View source for Hmong people

{{Short description|Ethnic group in southwest China and Southeast Asia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = 
| native_name      = {{script|Hmng|𖬌𖬣𖬵}}
| native_name_lang = 
| flag             = 
| image            = Hmongdiaspora.svg
| caption          = A choropleth map for countries with over 500 Hmong residents
| population       = 5 million<ref name=Lemoine2005>{{Cite journal
|last= Lemoine
|first= Jacques
|year= 2005
|title= What is the actual number of (H)mong in the world?
|journal= Hmong Studies Journal
|volume= 6
|url= http://www.hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf
|access-date= 1 March 2009
|archive-date= 21 July 2011
|url-status= usurped
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721021307/http://hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf
}}</ref>
| region1          = {{flag|China}}
| pop1             = 11,067,929 (2020) {{noteTag|1=Named [[Miao people]] there.}}
| ref1             = <ref name=Lemoine2005 />
| region2          = {{flag|Vietnam}}
| pop2             = 1,393,547 (2019)
| ref2             = <ref name="Census2019">{{cite web |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1YK6iY-j0AfZTuip28Py2Gmz5P8zw04Rn/view?usp=sharing |title=Report on Results of the 2019 Census |publisher=General Statistics Office of Vietnam |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
| region3          = {{flag|Laos}}
| pop3             = 595,028 (2015)
| ref3             = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/PHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf |title=Results of Population and Housing Census 2015 |publisher=Lao Statistics Bureau |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
| region4          = {{flag|United States}}
| pop4             = 368,609 (2021)
| ref4             = <ref>{{Cite web|title=B02018 Asian Alone Or in Any Combination by Selected Groups – 2021: 1-year estimates Detailed Tables – United States|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=B02018&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B02018|website=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref>
| region5          = {{flag|Thailand}}
| pop5             = 250,070 (2015)
| ref5             = {{citation needed|date=July 2025}}
| region6          = {{flag|France}}
| pop6             = 15,000
| ref6             = <ref name="Lemoine" />
| region7          = {{flag|Cambodia}}
| pop7             = 3,700 (2004){{citation needed|date=July 2025}}
| region8          = {{flag|Australia}}
| pop8             = 3,438 (2011)
| ref8             = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/download?format=xls&collection=Census&period=2006&productlabel=Ancestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&areacode=0 |title=ABS Census – ethnicity |access-date=7 June 2012 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518183126/https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/cowsredirect }}</ref>
| region9          = {{flag|Myanmar}}
| pop9             = 2,000–3,000 (2007)
| ref9             = <ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=G.Y. |title=Diaspora and the Predicament of Origins: Interrogating Hmong Postcolonial History and Identity |url=https://www.hmongstudiesjournal.org/uploads/4/5/8/7/4587788/gyleehsj8.pdf |access-date=10 December 2024}}</ref>
| region10         = {{flag|France}} ([[French Guiana]])
| pop10            = 2,000 (2001)
| ref10            = <ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3498056.stm |title=Hmong's new lives in Caribbean |date= 10 March 2004 |access-date=11 March 2014}}</ref>
| region11         = {{flag|Canada}}
| pop11            = 600 (1999)
| ref11            = <ref name="Lemoine">{{cite news|author1=Jacques Lemoine|publisher=Hmong Studies Journal|url=http://www.hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf|title=What is the actual number of the (H)mong in the world|year=2005|access-date=1 March 2009|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721021307/http://hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf}}</ref>
| region12         = {{flag|Argentina}}
| ref12            = <ref name="Lemoine" />
| pop12            = 600 (1999)
| region13         = {{flag|Germany}}
| pop13            = 500{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}
| languages        = [[Hmong language|Hmong]], [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Lao language|Lao]]
| religions        = [[Shamanism]] • [[Christianity]] • [[Buddhism]]{{•}}[[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]] [[Islam]]<ref>
* {{Cite journal |last=Kosem |first=Samak |title=Muslim Chao Khao: Muslimization and Re-subjectification of Hmong/Akha Youth amidst the Politics of Conversion in Northern Thailand |url=https://www.academia.edu/2587131/Muslim_Chao_Khao_Muslimization_and_Re_subjectification_of_Hmong_Akha_Youth_amidst_the_Politics_of_Conversion_in_Northern_Thailand}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wan Idris Paduka |date=2025-07-15 |title=Muslim Minorities in Laos: Identity and Integration |url=https://maqolat.com/index.php/i/article/view/159 |journal=MAQOLAT: Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=267 |doi=10.58355/maqolat.v3i3.159 |issn=2985-5829|doi-access=free }}</ref>
| related_groups   = 
}}
{{Contains special characters
| special    = Pahawh Hmong [[Unicode]] characters
| fix        = Help:Multilingual support
| error      = [[Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character|question marks, boxes, or other symbols]]
| characters = the Pahawh Hmong characters
| image      = PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KEEB.svg
| link       = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character
| alt        = 
| compact    = 
}}
{{SpecialChars
| compact    = 
| special    = Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong Unicode characters
| fix        = Help:Multilingual_support#Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong
| characters = Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong
}}

The '''Hmong people''' ([[Romanized Popular Alphabet|RPA]]: {{tlit|hmn|Hmoob}}, [[Chữ Hmông Việt|CHV]]: ''Hmôngz'', [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong|Nyiakeng Puachue]]: {{lang|hmn-Hmnp|𞄀𞄩𞄰}}, [[Pahawh Hmong]]: {{lang|hmn-Hmng|𖬌𖬣𖬵}}, {{IPA|hmn|m̥ɔ̃́|IPA}}, {{lang-zh|c=苗族蒙人}}) are an ethnic group from [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. In China, the Hmong people are classified as a sub-group of the [[Miao people]]. The modern Hmong reside mainly in [[Southwestern China]] and [[Mainland Southeast Asia]]n countries such as [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], and [[Myanmar]]. There are also diaspora communities in the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[France]], and [[South America]].

==Etymology==
The term ''Hmong'' is the English spelling of the Hmong's native name. It is a singular and plural noun (e.g., Japanese, French, etc.). Very little is known about the native Hmong name as it is not mentioned in Chinese historical records, since the Han identified the Hmong as Miao. The meaning of it is debatable and no one is sure of its origin, although it can be traced back to several provinces in China. However, Hmong Americans and Hmong Laotians often associate it with "Free" and/or "Hmoov" (Fate); it serves as a reminder to them of their history of fighting oppression.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Hmong means free: life in Laos and America |date=1994 |publisher=Temple University Press |editor=Sucheng Chan |isbn=978-1-4399-0139-7 |location=Philadelphia |oclc=318215953}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |title=Being Hmong Means Being Free |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/video/wpt-documentaries-being-hmong-means-being-free/ |language=en |access-date=2023-01-28}}</ref>

Before the 1970s, the term ''Miao'' or ''Meo'' (i.e. barbarians, wild, seedlings, and even "Sons of the Soil") was used in reference to the Hmong.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Constructing an Ethnicity: Miao in the Chinese Narratives during the Qing Era |url=https://irishjournalofasianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ijas-6-she-38-54.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615181558/https://irishjournalofasianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ijas-6-she-38-54.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=15 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mottin |first=Jean |title=History of the Hmong |publisher=Odeon Store |year=1980 |location=Bangkok Thailand |page=3 |language=English}}</ref> In the 1970s, Dr. Yang Dao, a Hmong American scholar, who at the time was the head of the Human Resource Department of the Ministry of Planning in the Royal Lao Government of Laos, advocated for the term "Hmong" with the support of clan leaders and [[Vang Pao|General Vang Pao]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>Lee 1996</ref><ref>Yang 2009</ref> Yang Dao insisted that the terms "Meo" and "Miao" were both unacceptable as his people had always called themselves by the name "Hmong," which he defined as "free men".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Dr. Yang Dao (Yaj Daus) |url=http://hmonglessons.com/the-hmong/hmong-leaders/dr-yang-dao-yaj-daus/ |access-date=2022-12-10 |language=en-US}}</ref> Surrounding countries began to use the term "Hmong" after the [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] used it during Immigration screening in Thailand's [[Ban Vinai Refugee Camp]].<ref>{{Citation |title="Hmong not Meo" | date=18 August 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KwLK5p3-cA |language=en |access-date=2023-01-27}}</ref> In 1994, [[Vang Pobzeb|Pobzeb Vang]] registered the term "Hmong" with the [[United Nations]], making it the proper term to identify the Hmong people internationally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005-09-22 |title=2005 Senate Joint Resolution 37 |url=http://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/2005/related/proposals/sjr37.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226231548/http://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/2005/related/proposals/sjr37.pdf |archive-date=2017-02-26 |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=docs.legis.wisconsin.gov}}</ref> Soon after, there was a political push from Hmong American politicians and activists to replace the term Miao with the term Hmong in China with little to no success.<ref name="Han Miao"/>

==Relationship to the Miao==
{{see also|Miao people#Miao and Hmong}}

[[File:Can Cau market (6223927056).jpg|thumb|Hmong people at the Can Cau market, [[Si Ma Cai]], Vietnam]]

===Historical Miao===
Historically, the term "Hmong" is not featured in any Chinese text, only the term "Miao". However it is uncertain if all mentions of Miao people referred to the Hmong people. According to Ruey (1962), the way in which Miao was used in Chinese can roughly be divided into three periods: a legendary period from 2300 BC to 200 BC, then a period when the term generally referred to southern barbarians until 1200 AD, and then a modern period during which the Hmong were probably included. Although the term appeared before the [[Qin dynasty]] (221&nbsp;BCE), throughout history Miao was used as a loose and general term by the [[Han Chinese|Han]] to refer to southern barbarians. Only since the [[Tang dynasty]] did more evidence of its association with the Hmong become more apparent.{{sfn|Tapp|2003|p=9}}<ref name=":1" /><ref name= "Han Miao">{{Cite book |last=Tapp |first=Nicholas |title=Cultural Accommodations in Southwest China: The "Han Miao" and Problems in the Ethnography of the Hmong |publisher=Nanzan University |year=2002 |pages=77–104}}</ref> In the 20th century, Western missionaries called the Hmong and [[A-Hmao|Hmao]] the "Big Flowery Miao" (''Da Hua Miao'') and the "Little Flowery Miao" (''Xiao Hua Miao'').{{sfn|Cheung|2003|p=88}}<ref name=":0"/> Another source states that the Green and White Miao were the Hmong, the Flowery Miao were the Hmao, the Black Miao were the [[Hmu language|Hmu]], and the Red Miao were the [[Xong language|Xong]].<ref name="Han Miao"/> According to She Miaojun, the Miao only existed as an exonym in the imagination of outsiders all the way up to the [[Qing dynasty]]. It did not refer to any self-defined ethnic group united by either territory or language. Others believe that Miao identity emerged during the [[Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)|rebellions]] of the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref name=":1" />

