11, 2017 | work = [[Kotaku]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.pcgamer.com/horse-armor-won/ | title = Horse armor won | first = Tom | last =Senior | date = December 24, 2019 | access-date = December 24, 2019 | work = [[PC Gamer]] }}</ref><ref name="usgamer history">{{cite web | url = http://www.usgamer.net/articles/the-history-of-gaming-microtransactions-from-horse-armor-to-loot-boxes | title = The Harsh History Of Gaming Microtransactions: From Horse Armor to Loot Boxes | first = Mike | last = Williams | date = October 11, 2017 | access-date = October 11, 2017 | work = [[US Gamer]] }}</ref>

[[File:Electronic Arts Logo Blue.svg|thumb|right|[[Electronic Arts]] was criticized for their form of video game monetization]]
Games that followed ''Oblivion'' found ways to include additional microtransaction content to games to extend per-game earnings.<ref name="usgamer history"/> Publishers that produced games with online content created special online passes, such as Electronic Arts' "Project Ten Dollar", which required purchase to gain access to online features; this was also intended to stall secondary sales of games. This approach was heavily criticized by consumers and players, and abandoned by 2013. Instead publishers offered the [[season pass (video games)|season pass]] model, first appearing in games like ''[[L.A. Noire]]'' and ''[[Mortal Kombat (2011 video game)|Mortal Kombat]]''. Without a season pass, players would still have access to all fundamental features of a game including online play, but the season pass gave access to all planned expanded content for single player modes and new characters or items and cosmetics for online modes, all planned to be released typically within a year's period, typically at a discount compared to purchasing each individually. A game could thus offer repeating season passes year after year and generate revenue this way.<ref name="usgamer history"/> A related concept to the season pass is the [[battle pass]], first introduced in ''[[Dota 2]]''. Within a battle pass are a number of in-game items that a player can earn at various levels of the battle pass, but requires them to complete in-game challenges as to earn the levels within the pass. Some battle passes include a free tier of items but most incorporate a tier that requires purchase of the pass. Battle passes can be cycled like season passes, offering a fresh set of items with new challenges on a regular basis, and supply recurring revenue for a game.<ref name="usgamer history"/>

From mobile and free-to-play games, [[gacha game|''gacha'' games]] had grown popular in Japan by the early 2010s, based on the [[Gashapon|capsule toy vending machine]] concept, with the earliest known system being in ''[[MapleStory]]''. In-game, players would earn currency that they could use to earn a random draw from a set of items based on a preset rarities, often with the goal to collect all of a one set of items to gain a powerful in-game reward. While players could earn more currency through in-game actions, typically by [[grinding (video games)|grinding]], they could also can currency by spending real-world funds into the game. The ''gacha'' concept expanded out into [[loot box]]es through the Chinese game ''[[ZT Online]]'', and in Western games like ''[[FIFA 09]]'' and ''[[Team Fortress 2]]'' in the early 2010s; players would earn loot boxes through in-game actions, or which could be purchased through real-world funds, and when opened would contain a variety of items, randomly selected based on rarity. By 2016, numerous high-profile games had included loot box mechanics, but this drew attention of world governments and policy makers, fearing that loot boxes were too similar to gambling, since real-world money could be used to purchase them. Since many of these video games were being aimed at minors, some countries had passed laws banning or restricting games with loot box mechanics due to their gambling nature. Coupled with poor implementation of loot box mechanics in ''[[Star Wars Battlefront II (2017 video game)|Star Wars Battlefront II]]'' and Electronic Arts's ''FIFA'' Ultimate Team game mode, loot box mechanics began to lose favor with consumers by the end of the 2010s.<ref name="usgamer history"/>

China's impact in monetization played a key role during this period, which exceeded over 500 million players by the mid-2010s. While the console ban had been lifted, China's government still required that imported hardware be sold through Chinese companies, and requires Chinese operators to manage online games as to uphold the country's laws on censorship and gameplay limitations for minors. Chinese companies that were already publishing games within the country began to make partnerships or other arrangements with foreign firms to help bring their games and hardware into the company through the complex approvals process. Such companies include [[NetEase]] and [[Perfect World (company)|Perfect World]], but the largest mover had been [[Tencent]], which made numerous investments into foreign firms over the 2010s, which included full acquisition of [[Riot Games]] and partial ownership of [[Supercell]] and [[Epic Games]], as well as minority stake in publishers [[Ubisoft]], [[Activision Blizzard]] and [[Paradox Interactive]]. In exchange, Tencent had helped these companies refine their monetization approaches using their past experience with their own games.<ref name="uscc">{{cite report | url = https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/China%27s%20Digital%20Game%20Sector.pdf | title = China's Digital Game Sector | first1 = Matt | last1 =Snyder | date = May 17, 2018 | access-date = September 25, 2019 | publisher = [[United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission]] }}</ref>

