View source for Hope

{{short description|Optimistic state of mind}}
{{About|the emotion}}
[[File:Hopeful.jpg|thumbnail|262px|A girl with a hopeful expression]]
{{emotion}}
'''Hope''' is an [[Optimism|optimistic]] [[Mental state|state of mind]] that is based on an [[wikt:expectation|expectation]] of positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in one's own life, or the world at large.<ref name=":1">
{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hope |title=Hope &#124; Define Hope at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date=1992-11-27 |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref> As a verb, Merriam-Webster defines ''hope'' as "to expect with confidence" or "to cherish a [[desire]] with anticipation".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hope |title=Hope – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref>

Among its opposites are dejection, [[Hopelessness scale|hopelessness]], and [[Depression (mood)|despair]].<ref>B. Kirkpatrick ed., ''Roget's Thesaurus'' (1995) pp.  852–3</ref>

Hope finds expression through many dimensions of human life, including practical [[reasoning]], the religious [[Hope (virtue)|virtue of hope]], legal doctrine, and literature, alongside cultural and mythological aspects.

==In psychology==
[[File:Assistants and George Frederic Watts - Hope - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Hope (Watts)|Hope]]'', which lay at the bottom of the box, remained. Allegorical painting by [[George Frederic Watts]], 1886]]

American professor of psychology [[Barbara Fredrickson]] argues that hope comes into its own when [[crisis]] looms, opening us to new creative possibilities.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Fredrickson |first=Barbara L. |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/positivity/200903/why-choose-hope |title=Why Choose Hope? |magazine=Psychology Today |date=2009-03-23 |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref> Frederickson argues that with great need comes an unusually wide range of ideas, as well as such positive emotions as happiness and joy, courage, and empowerment, drawn from four different areas of one's self: from a cognitive, psychological, social, or physical perspective.<ref>{{cite web|author=Fredrickson, Barbara L., et al. (2008)|title=Open Hearts Build Lives: Positive Emotions, Induced Through Loving-Kindness Meditation, Build Consequential Personal Resources|publisher=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, pp. 1045–1062|url=http://psycnet.apa.org.suproxy.su.edu/journals/psp/95/5/1045.pdf|access-date=2012-10-02|archive-date=2020-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404053743/https://login.suproxy.su.edu/login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fjournals%2Fpsp%2F95%2F5%2F1045.pdf}}</ref> Such [[Optimism|positive thinking]] bears fruit when based on a realistic sense of optimism, not on a naive "false hope".<ref>D. Goleman, ''Emotional Intelligence'' (1996)  p. 88</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roth |first1=Leopold Helmut Otto |title=Factor structure of the "Top Ten" positive emotions of Barbara Fredrickson |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |year=2021 |volume=12 |article-number=641804 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.641804 |pmid=34054647 |pmc=8162787 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The psychologist [[Charles R. Snyder]] linked hope to the existence of a goal, combined with a determined plan for reaching that goal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=28966&cn=110 |title=Breaking down Barack Obama's Psychology of Hope and how it may help you in trying times… – Wellness, Disease Prevention, And Stress Reduction Information |publisher=Mentalhelp.net |date=2008-11-05 |access-date=2012-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110102512/http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=28966&cn=110 |archive-date=November 10, 2012 }}</ref> [[Alfred Adler]] had similarly argued for the centrality of goal-seeking in human psychology,<ref>Eric Berne, ''What Do You Say After You Say Hello?'' (1974) p. 57–8</ref> as too had philosophical anthropologists like [[Ernst Bloch]].<ref>Peter Berger, ''A Rumour of Angels'' (1973) p. 79</ref> Snyder also stressed the link between hope and mental willpower ([[Hardiness (psychology)|hardiness]]),<ref>Snyder, Charles D.  The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There.  New York: The Free Press, 1994, pp. 7–8</ref> as well as the need for realistic perception of goals (problem orientation),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=D'Zurilla |first1=Thomas J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbprAAAAMAAJ |title=Problem-solving Therapy: A Social Competence Approach to Clinical Intervention |last2=Nezu |first2=Arthur M. |publisher=Springer Publishing |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8261-1266-8 |location=New York |language=en}}</ref> arguing that the difference between hope and optimism was that the former can look like wishful thinking but the latter provides the energy to find practical pathways for an improved future.<ref>Snyder, Charles D.  The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There.  New York: The Free Press, 1994, pg. 19</ref> [[D. W. Winnicott]] saw a child's antisocial behavior as expressing as a cry for help, an unconscious hope, meaning an unspoken desire for a positive outcome for those who are in control in the wider society, when containment within the immediate family had failed.<ref>D. W. Winnicott, ''The Child, the Family, and the Outside World'' (1973) pp. 228–9</ref> [[Object relations theory]] similarly sees the analytic [[transference]] as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts and traumas can be dealt with anew.<ref>P. Casement, ''Further Learning from the Patient'' (1990) p. 7</ref>