===Miao nationality===
Today, the Hmong in China are categorized under the umbrella term Miáo ({{lang|zh|苗}}) along with three other indigenous cultural groups, which include non-Hmong peoples such as the Hmu and the Xong of southeast [[Guizhou]]. The Chinese Miao minority was created in 1949 as part of the ethnic identification project in which members of the ethnic groups that now comprise the Miao umbrella group campaigned for identification under the name ''Miao—''taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression. The push to appropriate Miao as the official name of their ''[[Minzu (anthropology)|minzu]]'' nationality received significant contributions from three Miao intellectuals, however none of them were Hmong. The various Miao sub-groups freely identify as Miao or Chinese while reserving their specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication.<ref>Cheung Siu-Woo "Miao Identity in Western Guizhou: Indigenism and the politics of appropriation in the southwest china during the republican period" in Hmong or Miao in Asia. 237–40.</ref>{{sfn|Tapp|2003|p=xx, 198}} According to Jacques Lemoine, "Chinese Hmong have the Miao nationality but Hmong ethnicity" because the [[People's Republic of China]] doesn't recognize ethnicity.<ref>Lemoine, Jacques (October 2005) Review Article: Hmong/Miao in Asia</ref>

The Miao minority group has been described as extremely heterogeneous. The four main groups classified as Miao in China are the Hmong, Hmao, Hmu, and the Xong. Despite speaking related languages belonging to the [[Hmongic languages|Hmongic]] language group, these four ethnic groups have little in common and their languages are mutually unintelligible. Even the group closest to the Hmong, the Hmao, speak a language that is as different from Hmong as Italian is to French. They diverged significantly as early as a thousand years ago, after which they may have had no relation to each other at all. Without their official classification as the Miao minority after 1949, it is unlikely that they would be able to recognize any affinity with each other. However none of the four groups have obtained official status as distinct minorities in China. Their names are generally unrecognized by the Chinese and are only used as part of the local vernacular language. As a result, only a small portion of the modern Miao people initially identified as Hmong.{{sfn|Tapp|2003|p=xx, 9, 143}}<ref name="Han Miao"/><ref name="Schein"/>

{{blockquote|The cumbersome umbrella term "Miao" refers to a number of disparate groups totaling 7.5 million people as of 1990, speaking three mutually unintelligible dialects and scattered over seven provinces in southwest China... These multiple sub-groups have been variously divided into large aggregates such as the Black, Red, Blue, White, and Flowery groups, or later the Eastern, Central or Western dialect groups. It was only in the Maoist period, with the national implementation of identification policies... that the diverse Miao in China came to recognize each other as co-ethnics and to identify  with and operate under the ethnonym "Miao." Only a portion of those identified as Miao—the ones distributed over western Guizhou and parts of Yunnan, particularly the border areas—call themselves "Hmong" in their own language.<ref name="Schein"/>|Louisa Schein}}

The non-equivalence between the Miao and the Hmong was acknowledged in interactions between Hmong refugees and the Miao. The Miao people that Hmong travelers from the West met were highly varied both in their language and cultural practices. When Hmong refugees from France and the US initially made contact with the Miao from China in officially sanctioned visits, they were introduced to the Xong Miao people who were neither Hmong nor spoke the Hmong language. An eyewitness recounts several occasions when a Hmong and a Hmao tried to understand each other's languages without success. They also met an assortment of Miao people who no longer spoke their native language and only knew Chinese.  Many of the Miao they met did not share the same traditional clothing, myths, and folktales. Some did not even play the [[lusheng]], a traditional Hmong musical instrument. The visiting Hmong were themselves not from China but Southeast Asia, where their ancestors had migrated over a century ago due to conflicts in the [[Qing dynasty]]. Not understanding the differences between the Miao and Hmong, initially some Hmong-Americans did not believe that these were real Miao people, but other ethnic groups. Some thought that the different costumes were the result of lost traditions among the Southeast Asian Hmong.<ref name="Han Miao"/><ref name="Schein"/>

Some Hmong went further to seek out "really Hmong" people through unofficial channels with whom they could speak Hmong to. However even after successfully finding them, they found that there were dialect variations that differed from the Hmong that they grew up speaking. As Hmong refugees discovered the differences between themselves and the Chinese Miao, some non-Hmong Miao people such as the Hmu started referring to themselves as Hmong to express nationalistic sentiments. Contributing to this trend is the tendency of professional linguists to use the names of smaller ethnic groups to refer to the broader categories such as [[Hmong–Mien languages]] rather than Miao-Yao languages. This is due to the outsized influence of groups outside of Asia such as the Hmong and Mien who are able to articulate their cause, thereby affecting some proto-nationalistic movements within the Miao to identify as Hmong despite not actually being Hmong.<ref name="Han Miao"/>

===Hmong/Miao identity===
Miao or Meo carried strong pejorative connotations in both China and Southeast Asia. It was more so a stereotype such as uncivilized, uncooperative, uncultivated, harmful, and inhumane than a name of an ethnic group and was used in daily conversations as an expression for ugliness and primitiveness. Due to these negative connotations, the Hmong promote the use of Hmong as a replacement for Miao.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Tapp |first=Nicholas |year=2002 |title=Cultural Accommodations in Southwest China: The "Han Miao" and Problems in the Ethnography of the Hmong |url=https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a1413.pdf |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=77–104 |doi=10.2307/1178678 |jstor=1178678 |id={{ProQuest|224529908}}}}</ref> In modern times, however, Miao has lost such negative connotations in China and has since been officially recognized as an ethnicity, which includes the Hmong. The Hmong in China are often happy or proud to be known as Miao while most Hmong outside China find it offensive.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee, Tapp |first=Gary Yia, Nicolas |title=Culture and Customs of the Hmong |publisher=Greenwood |year=2010 |page=4 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who are the Hmong? – Hmong American Center |date=4 October 2018 |url=https://www.hmongamericancenter.org/ufaqs/who-are-the-hmong/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> According to Louisa Schein, Miao is a neutral ethnonym within China and the only term that encompasses all its subgroups.<ref name="Schein"/>

According to Gary Yia Lee writing in the ''Hmong Studies Journal'', the choice to identify as Miao was a deliberate and strategic decision its members advocated for in recognition of its potential benefits. Rather than being split into multiple smaller groups with short and murky histories, the Miao chose to adopt one ethno-name representing 9.2 million people claiming a long history dating back to ancient China. Their larger population granted them the strength and support befitting of the fifth largest nationality in China. In addition, by claiming kinship to the San Miao referred to in ancient Chinese history, they positioned themselves as pre-existing inhabitants of China prior to the arrival of the Han, imparting a "legendary stature to the present-day Miao" that "bestows the dignity of great antiquity, authoritativeness and a firm standing in the documentary record".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.garyyialee.com/history-diaspora-predicament|title=Gary Yia Lee &#124; History &#124; Diaspora & Predicament|website=garyyialee}}</ref>

Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong emigration, led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China with no previous ethnic affiliation. In 1994, a Miao woman from China was chosen as the winner of the Miss Hmong Beauty Pageant in [[Fresno, California]]. Costume styles were imported from China and used in festivals.<ref name="Schein">Schein, Louisa. "Hmong/Miao Transnationality: Identity Beyond Culture." in Hmong or Miao in Asia. 274–75.</ref> Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly made over the internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including some Hmong people accepting the designation ''Miao'' after visiting China and some nationalist non-Hmong Miao peoples identifying as Hmong.<ref name=":0" />

In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] {{lang|vi|Mèo}}, {{lang|vi|Mông}} or {{lang|vi|H'Mông}}; [[Lao language|Lao]] {{Transliteration|lo|Maew}} ({{Lang|lo|ແມ້ວ}}) or {{Transliteration|lo|Mong}} ({{Lang|lo|ມົ້ງ}}); [[Thai language|Thai]] {{Transliteration|th|Maew}} ({{Lang|th|แม้ว}}) or {{Transliteration|th|Mong}} ({{Lang|th|ม้ง}}); and [[Burmese language|Burmese]] {{Transliteration|my|mun lu-myo}} ({{lang|my|မုံလူမျိုး}}). With a slight change in accent, the word "Meo" in Lao and Thai can be pronounced to mean
"cat".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hmongstudiesjournal.org/uploads/4/5/8/7/4587788/gyleehsj8.pdf |title=The origins of the Hmong |access-date=2022-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite CiteSeerX |citeseerx=10.1.1.513.2976|title=The Mong American Families}}</ref> The term Maew and Meo derived from the term Miao.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=G. Y. |title=Culture and customs of the Hmong |date=2010 |publisher=Greenwood |others=Nicholas Tapp |isbn=978-0-313-34527-2 |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |oclc=693776855}}</ref>