===Mixed, virtual and augmented reality games===
[[File:Oculus-Rift-CV1-Headset-Front with transparent background.png|thumb|right|The [[Oculus Rift]] headset]]
{{see also|Virtual reality|Augmented reality}}
[[Virtual reality]] (VR) systems for video games had long been seen as a target for VR technology and had been in development as early as the 1990s, but had been hampered by their high cost and impractical for consumer sales. One of the initial attempts, Nintendo's [[Virtual Boy]] in 1996, used a monochromatic [[Stereoscopy|stereoscopic display]] to simulate 3D, but the unit was impractical and failed to gain developers, leading it to be a commercial failure for Nintendo. Breakthroughs in consumer-ready VR hardware came in the early 2010s with the development of the [[Oculus Rift]] by [[Palmer Luckey]]. The Rift was demonstrated at trade shows in 2013, and proved popular enough to lead [[Facebook]] to purchase the company and technology for {{USD|2 billion|long=no}} in 2014. Shortly afterward, Valve and [[HTC]] announced the [[HTC Vive]], first released in 2015, while Sony released its [[PlayStation VR]] in 2016. Valve later developed its own VR hardware line, the [[Valve Index]], released in 2019. While numerous VR games took advantage of VR effectively over "flat-screen" games (those lacking VR capabilities) for immersive experience, VR's "killer app" came by way of ''[[Half-Life: Alyx]]'', released by Valve in 2020. ''Half-Life: Alyx'' brought several new ideas for integrating first-person shooter gaming into a VR app, and spurred sales of the Index.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |date=March 23, 2020 |title=Review: Half-Life Alyx is VR's stunning killer app |url=https://www.videogameschronicle.com/reviews/half-life-alyx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324213220/https://www.videogameschronicle.com/reviews/half-life-alyx |archive-date=March 24, 2020 |access-date=March 24, 2020 |website=VGC}}</ref>

[[Augmented reality]] (AR) games, where the game takes a real-time video game image and renders additional graphics atop it, had also existed before the 2010s. Some PlayStation console games used the [[EyeToy]], [[PlayStation Eye]], or [[PlayStation Camera]] as part of the gameplay, as well as [[Xbox 360]] and [[Xbox One]] games using the Kinect. Most of the games were more experimental since cameras were fixed and limited what interactions could be made. As handheld consoles including the PSP and the Nintendo DS line, and mobile phones incorporated video camera capabilities, new AR possibilities opened up on portable devices. Initial games were still more experimental and toys without comprehensive gameplay loops. AR-based games took off with the release of ''[[Pokémon Go]]'' in 2016, which combined AR with [[location-based game]]s. Players would use their mobile device to guide them to where a virtual Pokémon may be found, which they searched for and attempted to capture using AR atop their device's camera.<ref name="Augmented reality mainstream">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/technology/unity-technologies-maker-of-pokemon-go-engine-swells-in-value.html | title=Unity Technologies, Maker of Pokémon Go Engine, Swells in Value | publisher=NYT | date=July 13, 2016 | access-date=July 16, 2016 | author=Wingfield, Nick | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716003710/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/technology/unity-technologies-maker-of-pokemon-go-engine-swells-in-value.html | archive-date=July 16, 2016 | df=mdy-all }}</ref>

==2020s==
===Ray-tracing and photorealistic graphics===
{{see also|Ninth generation of video game consoles}}
NVidia and AMD introduced graphics cards in 2020 with hardware support for real-time [[ray tracing (graphics)|ray tracing]], which was also a major component introduced with Microsoft and Sony's next consoles, the [[Xbox Series X and Series S|Xbox Series X/S]] and [[PlayStation 5]], both released in November 2020. Significant improvements in technology also furthered the ability to display highly detailed textures, allowing for [[photorealism]] in rendered video game scenes at high resolutions and high frame rates. These changes necessitated larger storage space for texture memory on the hardware and greater bandwidth between the storage memory and graphic processor. Both new consoles included specialized SSD options designed to provide high-bandwidth storage options, which had the added benefit of virtually eliminating loading times in many games particular those featuring [[in-game streaming]] for open world games.