===Hope Theory===
As a specialist in [[positive psychology]], Snyder studied how hope and forgiveness can impact several aspects of life such as health, work, education, and personal meaning. He postulated that three main things make up hopeful thinking:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teachingpsychology.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/hope-theory.pdf |title=Hope Theory |website=Teachingpsychology.files.wordpress.com |access-date=2017-06-13}}</ref>

* Goals – Approaching life in a goal-oriented way.
* Pathways – Finding different ways to achieve your goals.
* Agency – Believing that you can instigate change and achieve these goals.

[[File:Auschwitz-hope after terror.jpg|thumbnail|left|A rose expressing hope, at [[Auschwitz concentration camp]]]]

In other words, hope was defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways.

Snyder argues that individuals who are able to realize these three components and develop a belief in their ability are hopeful people who can establish clear goals, imagine multiple workable pathways toward those goals, and persevere, even when obstacles get in their way.

Snyder proposed a "Hope Scale" which considered that a person's determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. Snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope. The Adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions: 4 measuring 'pathways thinking', 4 measuring 'agency thinking', and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale.<ref>Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., & Sigmon, D. R. (2002). Hope Theory: A Member of the Positive Psychology Family. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 257–276). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyder's Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS) to empirically measure hope.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.missouriwestern.edu/psychology/research/psy302/spring97/teresa_hunt.html |title=Self-concept, Hope and Achievement: A look at the relationship between the individual self-concept, level of hope, and academic achievement |publisher=Missouriwestern.edu |date=1997-05-01 |access-date=2012-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128043439/http://www.missouriwestern.edu/psychology/research/psy302/spring97/teresa_hunt.html |archive-date=November 28, 2012 }}</ref> Snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on one's goals, drawing on [[tacit knowledge]] of how to reach them.<ref>Snyder, Charles D., ''The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There''.  New York: The Free Press, 1994, p. 10</ref> Similarly, there is an ''outlook'' and a ''grasp of reality'' to hope, distinguishing '''No Hope''', '''Lost Hope''', '''False Hope''' and '''Real Hope''', which differ in terms of viewpoint and realism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/hope.htm|title=Emotional Competency - Hope|website=www.emotionalcompetency.com|access-date=9 June 2017}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| rowspan="2" |Hopeful
! rowspan="4" |Outlook
!Wishful
!Committed
|-
|Hopeful Outlook<br />Distorted Reality<br />'''False Hope'''
|Hopeful Outlook<br />Accurate Reality<br />'''Real Hope'''
|-
|Skeptical
|'''No Hope'''<br />Hopeless Outlook<br />Distorted Reality
|'''Lost Hope'''<br />Hopeless Outlook<br />Accurate Reality
|-
|Hopeless
!Helpless
!Surrendered
|-
|
|
! colspan="2" |Grasp of Reality
|-
|
|
|Uninformed<br />Distorted<br />Denied
|Informed<br />Accurate<br />Assimilated
|}