==Origins==

===Genetic origins===
[[File:Likely routes of early rice transfer, and possible language family homelands (archaeological sites in China and SE Asia shown).png|thumb|Likely routes of early rice transfer, and possible language family homelands (archaeological sites in China and SE Asia shown)]]
A DNA study in 2005 in Thailand found that Hmong paternal lineage is quite different from lu Mien and other Southeast Asian tribes. The Hmong–Mien and Sino-Tibetan speaking people are known as hill tribes in Thailand; they were the subject of the first studies to show an impact of patrilocality vs. matrilocality on patterns of mitochondrial (mt) DNA vs. the male-specific portion of the Y chromosome (MSY) variation.
According to linguist [[Martha Ratliff]], there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of the same areas of southern China for over 8,000&nbsp;years.<ref name="auto">Ratliff, Martha. "Vocabulary of Environment and Subsistence in Proto-language," p. 160.</ref> Evidence from [[mitochondrial DNA]] in [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]]–speaking populations supports the existence of southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although it has been shown that Hmong-speaking populations had comparatively more contact with northern East Asians than had the Mien.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last1=Wen |first1=Bo |last2=Li |first2=Hui |last3=Gao |first3=Song |last4=Mao |first4=Xianyun |last5=Gao |first5=Yang |last6=Li |first6=Feng |last7=Zhang |first7=Feng |last8=He |first8=Yungang |last9=Dong |first9=Yongli |last10=Zhang |first10=Youjun |last11=Huang |first11=Wenju |last12=Jin |first12=Jianzhong |last13=Xiao |first13=Chunjie |last14=Lu |first14=Daru |last15=Chakraborty |first15=Ranajit |last16=Su |first16=Bing |last17=Deka |first17=Ranjan |last18=Jin |first18=Li |title=Genetic Structure of Hmong-Mien Speaking Populations in East Asia as Revealed by mtDNA Lineages |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=March 2005 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=725–734 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msi055 |pmid=15548747 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tianyi |last2=Wang |first2=Wei |last3=Xie |first3=Guangmao |last4=Li |first4=Zhen |last5=Fan |first5=Xuechun |last6=Yang |first6=Qingping |last7=Wu |first7=Xichao |last8=Cao |first8=Peng |last9=Liu |first9=Yichen |last10=Yang |first10=Ruowei |last11=Liu |first11=Feng |last12=Dai |first12=Qingyan |last13=Feng |first13=Xiaotian |last14=Wu |first14=Xiaohong |last15=Qin |first15=Ling |date=July 2021 |title=Human population history at the crossroads of East and Southeast Asia since 11,000 years ago |journal=Cell |volume=184 |issue=14 |pages=3829–3841.e21 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.018 |pmid=34171307 |doi-access=free |last16=Li |first16=Fajun |last17=Ping |first17=Wanjing |last18=Zhang |first18=Lizhao |last19=Zhang |first19=Ming |last20=Liu |first20=Yalin |last21=Chen |first21=Xiaoshan |last22=Zhang |first22=Dongju |last23=Zhou |first23=Zhenyu |last24=Wu |first24=Yun |last25=Shafiey |first25=Hassan |last26=Gao |first26=Xing |last27=Curnoe |first27=Darren |last28=Mao |first28=Xiaowei |last29=Bennett |first29=E. Andrew |last30=Ji |first30=Xueping |last31=Yang |first31=Melinda A. |last32=Fu |first32=Qiaomei}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=He |first1=Guanglin |last2=Wang |first2=Peixin |last3=Chen |first3=Jing |last4=Liu |first4=Yan |last5=Sun |first5=Yuntao |last6=Hu |first6=Rong |last7=Duan |first7=Shuhan |last8=Sun |first8=Qiuxia |last9=Tang |first9=Renkuan |last10=Yang |first10=Junbao |last11=Wang |first11=Zhiyong |last12=Yun |first12=Libing |last13=Hu |first13=Liping |last14=Yan |first14=Jiangwei |last15=Nie |first15=Shengjie |last16=Wei |first16=Lanhai |last17=Liu |first17=Chao |last18=Wang |first18=Mengge |title=Differentiated genomic footprints suggest isolation and long-distance migration of Hmong-Mien populations |journal=BMC Biology |date=25 January 2024 |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=18 |doi=10.1186/s12915-024-01828-x |doi-access=free |pmid=38273256 |pmc=10809681 }}</ref> A 2020 study, however, states that Hmong in Thailand cluster with other Hmong groups only due to their practice of endogamy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kutanan |first1=Wibhu |last2=Shoocongdej |first2=Rasmi |last3=Srikummool |first3=Metawee |last4=Hübner |first4=Alexander |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Cultural variation impacts paternal and maternal genetic lineages of the Hmong- Mien and Sino-Tibetan groups from Thailand |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=1563–1579 |doi=10.1038/s41431-020-0693-x |pmid=32690935 |pmc=7576213 }}</ref>

In 2011, Hmong DNA was sampled and found to contain 7.84% [[Haplogroup D-M15|D-M15]] and 6%N(Tat) DNA.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Xiaoyun |last2=Qin |first2=Zhendong |last3=Wen |first3=Bo |last4=Xu |first4=Shuhua |last5=Wang |first5=Yi |last6=Lu |first6=Yan |last7=Wei |first7=Lanhai |last8=Wang |first8=Chuanchao |last9=Li |first9=Shilin |last10=Huang |first10=Xingqiu |last11=Jin |first11=Li |last12=Li |first12=Hui |last13=Consortium |first13=the Genographic |date=31 August 2011 |title=Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y Chromosomes |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=8 |article-number=e24282 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...624282C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0024282 |pmc=3164178 |pmid=21904623 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The research found a common ancestry between Hmong–Mien peoples and [[Austroasiatic languages|Mon-Khmer]] groups dating to the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], approximately 15,000 to 18,000&nbsp;years ago.

A rare haplogroup, O3d, was found at the [[Daxi culture]] in the middle reaches of the [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]], indicating that the Daxi people might be the ancestors of modern Hmong–Mien populations, which show only small traces of O3d today.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hui |last2=Huang |first2=Ying |last3=Mustavich |first3=Laura F. |last4=Zhang |first4=Fan |last5=Tan |first5=Jing-Ze |last6=Wang |first6=Ling-E |last7=Qian |first7=Ji |last8=Gao |first8=Meng-He |last9=Jin |first9=Li |date=November 2007 |title=Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River |journal=Human Genetics |volume=122 |issue=3–4 |pages=383–388 |doi=10.1007/s00439-007-0407-2 |pmid=17657509 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The most representative ancestral lineages of Hmong-Mien speakers come from ancient individuals from Guangxi (GaoHuaHua) and Guizhou (Songshan_o2), dating back to the Ming Dynasty.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Meiqing |last2=Huang |first2=Huangzhen |last3=Zhang |first3=Han |last4=Wan |first4=Wen |display-authors=3 |date=2025 |title=Refining the genetic structure and admixture history of Hmong-Mien populations |journal=BMC Biology |volume=23 |issue=192 |page=192 |doi=10.1186/s12915-025-02287-8 |doi-access=free |pmid=40598399 |pmc=12217280 }}</ref> Other studies also confirm the significant role of [[Ancient Northern East Asian]]s in shaping the Hmong genome.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=Guanglin |last2=Wang |first2=Peixin |last3=Chen |first3=Jing |last4=Liu |first4=Yan |display-authors=3 |date=2024 |title=Differentiated genomic footprints suggest isolation and long-distance migration of Hmong-Mien populations |journal=BMC Biology |volume=22 |issue=18 |doi=10.1186/s12915-024-01828-x |pmc=10809681 |doi-access=free |article-number=18 |pmid=38273256 }}</ref> Overall, Hmong–Mien cluster with Tai-Kadai and Sino-Tibetan speakers compared to other Chinese populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiaoxi |last3=Chen |first3=Hao |last4=Lu |first4=Yan |last5=Ma |first5=Sen |last6=Yang |first6=Yajun |last7=Zhang |first7=Menghan |last8=Xu |first8=Shuhua |date=13 March 2024 |title=Reconstructing the ancestral gene pool to uncover the origins and genetic links of Hmong–Mien speakers |journal=BMC Biology |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=59 |doi=10.1186/s12915-024-01838-9 |pmc=10935854 |pmid=38475771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2020 study shows that the core Hmong-Mien population derives more ancestry from Neolithic Mekong (32.3%–35.3%) than Late Neolithic Fujian (23.7%–26.4%), suggesting stronger [[Austroasiatic languages#Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics|Austroasiatic]] affinities although Tai-Kadai ancestry peaks in groups that live in southeastern China.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Genomic Insights into the Demographic History of Southern Chinese |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.11.08.373225v1.full |journal=bioRxiv |doi=10.1101/2020.11.08.373225 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Genetic stratification exists within the Hmong-Mien population, with northern Hmong-Mien populations exhibiting more genetic similarities with Tibeto-Burman/Sinitic populations and southern Hmong-Mien populations sharing more alleles with Austronesian/Tai-Kadai populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yicheng |last2=Zou |first2=Xing |last3=Wang |first3=Mengge |last4=Yuan |first4=Didi |date=2022 |title=The genomic history of southwestern Chinese populations demonstrated massive population migration and admixture among proto-Hmong-Mien speakers and incoming migrants |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357418354 |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics |volume=297 |issue=1 |pages=241–262 |doi=10.1007/s00438-021-01837-3 |pmid=35031862 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Hmong-Mien populations within the Miao cluster exhibit stronger genetic influence from neighboring populations like Han Chinese. Other Miao populations are more related to Hmong populations from Vietnam. Yao populations in Guangxi, in contrast, share more genetic drift with Tai-Kadai populations. Bunu-speaking Yao populations exhibit strong genetic affinities with the [[Peopling of China#Archaeogenetic studies in southern China|GaoHuaHua]] population due to their geographic isolation. She populations from Guizhou cluster with their Hmong-Mien neighbors and received significant input from Tai-Kadai populations whilst She populations from Fujian received more input from Han Chinese populations.<ref name=":5" /> In 2021, researchers found that the 'GaoHuaHua' population in Guangxi contributed to the ancestries of modern Hmong-Mien groups in Guangxi. The 'GaoHuaHua' population was modeled as having 66% Dushan-related ancestry and 34% Boshan-related ancestry. They also received Northeast Asian-related Shandong ancestry, which emerged 9,500–7,700 years ago.<ref name=":3" />

=== Homeland ===
The most likely [[Linguistic homeland|homeland]] of the Hmong–Mien languages is in [[southern China]] between the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] and [[Mekong River|Mekong]] rivers.<ref>[[Roger Blench|Blench, Roger]]. 2004. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/China/Geneva%20paper%202004%20submit.pdf ''Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence match genetics and archaeology?''] Paper for the Symposium "Human migrations in continental East Asia and Taiwan: genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence". Geneva June 10–13, 2004. Université de Genève.</ref> In particular, southwestern China was suggested to the original homeland of Hmong-Mien peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Genomic Insights into the Demographic History of Southern Chinese |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.11.08.373225v1.full |journal=bioRxiv |doi=10.1101/2020.11.08.373225 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Migration of people speaking these languages from southern China to [[Southeast Asia]] took place ca. 1600–1700&nbsp;CE. Ancient [[DNA]] evidence suggests that the ancestors of the speakers of the Hmong–Mien languages were a population genetically distinct from that of the Tai–Kadai and Austronesian language populations at a location on the [[Yangtze River]].<ref name="PMID 17657509">{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hui |last2=Huang |first2=Ying |last3=Mustavich |first3=Laura F. |last4=Zhang |first4=Fan |last5=Tan |first5=Jing-Ze |last6=Wang |first6=Ling-E |last7=Qian |first7=Ji |last8=Gao |first8=Meng-He |last9=Jin |first9=Li  |title=Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River |journal=Human Genetics |volume=122 |issue=3–4 |pages=383–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17657509 |doi=10.1007/s00439-007-0407-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Recent Y-DNA phylogeny evidence supports the theory that people who speak the Hmong–Mien languages are descended from a population that is distantly related to those who now speak the Mon-Khmer languages.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=X |last2=Qin |first2=Z |last3=Wen |first3=B |last4=Xu |first4=S |last5=Wang |first5=Y |last6=Lu |first6=Y |last7=Wei |first7=L |last8=Wang |first8=C |last9=Li |first9=S |last10=Huang |first10=X |last11=Jin |first11=L |last12=Li |first12=H |last13=Genographic |first13=Consortium |year=2011 |title=Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y Chromosomes |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=8 |article-number=e24282 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0024282 |pmid=21904623 |pmc=3164178|bibcode=2011PLoSO...624282C |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another study shows that the core Hmong-Mien population in southern China derived most of their ancestry from Neolithic Mekong (32.3%–35.3%) than Late Neolithic Fujian (23.7%–26.4%).<ref name=":4" />