===The metaverse, blockchain and NFT games===
Moving into the 2020s, the concept of the [[metaverse]] grew in popularity. Similar in nature to the social spaces of ''[[Second Life]]'', the concept of a metaverse is based on using more advanced technology like virtual and augmented reality to create immersive worlds that not only can be used for social and entertainment functions but as well as for personal and business purposes, giving the user the ability to earn from participation in the metaverse.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/technology/personaltech/metaverse-gaming-definition.html | title = What's All the Hype About the Metaverse? | first = Brian | last = Chen | website = [[The New York Times]] | date = January 18, 2022 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20220118193054/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/technology/personaltech/metaverse-gaming-definition.html | archive-date = January 18, 2022 | access-date = February 13, 2022 | url-status = live }}</ref> ''[[Roblox]]'' is a more recent example of an open world game that allows players to build their own creations within game with the potential to earn money from these creations.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/22/here-are-the-companies-building-the-metaverse-meta-roblox-epic.html | title = Next for the metaverse: convincing you it's not just for kids | first = Steve | last = Kovach | date = December 22, 2021 | accessdate = February 13, 2022 | work = [[CNBC]] }}</ref>
  
The metaverse in the early 2020s was not yet well defined, but those developing the nascent technologies recognized that a financial system would be tied to these systems. Avoiding the pitfalls of prior game currency systems, the development of [[cryptocurrency]]-based games and systems that used decentralized [[blockchain]] technologies started to grow in popularity. These [[blockchain game]]s were frequently based on the trading of [[non-fungible token]]s that players created and improved through the game, mimicking how metaverse content would function.<ref>{{cite web | url =  https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-15/gamefi-is-a-new-crypto-craze-what-s-it-all-about-quicktake | title = Why GameFi Is Crypto's Hot New Thing (and What Is It?) | first = Olga | last = Kharif | date = January 15, 2022 | accessdate = February 12, 2022 | work = [[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Some video game companies have expressed strong support for using blockchain and NFTs in their games, such as [[Ubisoft]], but there has been generally negative feedback from players and game developers that consider cryptocurrency and NFT a scam.<ref>{{cite web |url =https://www.vox.com/recode/22907072/web3-crypto-nft-bitcoin-metaverse | title = Web3 is the future, or a scam, or both | first = Peter | last = Kafka | date = February 1, 2022 | accessdate = February 1, 2022 | work = [[Vox (website)|Vox]] }}</ref>

===Growth and decline around the COVID pandemic===
A large number of major acquisitions in the video game industry occurred at the start of the 2020s as large publishers gathered more studios and other publishers within their folds as to be able to offer their properties within the parent's version of the metaverse, diversify their offerings, and preparate for futures where gaming platforms shift away from traditional systems.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://fortune.com/2022/02/01/sony-microsoft-video-game-consolidation-merger/ | title = Video game companies are arming up for battle | first = Jacob | last = Carpenter | date = February 1, 2022 | accessdate = February 13, 2022 | work = [[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] }}</ref> [[Tencent|Tencent Holdings]] has gained stake in numerous video game developers since the 2010s, including full ownership of [[Riot Games]] and minority ownership of [[Epic Games]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/22949530/tencent-the-worlds-biggest-video-game-company|title=A closer look at Tencent, the world's biggest game company|website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=March 2, 2022}}</ref> Epic Games themselves have also used Tencent's investment and further funding to acquire numerous additional video game developers and middleware developers in the 2020s as part its goal to build out its version of the metaverse using its [[Unreal Engine]].<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/video-games/2021/09/28/epic-fortnite-metaverse-facebook/ | title = Epic Games believes the Internet is broken. This is their blueprint to fix it. | first = Gene | last = Park | date = September 28, 2021 | accessdate = February 13, 2022 | newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] }}</ref> [[Embracer Group]] also launched a large series of acquisitions leading into the 2020s as to broaden its portfolio, including [[Gearbox Software]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://venturebeat.com/2022/01/24/why-diversification-of-portfolios-is-top-of-mind-for-gaming-studios/ | title = Why diversification of portfolios is top of mind for gaming studios | first = Jeff | last = Sue | date = January 24, 2022 | accessdate = February 13, 2022 | work = [[Venture Beat]] }}</ref> Other major acquisitions in the 2020s in support of the metaverse includes [[Take-Two Interactive]]'s purchase of mobile game publisher [[Zynga]],<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/videogame-maker-take-two-interactive-to-buy-zynga-in-12-7-billion-deal-11641818298 | title = Take-Two Interactive to Buy FarmVille Maker Zynga in $11 Billion Deal | first = Sarah | last = Needleman | date = January 10, 2022 | accessdate = February 13, 2022 | work = [[The Wall Street Journal]] }}</ref> [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]] purchase of developer [[Bungie]] for supporting live-service games,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2022-02-02-playstation-plans-to-launch-more-than-10-live-service-games-before-march-2026 | title = PlayStation plans to launch more than 10 live service games before March 2026 | first =Tom | last= Phillips | date = February 2, 2022 | access-date = February 3, 2022 | work = [[Eurogamer]] }}</ref> and Microsoft's purchases of [[ZeniMax Media]] (including [[Bethesda Softworks]]) and [[Activision-Blizzard]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-09-21 |title=Microsoft acquires Fallout creator Bethesda |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/54233235 |access-date=2020-09-21 |archive-date=September 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921170703/https://www.bbc.com/news/54233235 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/business/microsoft-activision-blizzard.html | title = Microsoft will buy Activision Blizzard, betting $70 billion on the future of games. | first1 = Karen | last1 = Weise | first2 = Andrew Ross | last2= Sorkin | first3= Kellen | last3= Browning | first4= Michael J. |last4= de la Merced | date = January 18, 2022 | accessdate = February 13, 2022 | work = [[The New York Times]] }}</ref> Game prices were increasing from the generally pricing of $60 between {{Circa|2005}} and 2020, with $60 titles going back to the 1990s according to [[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Kharif |first1=Olga |last2=Mochizuki |first2=Takashi |date=2020-11-09 |title=Video Game Prices Are Going Up for the First Time in 15 Years |language=en |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-11-09/game-prices-go-up-to-70-the-first-increase-in-15-years |access-date=2023-03-02}}</ref> The [[COVID pandemic]] in 2021 and 2022 also fueled global video game industry growth, as many around the globe, staying at home due to lockdowns, turned to video games as a means to pass the time and connect remotely with others. 

However, this rapid growth over the initial years of the 2020s fell back on the industry around mid-2023 and into 2025 with [[2023–2024 video game industry layoffs|numerous layoffs]], as several major publishers had to cull employees and studios with the world returning to normal following the pandemic. One major event was a failed $2 billion deal that the [[Embracer Group]] had been planning on before it fell through in June 2023; Embracer was forced to close several of its studios, divest others, and made planned to break into three separate publishing labels by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-16 |title=What's Behind the Video-Game Layoffs? Players Sticking With Old Favorites |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-02-16/behind-the-video-game-layoffs-players-love-of-old-favorites |access-date=2024-03-05 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eurogamer.net/games-industry-layoffs-surpass-10000-for-2024-so-far | title=Games industry layoffs surpass 10,000 for 2024 so far | website=[[Eurogamer]] | date=23 May 2024 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Video games|Modern history}}
* [[List of real-time strategy video games]]
* [[List of real-time tactics video games]]
* [[Game On (exhibition)]]
* [[International Center for the History of Electronic Games]]
* [[Electronic Literature Lab]]
* [[The NEXT Museum|The NEXT Museum, Library, and Preservation Space]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Mark J. P. |title=The Video Game Explosion: A History from PONG to PlayStation and Beyond |date=November 30, 2007 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-33868-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Donovan |first=Tristan |title=Replay: The History of Video Games |title-link=Replay: The History of Video Games |date=April 20, 2010 |publisher=Yellow Ant |isbn=978-0-9565072-0-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Richard |title=A Brief History Of Video Games: From Atari to Virtual Reality |date=July 23, 2015 |publisher=Little, Brown Book Group |isbn=978-1-472-11881-3}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kowert |first1=Rachel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-JzCgAAQBAJ |title=The Video Game Debate: Unravelling the Physical, Social, and Psychological Effects of Video Games |last2=Quandt |first2=Thorsten |date=August 27, 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-56717-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tavinor |first=Grant |title=The Art of Videogames |date=2009 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4443-1018-4 |series=New directions in aesthetics}}
* {{Cite book |title=Basic Computer Games: Microcomputer Edition |date=1978 |publisher=Workman |isbn=978-0-89480-052-8 |editor-last=Ahl |editor-first=David H. |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last1=DeMaria |first1=Rusel |title=High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games |last2=Wilson |first2=Johnny L. |date=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne |isbn=978-0-07-223172-4 |edition=2 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |title=Simulation and Wargaming |date=2022 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |isbn=978-1-119-60478-5 |editor-last=Turnitsa |editor-first=Charles |location=Hoboken, NJ |editor-last2=Blais |editor-first2=Curtis |editor-last3=Tolk |editor-first3=Andreas}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|title=Games vs. Hardware. A history of PC gaming: The 80's [[Kindle Edition]] |asin= B00I4KRI4E|author=Purcaru, Bogdan Ion |date=2014 }}
* {{Cite book|title=All Your Base Are Belong to Us: How 50 Years of Videogames Conquered Pop Culture. New York: Three Rivers, 2011. Print.}}
* {{Cite book|title=[[From Sun Tzu to Xbox|From Sun Tzu to Xbox: War and Video Games]] |last=Halter |first=Ed |year= 2006 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |isbn=1-56025-681-8 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Play Between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture |last=Taylor |first=T.L. |author-link=T. L. Taylor |year=2006 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-20163-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/playbetweenworld0000tayl }}