The time of [[Proto-Hmong–Mien]] was estimated to be about 2500&nbsp;BP (500&nbsp;BCE) by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas using traditional methods employing many lines of evidence, and about 4243&nbsp;BP by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP), an experimental algorithm for automatic generation of phonologically based phylogenies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/AutomatedDatingFinal.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127082301/http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/AutomatedDatingFinal.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-27 }}</ref>

==History==
===China===
[[File:Hmong diaspora.png|thumb|The historical migration of the Hmong according to Hmong tradition]]
Hmong traditions and legends indicate that they originated near the [[Yellow River]] region of northern [[China]], but this is not substantiated by any scientific evidence.<ref>Bomar, Julie. "Hmong History and Culture." Kinship networks among Hmong-American refugees. New York: LFB Scholarly Pub., 2004. 33–39. Print.</ref> According to linguist [[Martha Ratliff]], there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of the same areas of southern China for over 8,000&nbsp;years.<ref name="auto"/>

The author of [[Guoyu (book)|''Guoyu'']], written in the 4th to 5th century, considered Chi You's Jiu Li tribe to be related to the ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San-Miao people.<ref name="國語•楚語下">{{cite web|url=https://ctext.org/guo-yu/chu-yu-xia|title=國語•楚語下|access-date=23 April 2018}}</ref> [[Chi You]] is the Hmong ancestral God of War. Today, a statue of Chi You has been erected in the town named [[Zhuolu Town|Zhuolu]].<ref name="indig">De la Cadena, Marisol. Starn, Orin. Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. [2007] (2007). Indigenous experience today. Berg Publishers, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-84520-519-5}}. p. 239.</ref>

[[File:The Victorious Battle at Lancaoping.jpg|thumb|A scene depicting the [[Qing dynasty]]'s campaign against the Hmong people at Lancaoping in 1795]]

Conflict between the Hmong of southern China and newly arrived Han settlers increased during the 18th century under repressive economic and cultural reforms imposed by the [[Qing dynasty]]. This led to [[Miao Rebellions|armed conflict]] and large-scale migrations well into the late 19th century, the period during which many Hmong people emigrated to Southeast Asia. However, the migration process had begun as early as the late 17th century, before the time of major social unrest, when small groups went in search of better agricultural opportunities.<ref>Culas and Michaud, 68–74.</ref>

The Hmong people were subjected to persecution and genocide by the [[Qing dynasty]] government. Arthur A. Hansen wrote: "In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, while the Hmong lived in south-western China, their [[Manchu people|Manchu]] overlords had labeled them '[[Miao people|Miao]]' and targeted them for [[genocide]]."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-MUfXFVMik0C&pg=PA225 Rogers, 2004] p. 225.</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}<!--The author is an expert in Japanese Americans during WW2, not an issue very closely related to the treatment of the Hmong by the Qing Dynasty.-->

Since 1949, the [[Miao people]] ({{lang-zh|c=苗族|p=miáo zú}}) has been an official term for one of the [[list of ethnic groups in China|56 official minority groups]] recognized by the government of the [[China|People's Republic of China]]. The Miao live mainly in southern China, in the provinces of [[Guizhou]], [[Hunan]], [[Yunnan]], [[Sichuan]], [[Guangxi]], [[Hainan]], [[Guangdong]], and [[Hubei]]. According to the 2000 census, the number of 'Miao' in China was estimated to be about 9.6&nbsp;million. The Miao nationality includes Hmong people as well as other culturally and linguistically related ethnic groups who do not call themselves Hmong. These include the [[Hmu language|Hmu]], Kho (Qho) Xiong, and [[A-Hmao]]. The settling region of the Hmong in China is further western than that of the other groups, mainly in Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chongqing, and Guangxi.

{{wide image|1 xijiang panorama.jpg|600px|Xijiang, a Hmong-majority township in Guizhou, China}}

===Vietnam===
The Hmong or Miao began to migrate to Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) in the 19th century, where they struggled to establish their community on the high mountains. They recognized the Tai-speaking overlords of valleys, who were vassals of the Vietnamese court in Hue. The Hue court of [[Tu Duc]] at the time was facing crisis after crisis, unable to retake control of Tonkin and the border regions. The [[Taiping rebellion]] and other Chinese rebels spilled over into Vietnam and had caused anarchy; the Hmong communities thrived on either sides of the Red River, harmonizing with other ethnic groups, and were largely ignored by all factions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Mai Na M.|author-link=Mai Na Lee|year=2015|title=Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom: The Quest for Legitimation in French Indochina, 1850–1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-29884-5|pages=78–79}}</ref>

During the colonization of '[[Tonkin]]' ([[North Vietnam]]) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the [[Vietnamese nationalism|Vietnamese Nationalists]] and [[Vietnamese Communist Party|Communists]], while many [[Christianized]] Hmong sided with the French. After the [[Việt Minh|Viet Minh]] victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and [[South Vietnam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michaud |first1=J. |title=The Montagnards and the State in Northern Vietnam from 1802 to 1975: A Historical Overview |journal=Ethnohistory |date=1 April 2000 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=333–68 |id={{ProQuest|209752840}} |doi=10.1215/00141801-47-2-333 }}</ref>

[[File:H'Mong (novembre 2011) (10).JPG|thumb|[[Yao people|Red Dao]] in Vietnam]]

===Laos===
After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau arose after [[World War II]]. There, a rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides; as a consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the [[Lao Communist Party|Pathet Lao Communists]], while almost as many were enrolled in the communist [[Lao People's Revolutionary Army]]. In Laos, numerous Hmong genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime.<ref>Michaud, J. et al. 2016 The Historical Dictionary of the Peoples of the Southeast Asian Massif. Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 177–80.</ref>

====The U.S. and the Laotian Civil War====
{{Main|Laotian Civil War}}

In the early 1960s, partially as a result of the [[North Vietnamese invasion of Laos]], the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) [[Special Activities Division]] began to recruit, train and lead the indigenous Hmong people in Laos to fight against [[North Vietnamese Army]] divisions that were invading Laos during the [[Vietnam War]]. This "Secret Army" was organized into various mobile regiments and divisions, including Special Guerrilla Units, all of whom were led by General [[Vang Pao]]. An estimated sixty-percent (60%) of Hmong men in Laos joined up.<ref>Grant Evans "Laos is getting a bad rap from the world's media" The Bangkok Post 8 July 2003</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Being Hmong Means Being Free |url=https://www.pbs.org/video/wpt-documentaries-being-hmong-means-being-free/ |website=PBS Wisconsin Documentaries }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2016}}

While there were Hmong soldiers who fought with the communist Pathet Lao and the North Vietnamese, others were recognized for serving in combat against the NVA and the [[Pathet Lao]], helping block Hanoi's [[Ho Chi Minh trail]] inside Laos and rescuing downed American pilots. Though their role was generally kept secret in the early stages of the conflict, they made great sacrifices to help the U.S.<ref>Warner, Roger, ''[[Shooting at the Moon (book)|Shooting at the Moon]]'', (1996), p. 366.</ref>

Thousands of [[Economic refugee|economic]] and [[political refugee]]s have resettled in [[Western countries]] in two separate waves. The first wave resettled in the late 1970s, mostly in the [[United States]] after the [[North Vietnamese]] and [[Pathet Lao]] takeovers of the pro-U.S. governments [[Vietnam War|in South Vietnam]] and [[Laotian Civil War|Laos]] respectively.<ref name="HND2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.hndinc.org/cmsAdmin/uploads/dlc/HND-Census-Report-2013.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20131002043008/http://hndinc.org/cmsAdmin/uploads/dlc/HND-Census-Report-2013.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013 |author=Hmong National Development, Inc. |title=The State of the Hmong American Community 2013 |access-date=7 July 2016 }}</ref> The [[Lao Veterans of America]], and Lao Veterans of America Institute, helped to assist in the resettlement of many Laotian and Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in the United States, especially former Hmong veterans and their family members who served in the "U.S. Secret Army" in Laos during the Vietnam War.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.laoveteransofamerica.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227015927/http://www.laoveteransofamerica.org/|title=www.laoveteransofamerica.org|archive-date=27 December 2016|website=www.laoveteransofamerica.org}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2016}}

====Hmong Lao resistance====
<!--'ChaoFa' redirects here-->
{{Main|Conflict in Laos involving the Hmong|United League for Democracy in Laos}}

[[File:hmong wedding.jpg|thumb|Hmong girls meet possible suitors while playing a ball-throwing game in [[Laos]].]]

For many years, the Neo Hom political movement played a key role in resistance to the [[Vietnam People's Army]] in Laos following the U.S. withdrawal in 1975; [[Vang Pao]] played a significant role in this movement. Additionally, a spiritual leader, [[Zong Zoua Her]], as well as other Hmong leaders, including [[Pa Kao Her]] or Pa Khao Her, rallied some of their followers in a factionalized guerrilla resistance movement called '''ChaoFa'''<!--sic (no space); boldface per WP:R#PLA --> ([[Romanized Popular Alphabet|RPA]]: Cob Fab, [[Pahawh Hmong]]: {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬯 𖬖𖬜𖬵}} [[File:ChaoFaPahawh.png|35px]]).<ref>Smalley, William Allen, Chia Koua Vang (''Txiaj Kuam Vaj'' [[File:ChiaKouaVangPahawh.png|35x35px]]), and Gnia Yee Yang (''Nyiaj Yig Yaj'' [[File:GniaYeeYangPahawh.png|35x35px]]). ''Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script''. [[University of Chicago Press]], 23 March 1990. 10. Retrieved from [[Google Books]] on 23 March 2012 {{ISBN|978-0-226-76286-9}}.</ref><ref>Not to be confused with the Thai royal title [[Chao Fa]].</ref> These events led to the [[yellow rain]] controversy when the [[United States]] accused the [[Soviet Union]] of supplying and using chemical weapons in this conflict.<ref name=Tucker>{{Cite journal| author = Jonathan Tucker| title = The Yellow Rain Controversy: Lessons for Arms Control Compliance| journal = The Nonproliferation Review| date =Spring 2001| url = http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/81tucker.pdf}}</ref>

Small groups of Hmong people, many second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. Faced with continuing military operations against them by the government and a scarcity of food, some groups have begun coming out of hiding, while others have sought asylum in Thailand and other countries.<ref>{{Cite news|first=David |last=Kinchen |title=438 former 'Cob Fab' removed by helicopter after they came out of hiding |date=17 November 2006 |url=http://www.hmongtoday.com/displaynews.asp?ID=2384 |work=Hmong Today |access-date=22 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222133658/http://www.hmongtoday.com/displaynews.asp?ID=2384 |archive-date=22 February 2007 }}</ref> Hmong in Laos, in particular, developed a stronger and deeper [[anti-Vietnamese sentiment]] than their Vietnamese Hmong cousins, due to historic persecution perpetrated by the Vietnamese against them.

====Controversy over repatriation====
{{Main|Human rights in Laos#Hmong refugees and forced repatriation}}

{{Globalize|section|date=February 2018}}
[[File:ครอบครัวของชาวแม้ว (2497) อุทัยและพูนทรัพย์ สนธิ.jpg|thumb|A Hmong family in either Chiang Mai or Lamphun, circa 1954]]
In June 1991, after talks with the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] and the Thai government, Laos agreed to the repatriation of over 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including tens of thousands of Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily.<ref>{{cite news|title=Laos agrees to voluntary repatriation of refugees in Thailand|agency=U.P.I.|date=5 June 1991}}</ref> Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, coercive measures and forced repatriation was used to send thousands of Hmong back to the places they had fled.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lao Refugees Return Home Under European Union Repatriation Program|agency=Associated Press Worldstream|date=22 Nov 1994}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Karen J.|title=House Panel Hears Concerns About Hmong|agency=[[States News Service]]|date= 26 April 1994}}</ref> Of the Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hamilton-Merritt|first=Jane|title=Tragic Mountains|pages=xix–xxi}}</ref>

In the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s, [[The Center for Public Policy Analysis]], a non-governmental public policy research organization, and its executive director, Philip Smith, played a key role in raising awareness in the U.S. Congress and policy-making circles in Washington, D.C. about the plight of the Hmong and Laotian refugees in Thailand and Laos. The CPPA, backed by a bipartisan coalition of members of the [[U.S. Congress]] and human rights organizations, conducted numerous research missions to the Hmong and Laotian refugee camps along the [[Mekong River]] in Thailand, as well as the Buddhist temple of [[Wat Tham Krabok]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforpublicpolicyanalysis.org/|title=centerforpublicpolicyanalysis.org|date=6 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406154059/http://www.centerforpublicpolicyanalysis.org/|archive-date=6 April 2008}}</ref>

[[Amnesty International]], the [[Lao Veterans of America]], Inc., the [[United League for Democracy in Laos]], Inc., [[Lao Human Rights Council]], Inc. (led by Dr. Pobzeb Vang [[Vang Pobzeb]], and later Vaughn Vang) and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and human rights organizations joined the opposition to forced repatriation.<ref name="auto2"/>

Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=hb909nb5j8&brand=calisphere&doc.view=entire_text |title=Reports on results of investigations of allegations concerning the welfare of Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand and Laos|agency=Refugee and Migration Affairs Unit|publisher=United States Embassy (Thailand)|date=1992|access-date=27 July 2007}}</ref> thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996, as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, under mounting political pressure, the U.S. agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process.<ref>{{cite news|first=Steve |last=Gunderson|title=State Department Outlines Resettlement Guidelines for Hmong Refugees|publisher= Congressional Press Releases|date=18 May 1996}}</ref> Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at [[Wat Tham Krabok]], a [[Buddhist monastery]] in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees were already living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the [[illegal drug trade]] and were of non-Lao origin.<ref>{{cite news|title=Laos refuses to take back Thai-based Hmong refugees|work=Deutsche Presse-Agentur|date=20 August 1998}}</ref>

In 2003, following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the U.S., in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees.<ref>{{cbignore|bot=medic}} Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, 16 January 2004, archived 17 January 2009 from [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/prm/rls/fs/2004/28212.htm the original]</ref> Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the U.S., fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century.<ref>{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021133910/http://www.centralcallegal.org/hrtf/history/index.html |date=21 October 2008 |title=History of the Hmong Resettlement Task Force }} Hmong Resettlement Task Force, archived 21 October 2008 from [https://web.archive.org/web/20040818025236/http://www.centralcallegal.org/hrtf/history/index.html the original]</ref> In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of [[Phetchabun Province|Phetchabun]].<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4724199.stm | work=BBC News | title=Hmong refugees pleading to stay | date=28 July 2005 | access-date=4 May 2010|author-first1=Kylie|author-last1=Morris}}</ref>

The [[European Union]],<ref name="EU@UN">[http://www.europa-eu-un.org/articles/en/article_6732_en.htm Thailand: EU Presidency Declaration on the situation of Hmong refugees] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312015347/http://www.europa-eu-un.org/articles/en/article_6732_en.htm |date=12 March 2010 }} EU@UN, 1 February 2007</ref> [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UNHCHR]], and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.<ref name="EU@UN"/><ref>{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013140444/http://web.amnesty.org/wire/March2007/Hmong |date=13 October 2007 |title=Hmong refugees facing removal from Thailand }} The Wire – Amnesty International's monthly magazine, March 2007, archived 13 October 2007 from [https://web.archive.org/web/20070313222829/http://web.amnesty.org/wire/March2007/Hmong the original]</ref><ref>[http://www.gfbv.de/pressemit.php?id=812 Deportation of Hmong Lao refugees stopped in last minute] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224030721/http://www.gfbv.de/pressemit.php?id=812 |date=24 February 2012 }} Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker, 30 January 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.unpo.org/article/6250 Hmong: UNHCR Protests Refugee Deportation] Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, 5 February 2007</ref>

====Alleged plot to overthrow the government of Laos====
{{Main|2007 Laotian coup d'état conspiracy allegation}}
 
On 4 June 2007, as part of an investigation labeled [[2007 Laotian coup d'état conspiracy allegation|Operation Tarnished Eagle]], U.S. federal courts ordered warrants issued for the arrest of [[Vang Pao]] and nine others for plotting to overthrow the government of Laos in violation of federal [[Neutrality Act of 1794|Neutrality Acts]] and for multiple weapons charges.<ref>Walsh, Denny. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427063714/http://www.sacbee.com/292/story/206120.html |date=27 April 2008 |title=Ten accused of conspiring to oust government of Laos }} The ''[[Sacramento Bee]]'', 5 June 2007, archived 27 April 2008 from [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013143724/http://sacbee.com/292/story/206120.html the original]</ref> The federal charges alleged that members of the group inspected weapons, including [[AK-47]]s, [[smoke grenade]]s, and [[Stinger missile]]s, in order to buy and smuggle into Thailand in June 2007, where they were intended to be used by Hmong resistance forces in Laos. Out of the 9 arrested, one was an American, Harrison Jack, a 1968 [[West Point]] graduate and retired Army infantry officer who allegedly attempted to recruit [[Special Operations]] veterans to act as [[mercenaries]].

To obtain the weapons, Jack allegedly met unknowingly with undercover U.S. federal agents posing as weapons dealers, prompting the warrants, part of a long-running investigation into the activities of the U.S.-based Hmong leadership and its supporters.

On 15 June, the defendants were indicted by a [[grand jury]]; a [[arrest warrant|warrant]] was also issued for the arrest of an 11th man allegedly involved in the plot. Simultaneous raids of the defendants' homes and work locations, involving over 200 federal, state and local law enforcement officials, were conducted in approximately 15 U.S. cities in [[Central California|Central]] and [[Southern California]].

Multiple protest rallies in support of the suspects, designed to raise awareness of the treatment of Hmong peoples in the jungles of Laos, took place in [[California]], [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]], and [[Alaska]]. Several of [[Vang Pao]]'s high-level supporters in the U.S. criticized the California court that issued the arrest warrants, arguing that Vang was a historically important American ally and a valued leader of U.S. and foreign-based Hmong. Calls to Californian [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and President [[George W. Bush]] to pardon the defendants went unanswered pending a conclusion to the large, ongoing federal investigation.<ref>Magagnini, Stephen and Walsh, Denny. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213074347/http://www.sacbee.com/291/story/229794.html |date=13 December 2007 |title=Hmong Rally for 'The General' }} The Sacramento Bee, 19 June 2007, archived 13 December 2007 from [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621195814/http://www.sacbee.com/291/story/229794.html the original]</ref>

On 18 September 2009, the U.S. federal government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if the person is convicted".<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/19/us/19general.html U.S. Drops Case Against Exiled Hmong Leader] ''The New York Times'', 18 September 2009</ref> On 10 January 2011, after Vang Pao's death, the federal government dropped all charges against the remaining defendants saying, "Based on the totality of the circumstances in the case, the government believes, as a discretionary matter, that continued prosecution of defendants is no longer warranted."<ref>{{cite news | title=Charges dropped against 12 Hmong men accused in plot to overthrow Laotian government | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2011/01/charges-dropped-against-12-hmong-men-accused-in-plot-to-overthrow-laotian-government.html | newspaper=Los Angeles Times | date=10 January 2011 | access-date=15 January 2011 }}</ref>

===Thailand===

[[File:Hmong kids in Thailand.jpg|thumb|Hmong kids in [[Thailand]]]]

The presence of Hmong settlements in Thailand is documented from the end of the 19th century on. Initially, the [[Siamese people|Siamese]] paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum in the peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while again many Hmong refused to take sides in the conflict. Communist [[guerrilla warfare]] stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority has since been given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity.<ref>Tapp, Nicholas, 1989 ''Sovereignty and Rebellion''. Oxford.{{page needed|date=January 2016}}</ref><ref>Cooper, Robert G. 1984 ''Resource scarcity and the Hmong response''. Singapore University Press, Singapore.{{page needed|date=January 2016}}</ref>

===In the United States===
{{Main|Hmong American}}

{{see also|List of Hmong Americans|History of the Hmong in Merced, California|Hmong archives|Lao Veterans of America|Laos Memorial|The Center for Public Policy Analysis}}
Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United States after the [[Vietnam War]]. Beginning in December 1975, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S., mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at that time under the [[Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act|Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975]]. In May 1976, another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong people had emigrated. This first wave was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General [[Vang Pao]]'s secret army. It was not until the passage of the [[Refugee Act of 1980]] that families were able to enter the U.S., becoming the second wave of Hmong immigrants. Hmong families were scattered across all 50 states but most found their way to each other, building large communities in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington State and Oregon. Smaller, but still sizeable communities also formed in Massachusetts ([[Lowell, Massachusetts|Lowell]]), Michigan ([[Detroit]]), Montana ([[Missoula]]) and Alaska ([[Anchorage]]).