* {{Cite book|title=[[SMARTBOMB: The Quest for Art, Entertainment, and Big Bucks in the Videogame Revolution]] |last1=Chaplin |first1=Heather |last2=Ruby |first2=Aaron |year=2006 |publisher=Algonquin Books |isbn=1-56512-545-2 }}
* {{Cite book|title=Videogames: In The Beginning |last=Baer |first=Ralph H. |author-link=Ralph H. Baer |year=2005 |publisher=Rolenta Press |isbn=0-9643848-1-7}}
* {{Cite book|title=[[Masters of Doom|Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture]] |last=Kushner |first=David |author-link=David Kushner (writer) |year=2004 |publisher=Random House, Inc. |isbn=0-8129-7215-5}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Video Game Theory Reader |year=2003 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=0-415-96579-9 |editor1-last=Wolf |editor1-first=Mark J.P. | editor2-last=Perron |editor2-first=Bernard}}
* {{Cite book |title=Opening the Xbox: Inside Microsoft's Plan to Unleash an Entertainment Revolution |last=Takahashi |first=Dean |year=2002 |publisher=Prima |isbn=0-7615-3708-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/openingxboxinsid00taka }}
* {{Cite book|title=The Ultimate History of Video Games |last=Kent |first=Steven L. |author-link=Steven L. Kent |year= 2001 |publisher=San Val Inc. |isbn=0-613-91884-3}}
* {{Cite book|title=The First Quarter: A 25-year history of video games |last=Kent |first=Steven L. |author-link=Steven L. Kent |year=2000 |publisher= BWD Press |isbn= 0-9704755-0-0}}
* {{Cite book |title=Joystick Nation |last=J.C. |first=Herz |year=1997 |publisher=Little, Brown, and Co. |isbn=0-316-36007-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/joysticknationho00herz }}
* {{Cite book|title=Game Over: The Maturing of Mario |last=Sheff |first=David |author-link=David Sheff }}
* {{Cite book| author=Herman, Leonard | title=Phoenix: The Fall & Rise of Videogames| publisher=Rolenta Press | edition=3| year=2001 | isbn=0-9643848-5-X| url=http://www.rolentapress.com/| access-date=September 24, 2009}}
* {{Cite book| last=Kohler | first=Chris | title=Power-Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life | publisher=Brady Games | year=2005 | isbn=0-7440-0424-1}}
* {{Cite book | author=Forster, Winnie | title=The Encyclopedia of Game Machines&nbsp;– Consoles, handheld & home computers 1972–2005 | publisher=Gameplan | year=2005 | isbn=3-00-015359-4 | url=http://www.gameplan.de/gameplan_01.5_UK/index.php | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526032440/http://www.gameplan.de/gameplan_01.5_UK/index.php | url-status=dead | archive-date=May 26, 2005 | access-date=September 24, 2009 }}
* Day, Walter. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20101130004821/http://twingalaxies.com/index.aspx?c=17 The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades]'' (1998)&nbsp;– A 200-page story contained within ''Twin Galaxies' Official Video Game & Pinball Book of World Records''. {{ISBN|1-887472-25-8}}
* ''Video Game Invasion: The History of a Global Obsession'' (2004) (Documentary. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071218155909/http://www.gsn.com/corporate/press.php?release_id=18 Press Release], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0464299/ IMDb])

==External links==
* [http://www.cse.unr.edu/~sushil/class/games/notes/sushilHistory.ppt Brief history of Video Gaming], University of Nevada
* [http://iasl.uni-muenchen.de/links/GCA-VII.1e.html Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art, chap. VII.1 Computer- and Video Games]
* [https://www.pbs.org/kcts/videogamerevolution/ ''The Video Game Revolution''] (2004) is a documentary from [[PBS]] that examines the evolution and history of the video game industry, from the 1950s through today, the impact of video games on society and culture, and the future of electronic gaming.

{{History of Video Games}}

[[Category:History of video games| ]]
[[Category:History of computing|Video games]]
[[Category:Video games archiving]]