==Culture==
[[File:Hmong Earrings.jpg|thumb|A pair of traditional Hmong fine silver earrings]]Hmong people have their own terms for their cultural divisions. ''[[Hmong Der]]'' ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Dawb}}), and {{Lang|hmn|Hmong Leng}} ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Leeg}}) are the terms for two of the largest groups in the [[United States]] and Southeast Asia. These subgroups are also known as the White Hmong, and Blue or Green Hmong, respectively. These names originate from the color and designs of women's dresses in each respective group, with the White Hmong distinguished by the white dresses women wear on special occasions, and the Blue/Green Hmong by the blue [[batik]]ed dresses.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Commercialized Crafts of Thailand |last=Cohen |first=Eric |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-8248-2297-8 |page=54}}</ref> The name and pronunciation "Hmong" is exclusively used by the White Hmong to refer to themselves, and many dictionaries use only the White Hmong dialect.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travisgore.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Hmong-Language-by-Xee-Vang.pdf |title=The Hmong Language |last=Vang |first=Xee |access-date=30 November 2019 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225131312/http://www.travisgore.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Hmong-Language-by-Xee-Vang.pdf }}</ref>

In the [[Romanized Popular Alphabet]], developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written ''{{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Dawb}}'' (White Hmong) and ''{{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Leeg}}'' (Green Hmong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight [[Tone (linguistics)|lexical tones]] the word is pronounced.<ref name="Tapp 2002 p78">{{Cite journal |last=Tapp |first=Nicholas |date=2002 |title=Cultural Accommodations in Southwest China: The "Han Miao" and Problems in the Ethnography of the Hmong |url=https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a1413.pdf |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=61 |issue=1 |page=78 |doi=10.2307/1178678 |jstor=1178678}}</ref>

White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of the [[Hmong language]], with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the [[Voiceless bilabial nasal|voiceless /m̥/]] in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in the Romanized Popular Alphabet. Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of [[head-dress]], or the provinces from which they come.<ref name="Tapp 2002 p78" />

===Vietnam and Laos===
The Hmong groups in Vietnam and Laos, from the 18th century to the present day, are known as Black Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Dub}}), Striped Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Txaij}}), White Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Dawb}}), Hmong Leng ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Leeg}}) and Green Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Ntsuab}}). In other places in Asia, groups are also known as Black Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Dub}} or {{Lang|hmn|Hmong Dou}}), Striped Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Txaij}} or {{Lang|hmn|Hmoob Quas Npab}}), Hmong Shi, Hmong Pe, Hmong Pua, and Hmong Xau, Hmong Xanh (Green Hmong), Hmong Do (Red Hmong), Na Mieo and various other subgroups.<ref name="Tapp 2002 p78" /> These include the Flower Hmong or the Variegated Hmong ({{Lang|hmn|Hmong Lenh}} or {{Lang|hmn|Hmong Hoa}}), so named because of their bright, colorful embroidery work (called {{Lang|hmn|pa ndau}} or {{Lang|hmn|paj ntaub}}, literally {{gloss|flower cloth}}).<ref name="X1">{{cite web|url=http://www.tenthousandvillages.ca/cgi-bin/category.cgi?type=store&item=pageZAAAD72&template=fullpage-en&category=fairtrade|title=Flower Hmong: Preserving Traditional Culture in Vietnam|year=2010|publisher=Ten Thousand Villages|access-date=21 January 2011|archive-date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721154504/http://www.tenthousandvillages.ca/cgi-bin/category.cgi?type=store&item=pageZAAAD72&template=fullpage-en&category=fairtrade}}</ref>

{{main|Miao people}}

[[File:Wietnam, Sapa, Strój ludowy trzech kobiet.jpg|thumb|Hmong folk costume in [[Sa Pa]], Vietnam]]
{{see also|Languages of China|Ethnic groups in Chinese history}}

[[File:FlowerHmong Vietnam (pixinn.net).jpg|thumb|A Flower Hmong woman in [[Vietnam]]]]
[[File:HouseBuildingInNorthernVietnam.jpg|thumb|A typical [[rammed earth]] house –building technique of Flower Hmong in Vietnam]]

===Hmong/Mong controversy===
{{globalize|section|date=February 2018}}
When Western authors first came in contact with Hmong people in the 18th century, they referred to them by writing [[ethnonyms]] which were previously assigned to them by the Chinese (i.e., ''Miao'', or variants).{{Citation needed|reason=reliable source needed for the whole sentence{{snd}}perhaps cite actual authors who made contact with Hmong in the 18th century|date=September 2010}} This practice continued into the 20th century.<ref name="SongsStories">{{Cite book | last = [[David Crockett Graham|Graham]] | first = David Crockett | title = Songs and Stories of the Ch'uan Miao | publisher = Smithsonian Institution | series = Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections | volume = 123,1 | location = Washington, D.C. | year = 1954 }}</ref> Even [[ethnographer]]s studying the Hmong people in Southeast Asia often referred to them as ''Meo'', an alteration of ''Miao'' applied by Thai and Lao people to the Hmong. Although ''Meo'' was an official term, it was often used as an insult against the Hmong people, and it is considered to be derogatory.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Thousand-Year Myth: Construction and Characterization of Hmong |journal=Hmong Studies Journal |year=1998 |first=Mai Na |last=Lee |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=http://members.aol.com/hmongstudiesjrnl/HSJ-v2n1_Lee.html#Fn5txt |access-date=10 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526123017/http://members.aol.com/hmongstudiesjrnl/HSJ-v2n1_Lee.html |archive-date=26 May 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{e25|mww|Hmong Daw}}</ref>

The issue came to a head during the passage of [[California State Assembly]] Bill (AB) 78, in the 2003–2004 season.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/kaoly_y/archives/HistoryBill78.html History of the Assembly Bill AB78] by Kao-Ly Yang {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027113906/http://www.geocities.com/kaoly_y/archives/HistoryBill78.html |date=27 October 2009 }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2016}} Introduced by Doua Vu and Assembly Member [[Sarah Reyes]], District 31 (Fresno), the bill encouraged changes in secondary education curriculum to include information about the [[Laotian Civil War|Secret War]] and the role of Hmong people in the war. Furthermore, the bill called for the use of oral histories and first-hand accounts by Hmong people who had participated in the war and were caught up in its aftermath. Originally, the language of the bill mentioned only "Hmong" people, intending to include the entire community. Several Mong Leng activists, led by Dr. [[Paoze Thao]] (Professor of Linguistics and Education at [[California State University, Monterey Bay]]), drew attention to the problems associated with omitting ''Mong'' from the language of the bill. They noted that despite nearly equal numbers of Hmong Der and Mong Leng in the United States, resources are disproportionately allocated to the Hmong Der community. This not only includes scholarly research, but also the translation of materials, including the curriculum proposed by the bill.<ref>Romney, Lee. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20210323215459/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-may-24-me-hmong24-story.html Bill spurs bitter debate over Hmong identity]." L.A. Times, 24 May 2003.</ref> Despite these arguments, ''Mong'' was not added to the bill. In the version of the bill that was passed by the assembly, ''Hmong'' was replaced by ''Southeast Asians'', a broader and more inclusive term.

Dr. Paoze Thao and some others strongly feel that ''Hmong'' can only be used in reference to Hmong Der people because it does not include "Mong" Leng people. He feels that the use of ''Hmong'' in reference to both groups perpetuates the marginalization of the Mong Leng language and culture. Thus, he advocates the use of ''Hmong'' and ''Mong'' in reference to the entire ethnic group.<ref>Thao, Paoze and Chimeng Yang. "[http://www.mong.ws/publications/Mong%20and%20Hmong%20Article%20June%202004.pdf The Mong and the Hmong]". Mong Journal, vol. 1 (June 2004). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204073037/http://www.mong.ws/publications/Mong%20and%20Hmong%20Article%20June%202004.pdf |date=4 February 2016 }}</ref> Other scholars, including anthropologist Dr. [[Gary Yia Lee]] (a Hmong Der person), suggests that for the past 30&nbsp;years,{{as of?|date=May 2025}} ''Hmong'' has been used in reference to the entire community and as a result, the inclusion of Mong Leng people is understandable.<ref>Lee, Gary and Nicholas Tapp. "[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~yeulee/Topical/12point%20statement.html Current Hmong Issues: 12-point Statement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321221201/http://members.ozemail.com.au/~yeulee/Topical/12point%20statement.html |date=21 March 2007 }}".</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2016}} Some argue that such distinctions create unnecessary divisions within the global community, arguing that the use of these distinctions will only confuse non-Hmong and Mong people who are both trying to learn more about Hmong and Mong history and culture.<ref>Duffy, John, Roger Harmon, Donald A. Ranard, Bo Thao, and [[Kou Yang]]. "[http://www.cal.org/co/hmong/hpeop.html People] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916061602/http://www.cal.org/co/hmong/hpeop.html |date=2012-09-16 }}". In The Hmong: An Introduction to their history and culture. The Center for Applied Linguistics, Culture Profile No. 18 (June 2004): 3.</ref>

As a compromise alternative, multiple iterations of ''Hmong'' have been proposed. A Hmong theologian, Rev. Dr. Paul Joseph T. Khamdy Yang has proposed the use of the term '''''HMong''''' in reference to the ''Hmong'' and the ''Mong'' communities by capitalizing the '''H''' and the '''M'''. The ethnologist Jacques Lemoine has also begun to use the term (H)mong in reference to the entirety of the Hmong and Mong communities.<ref name="Lemoine2005"/>

==Diaspora==
{{Further|Integration of Hmong people into urban society}}

Linguistic data shows that the Hmong of the peninsula stem from the Miao of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] language family.<ref>Ratliff and Niederer, in Tapp, Michaud, Culas and Lee, Hmong/Miao in Asia, Silkworm Press, 2004</ref> Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common.<ref>Tapp, N. 2001, Hmong in China. Brill{{page needed|date=January 2016}}</ref>

[[Vietnam]], where their presence is attested from the late 18th century onwards and characterized with both assimilation, cooperation and hostility, is likely to be the first [[Southeast Asia|Southeastern Eurasian]] country into which the Hmong migrated.<ref>Culas and Michaud, 2004, in Tapp, Michaud, Culas and Lee, Hmong/Miao in Asia. SIlkworm.</ref> At the 2019 national census, there were 1,393,547 Hmong living in Vietnam, the vast majority of them in the north of the country. The traditional trade in [[Taiwania|coffin wood]] with China and cultivation of the [[opium poppy]]''—''not prohibited in Vietnam until 1993''—''long guaranteed a regular cash income. Today, [[cash crop]]ping is the main economic activity. As in China and Laos, Hmong participate to a certain degree in local and regional administration.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Bonnin |first1=Christine |title=Markets in the mountains: upland trade-scapes, trader livelihoods, and state development agendas in northern Vietnam |url=https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/s4655m46k }}</ref> In the late 1990s, several thousands of Hmong started moving to the [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] and some crossed the border into [[Cambodia]], constituting the first attested presence of Hmong settlers in that country.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

In 2015, the Hmong in Laos numbered 595,028.<ref name="Census2015">{{cite web|url=https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/PHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf|title=Results of Population and Housing Census 2015 |publisher=Lao Statistics Bureau |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref> Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam.

After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from [[Laos]] had to seek refuge abroad (see Laos below). Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong have left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990.<ref>Culas and Michaud 2004</ref>

In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080.

[[Myanmar]] most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently.<ref>Michaud et al. 2016</ref>

As result of [[refugee]] movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular, in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in [[French Guiana]]; [[Canada]] admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to [[Australia]], 260 to [[China]], and 250 to [[Argentina]]. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced.<ref>Culas and Michaud 2004.</ref>

[[File:Hmong Girl in PhoCao HaGiang 2005.JPG|thumb|Hmong girl (aged 15) preparing wedding dress, Phố Cáo commune, Hà Giang province, Vietnam]]
Approximately 5% of the Hmong population currently lives outside of Asia, with the United States home to the largest Hmong diaspora community. The 2008 census counted 171,316 people solely of Hmong ancestry, and 221,948 persons of at least partial Hmong ancestry.<ref>2008 Southeast Asian American Data from the American Community Survey (Released Fall 2009)</ref> Other countries with significant populations include:<ref>Lemoine. "What is the number of the (H)mong in the world."</ref>
* [[France]]: 15,000
* [[Australia]]: 2,000
* [[French Guiana]]: 1,500
* [[Canada]]: 835
* [[Argentina]]: 600

[[Hmong Americans|The Hmong population within the United States]] is centered in the [[Upper Midwest]] ([[Wisconsin]], [[Minnesota]]) and [[California]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Pfeifer |first=Mark (compiler) |title=Hmong Population Research Project – Population |url=https://www.hmongstudiesjournal.org/uploads/4/5/8/7/4587788/pfeifer_hsj_26__1_.pdf |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire }}</ref>

===Vietnam===

Hmong people in [[Vietnam]] have been perceived differently by various modern political organizations and in different historical periods. Since the Hmong are an ethnic minority in Vietnam, their loyalty toward the Vietnamese state has been frequently questioned by the state. However, many Hmong in Vietnam are fiercely loyal, regardless of the current ideologies of the government;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/vietnam/articles/the-history-of-vietnams-hmong-community/|title=The History of Vietnam's Hmong Community|last=Pike|first=Matthew|website=Culture Trip|date=29 April 2018|access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref> the Hmong in [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] are the most supportive of active resistance. These tend to be Hmong Christians that have been targeted by all three Vietnamese governments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ucanews.com/news/hmong-catholics-keep-faith-in-vietnam-despite-hardship/83137|title=Hmong Catholics keep faith in Vietnam despite hardship - UCA News|website=ucanews.com}}</ref> The Hmong in Vietnam also receive cultural and political incentives from the government.<ref>{{cite web |title=Một số vấn đề cơ bản trong phát triển bền vững dân tộc Mông ở Việt Nam |url=http://cema.gov.vn/tin-tuc/tin-hoat-dong/hoat-dong-cua-uy-ban/mot-so-van-de-co-ban-trong-phat-trien-ben-vung-dan-toc-mong-o-viet-nam.htm |publisher=Ủy ban Dân tộc}}</ref> which led to the Vietnamese Hmong further diverging from the Laotian Hmong, since the latter are strongly anti-Vietnamese due to the Secret War and Communism.

===Laos===

There are 595,028 Hmong people in Laos. They mainly live in northern regions.

===Myanmar===
In Myanmar, Hmong are known as Myaung Zee or Hmont people. They are living mainly in northern, southern and eastern [[Shan State]], as well as in [[Wa State]].

===Thailand===
[[File:Hmong-Ban Phaya Phipak62.JPG|thumb|Hmong girls in [[Thoeng District]], [[Thailand]]]]
{{see also|Wat Tham Krabok}}
The Hmong presence in Thailand dates back to the turn of the 20th century when families migrated from China through Laos and Burma, according to most authors. A relatively small population, they still formed dozens of villages and hamlets throughout the northern provinces. The Hmong were registered by the state as the Meo hill tribe. Then, more Hmong migrated from Laos to Thailand following the victory of the [[Pathet Lao]] in 1975. While some ended up in refugee camps, others settled in mountainous areas among more ancient [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|Hill Tribes]].<ref name="Baird 2013 120–151">{{cite book|last=Baird|first=Ian G.|title=The monks and the Hmong: The special relationship between the Chao Fa and the Tham Krabok Buddhist Temple in Saraburi Province, Thailand. In Vladimir Tikhonov and Torkel Brekke (eds.), Violent Buddhism – Buddhism and Militarism in Asia in the Twentieth Century|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=120–151}}</ref>

===Americas===
{{Main|Hmong Americans}}

{{see also|List of Hmong Americans|History of the Hmong in Merced, California|Hmong archives|Lao Veterans of America|Laos Memorial|The Center for Public Policy Analysis}}
Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United States after the [[Vietnam War]]. Beginning in December 1975, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S., mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum under the [[Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act|Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975]]. In May 1976, another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong people had emigrated. This first wave was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General Vang Pao's secret army. It was not until the passage of the [[Refugee Act of 1980]] that families were able to enter the U.S., becoming the second wave of Hmong immigrants. Hmong families scattered across all 50 states but most found their way to each other, building large communities in California, Minnesota and Wisconsin. As of the 2010 census, 260,073 Hmong people reside in the United States,<ref name="wwwcensusgov">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/en.html|title=Census.gov|website=Census.gov}}</ref> the majority of whom live in California (91,224), then Minnesota (66,181), and Wisconsin (49,240), an increase from 186,310 in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov |title=Census Bureau Homepage |publisher=Census.gov |date=25 May 2012 |access-date=8 June 2012}}</ref> 247,595 or 95.2% are Hmong alone, and the remaining 12,478 are mixed Hmong with some other ethnicity. The vast majority of part-Hmong are under 10&nbsp;years old.

In terms of cities and towns, the largest Hmong-American community is in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] (29,662), followed by [[Fresno, California|Fresno]] (24,328), [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] (16,676), [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] (10,245), and [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]] (7,512).<ref name="wwwcensusgov" />

There are smaller Hmong communities scattered across the United States, including those in Minnesota ([[Rochester, Minnesota|Rochester]], [[Mankato]], [[Duluth]]); Michigan ([[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] and [[Warren, Michigan|Warren]]); [[Anchorage, Alaska]]; [[Denver, Colorado]]; [[Portland, Oregon]]; Washington; North Carolina ([[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], [[Morganton, North Carolina|Morganton]]); South Carolina ([[Spartanburg]]); Georgia ([[Auburn, Georgia|Auburn]], [[Duluth, Georgia|Duluth]], [[Monroe, Georgia|Monroe]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], and [[Winder, Georgia|Winder]]); Florida ([[Tampa Bay]]); California ([[Merced, California|Merced]]); Wisconsin ([[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]], [[Eau Claire, Wisconsin|Eau Claire]], [[Appleton, Wisconsin|Appleton]], [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], [[Milwaukee]], [[Oshkosh, Wisconsin|Oshkosh]], [[La Crosse, Wisconsin|La Crosse]], [[Sheboygan, Wisconsin|Sheboygan]], [[Manitowoc, Wisconsin|Manitowoc]], and [[Wausau, Wisconsin|Wausau]]); [[Aurora, Illinois]]; [[Kansas City, Kansas]]; [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]]; [[Missoula, Montana]]; [[Des Moines, Iowa]]; [[Springfield, Missouri]]; [[Arkansas]], [[Fitchburg, Massachusetts]],<ref name="wwwcensusgov" /> and [[Providence, Rhode Island]].<ref name="ProJoHmong">{{cite news|title=Rhode Island's Hmong-Lao community to mark 40 years of resettlement|url=http://www.providencejournal.com/news/20160508/rhode-islands-hmong-lao-community-to-mark-40-years-of-resettlement|access-date=19 September 2017|newspaper=The Providence Journal|date=8 May 2016}}</ref>

[[Sunisa Lee|Sunisa "Suni" Lee]] of [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]] is a notable Hmong-American; she is a three time Olympic medalist in artistic gymnastics. In the [[2020 Summer Olympics]], Lee won silver in the women's artistic team all-around, followed by gold in the women's artistic individual all-around and bronze in the women's uneven bars. With these results, Sunisa made history as both the first Hmong-American to compete in the Olympics in any sport and the first Hmong-American to win an Olympic medal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wpr.org/hmong-community-rejoices-sunisa-lee-becomes-first-hmong-american-gold-medalist|title=Hmong Community Rejoices As Sunisa Lee Becomes First Hmong American Gold Medalist|website=Wisconsin Public Radio|date=29 July 2021|author=Rob Mentzer}}</ref>

Canada's small Hmong population is mostly concentrated within the province of [[Ontario]]. [[Kitchener, Ontario]] has 515 residents of Hmong descent, and has a Hmong church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3530013&Data=Count&SearchText=kitchener&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1|title=2011 National Household Survey Profile – Census subdivision|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|date=8 May 2013}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=IX8kipA3v6gC&dq=kitchener+ontario+hmong&pg=PA95 The Hmong, 1987–1995: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography], ''Diane Publishing''</ref>

There is also a small community of several thousand Hmong who migrated to [[French Guiana]] in the late 1970s and early 1980s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hmongcenter.org/hmoninfrengu.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901225550/http://www.hmongcenter.org/hmoninfrengu.html |archive-date=1 September 2007 |title=Info about the Hmong in French Guyana – KaYing Yang, Hmong Cultural Center, 1994 |date=1 September 2007 |access-date=8 June 2012}}</ref> that can be mainly found in the Hmong villages of [[Javouhey]] (1200 individuals) and [[Cacao, French Guiana|Cacao]] (950 individuals).

The Hmong immigrant population of [[Detroit]] is a central focus of the 2008 film [[Gran Torino]], though that city does not have a significant Hmong population.

==Religious persecution==
Hmong [[Catholic]]s, [[Protestant]]s, and [[Animism|animist]]s have been subjected to military attacks, police arrest, imprisonment, [[forced disappearance]]s, [[extrajudicial killing]]s, and [[torture]] in [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]] on [[Marxist–Leninist atheism|anti-religious]] grounds.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1104/S00423/laos-vietnam-troops-execute-4-hmong-christians.htm|title=Laos, Vietnam Troops Execute 4 Hmong Christians|via=Scoop News|date=16 April 2011|publisher=Center for Public Policy Analysis|quote=Laotian and Hmong minority Christian and Animist believers continue to be hunted, brutally tortured, and killed by the Lao military in significant numbers in key provinces in Laos.}}</ref>

A significant example was the deportation of Zoua Yang and her 27 children from Thailand on 19 December 2005, after the group was arrested attending a church in Ban Kho Noi, [[Phetchabun province|Phetchabun Province]], [[Thailand]]. Ms. Yang and her children were detained upon their return to Laos, after which the whereabouts of much of the family is unknown.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/115/hres992/text|title=H.Res. 992 (115th): Condemning the actions taken by the Lao People's Democratic Republic against the Hmong ChaoFa Indigenous people, and for other purposes|via=GovTrack}}</ref>

In 2011, [[Vietnam People's Army]] troops were used to crush a peaceful demonstration by Hmong Catholic, Protestant and [[Evangelical Christian]]s who gathered in [[Điện Biên province|Dien Bien Province]] and the [[Dien Bien Phu]] area of northwestern Vietnam, according to Philip Smith of [[the Center for Public Policy Analysis]], independent journalists and others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Vietnam+troops+%27use+force%27+at+rare+Hmong+protest-a01612457562|archive-url=https://archive.today/20141202154541/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Vietnam+troops+'use+force'+at+rare+Hmong+protest-a01612457562|archive-date=2 December 2014|title=Agence France Press (AFP), (6 May 2011) "Vietnam troops 'use force' at rare Hmong protest"}}</ref> In 2013, [[Vam Ngaij Vaj]], a Christian pastor of Hmong ancestry, was beaten to death by Vietnamese police and security forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://morningstarnews.org/2013/03/hmong-christian-leader-in-vietnam-beaten-to-death-in-police-custody-sources-say/|title=Hmong Christian Leader in Vietnam Beaten to Death in Police Custody, Sources Say|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=28 March 2013|website=Morningstar News}}</ref> In [[Hanoi]], Vietnamese government officials refused to allow medical treatment for a Hmong Christian leader, Duong Van Minh, who was suffering from a serious [[kidney]] illness, in February 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/vietnam/duong-van-minh-02142014180616.html|title=Hanoi Hospitals Refuse Treatment to Ailing Hmong Christian Leader|website=Radio Free Asia|date=15 February 2014 }}</ref>

The [[U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom]] has documented official and ongoing religious persecution, religious-freedom violations against the Laotian and Hmong people in both Laos and Vietnam by the governments. In April 2011, [[the Center for Public Policy Analysis]] also researched and documented cases of Hmong Christians being attacked and summarily executed, including four Lao Hmong Christians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Laos,+Vietnam+troops+kill+four+Hmong+Christians%3A+NGO-a01612449350|title=''Agence France Press'' (AFP), (15 April 2011) "Laos, Vietnam troops kill four Hmong Christians: NGO"|access-date=11 December 2014|archive-date=13 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213030820/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Laos%2c+Vietnam+troops+kill+four+Hmong+Christians%3a+NGO-a01612449350}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Chi You]], (Huab Tais Txiv Yawg) a noted ancestor of the Hmong People
* [[Hmong churches]]
* [[Hmong cuisine]]
* [[Hmong customs and culture]]
* [[Hmong funeral]]
* [[Hmong music]]
* [[Hmong textile art]]
* [[Indochina refugee crisis]]
* [[Ban Phou Pheung Noi]]
* [[Wangyee Vang]]
* [[Vang Pobzeb]]
* [[Vang Pao]]
* [[List of Hmong people]]
* [[Long Tieng]]
* [[Sheboygan Hmong Memorial]]
* ''[[The Art of Not Being Governed]]''
* [[Bhutanese people]]
* [[Khmu people]]
* [[Nepalis]]
* [[Nyaw people]]
* [[Tai Dam people]]
* [[Tibetans]]
* [[Burmese people]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation|last=Cheung|first=Siu-woo|year=2003|title=Miao Identities, Indigenism and the Politics of Appropriation in Southwest China during the Republican Period|publisher=Asian Ethnicity}}
* {{cite book |last=Fadiman |first=Anne |title=[[The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down]]: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures. |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=1997 |isbn=0-374-26781-2}}
* Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, 'Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples' in: ''Ancient Chiang Mai'' Volume 3. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B006IN1RNW}}.
* Hillmer, Paul. ''A People's History of the Hmong'' (Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010). 327 pages. {{ISBN|978-0-87351-726-3}}.
* [TYPN 1992] The section on nomenclature draws heavily on ''Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter'', Number 17, June 1992, Department of Anthropology, [[Australian National University]]. Material from that newsletter may be freely reproduced with due acknowledgment.
* W.R. Geddes. ''Migrants of the Mountains: The Cultural Ecology of the Blue Miao (Hmong Njua) of Thailand''. Oxford, England: [[The Clarendon Press]], 1976.
*{{citation|last=Tapp|first=Nicholas|year=2003|title=The Hmong of China: Context, Agency, and the Imaginary|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers, Inc.}}
* Tapp, N., J.Michaud, C.Culasc, G.Y.Lee (Eds.) (2004). ''Hmong/Miao in Asia''. Chiang Mai (Thailand): Silkworm. 500 pages.
* [[Chia Youyee Vang]]. ''Hmong America: Reconstructing Community in Diaspora'' ([[University of Illinois]] Press; 2011) 200 pages; Combines scholarly and personal perspectives in an ethnographic history of the Hmong refugee experience in the United States.
* "[https://www.mnhs.org/hmong Hmong in Minnesota]". [[Minnesota Historical Society]], Explore Minnesota.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Bourne, ''Journey in Southwest China''. London: 1888.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Miaotsze}}
* Edkins, ''The Miau-tsi Tribes''. Foochow: 1870.
* Hamilton-Merritt, Jane (1999). ''Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942–1992''. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
* Henry, ''Lingnam''. London: 1886.
* Hookaway, James. "[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126195650007706809?mod=slideshow_overlay_mod Thai Army Forces Out Refugees]." ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. 28 December 2009.
* Johnson, Charles. ''Dab Neeg Hmoob: Myths, Legends and Folk Tales from the Hmong of Laos''. [[St. Paul, Minnesota]]: [[Macalester College]], 1983. – bilingual oral literature anthology, includes introduction and explanatory notes from a language professor who had sponsored the first Hmong family to arrive in Minnesota<!--Fadiman 294-->
* Keaw, A. H. ''Man: Past and Present''. Cambridge: 1900.
* Lloyd George, William (24 July 2010). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20100727120022/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2005706,00.html Hmong Refugees Live in Fear in Laos and Thailand]." ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''.
* [[Mai Na Lee|Lee, Mai Na M]]. "[https://www.hmongstudiesjournal.org/uploads/4/5/8/7/4587788/hsj-v2n1_lee.pdf The Thousand-Year Myth: Construction and Characterization of Hmong]." ''[[Hmong Studies Journal]]'', Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 1998.
* Meneses, Rashaan. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20151016100033/http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=12590 Hmong: An Endangered People]." UCLA International Institute.
* Mottin, Father Jean. ''History of the Hmong''. [[Bangkok]]: Odeon Store, 1980. Written in Khek Noi, a Hmong village in northern Thailand, and translated into English by an Irish nun.
* Quincy, Keith. ''[[Hmong: History of a People]]''. [[Cheney, Wash.]]: [[Eastern Washington University Press]], 1988.
* Savina, F. M. ''Histoire des Miao''. 2nd edition. [[Hong Kong]]: Impremerie de la Société des Missions-Etrangères de Paris, 1930. Written by a French missionary who worked in [[Laos]] and [[Tonkin]].<!--Fadiman p. 294-->
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|c=Category:Hmong}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161227015927/http://www.laoveteransofamerica.org/  Laotian and Hmong veterans and refugee families of the Lao Veterans of America, Inc.]
* [http://www.cppa-dc.org Center for Public Policy Analysis (CPPA) in Washington, D.C. Hmong human rights, religious persecution/ religious freedom violations and refugee issues]
* [http://www.hmongnet.org/ Hmong-related web sites] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417174405/http://www.hmongnet.org/ |date=17 April 2012 }} edited by Mark Pfeifer of the Hmong Cultural Center.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080406154059/http://www.centerforpublicpolicyanalysis.org/ Laos & Hmong Refugee Crisis & human rights violations against Hmong people in Southeast Asia, Centre for Public Policy Analysis, Washington, D.C.]
* [http://www.hmongnet.org/publications Publications list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527160023/http://www.hmongnet.org/publications/ |date=27 May 2012 }}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130518122119/http://www.hmongstudies.org/HmongStudiesJournal Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center]}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120319025845/http://www.hmongstudies.org/LearnaboutHmongwebsite.html Hmong culture studies]}} multimedia educational content
* [http://garyyialee.com/ Hmong history and culture] articles by Hmong Australian anthropologist, Dr. Gary Yia Lee
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200746/http://www.hmongcontemporaryissues.com/ Hmong Contemporary Issues] by Hmong French anthropologist and linguist, Dr. Kao-Ly Yang (English, French, and Hmong languages)
* [http://video.wpt.org/video/1726513324/ ''Being Hmong Means Being Free''] [[Wisconsin Public Television]]
* [http://hmongculture.net/hmong-people Learn about Hmong People & Culture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628213621/http://www.hmongculture.net/hmong-people |date=28 June 2023 }}
* [https://hmongsarecool.weebly.com/ Hmong Culture]

{{Ethnic groups in China}}
{{Ethnic groups in Thailand}}
{{Ethnic groups in Vietnam}}
{{Ethnic groups in Laos}}
{{Ethnic groups in Cambodia}}
{{UNPO}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hmong People}}
[[Category:Hmong people| ]]
[[Category:Hmong diaspora]]
[[Category:Hmong| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Laos]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Thailand]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam]]