Contemporary philosopher [[Richard Rorty]] understands hope as more than [[goal setting]], rather as a [[metanarrative]], a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. Rorty as [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] believes past meta-narratives, including the Christian story, utilitarianism, and [[Marxism]] have proved false hopes; that theory cannot offer social hope; and that liberal man must learn to live without a consensual theory of social hope.<ref>D. L. Hall, ''Richard Rorty'' (1994) p. 150 and p. 232</ref> Rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.<ref>Rorty, Richard. Philosophy and Social Hope. London: Penguin Books, 1999</ref>

== In healthcare ==

=== Major theories ===
Of the countless models that examine the importance of hope in an individual's life, two major theories have gained a significant amount of recognition in the field of [[psychology]]. One of these theories, developed by [[Charles R. Snyder]], argues that hope should be viewed as a cognitive skill that demonstrates an individual's ability to maintain drive in the pursuit of a particular goal.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Snyder|first1=C.R|title=The Psychology of Hope|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyofhope00snyd|url-access=registration|date=1994|publisher=Free Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-02-929715-5 }}</ref> This model reasons that an individual's ability to be hopeful depends on two types of thinking: agency thinking and pathway thinking. Agency thinking refers to an individual's determination to achieve their goals despite possible obstacles, while pathway thinking refers to the ways in which an individual believes they can achieve these personal goals.

Snyder's theory uses hope as a mechanism that is most often seen in [[psychotherapy]]. In these instances, the therapist helps their client overcome barriers that have prevented them from achieving goals. The therapist would then help the client set realistic and relevant personal goals (i.e. "I am going to find something I am passionate about and that makes me feel good about myself"), and would help them remain hopeful of their ability to achieve these goals, and suggest the correct pathways to do so.

Whereas Snyder's theory focuses on hope as a mechanism to overcome an individual's lack of motivation to achieve goals, the other major theory developed by Kaye A. Herth deals more specifically with an individual's future goals as they relate to coping with illnesses.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weis|first1=Robert|last2=Speridakos|first2=Elena|title=A Meta-Analysis of Hope Enhancement Strategies in Clinical and Community Setting|journal=Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, Research and Practice|date=2011|volume=1|page=5|doi=10.1186/2211-1522-1-5|doi-access=free}}</ref> Herth views hope as "a motivational and cognitive attribute that is theoretically necessary to initiate and sustain action toward goal attainment".<ref name=Herth>{{cite journal|last1=Herth|first1=K.A.|title=Enhancing hope in people with a first recurrence of cancer|journal=Journal of Advanced Nursing|date=2000|volume=32|issue=6|pages=1431–1441|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2648.2000.01619.x|pmid=11136411}}</ref> Establishing realistic and attainable goals in this situation is more difficult, as the individual most likely does not have direct control over the future of their health. Instead, Herth suggests that the goals should be concerned with how the individual is going to personally deal with the illness—"Instead of drinking to ease the pain of my illness, I am going to surround myself with friends and family".<ref name=Herth />

While the nature of the goals in Snyder's model differ with those in Herth's model, they both view hope as a way to maintain personal motivation, which ultimately will result in a greater sense of optimism.

=== Major empirical findings ===
Hope, and more specifically, particularized hope, has been shown to be an important part of the recovery process from illness; it has strong psychological benefits for patients, helping them to cope more effectively with their disease.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wiles|first1=R.|last2=Cott|first2=C.|last3=Gibson|first3=B.E.|title=Hope, expectations, and recovery from illness: A narrative synthesis of qualitative research|journal=Journal of Advanced Nursing|date=2008|volume=64|issue=6|pages=564–573|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04815.x|pmid=19120569}}</ref> For example, hope motivates people to pursue healthy behaviors for recovery, such as eating fruits and vegetables, quitting smoking, and engaging in regular [[physical activity]]. This not only helps to enhance people's recovery from illnesses but also helps prevent illness from developing in the first place.<ref name="Enayati 2013" /> Patients who maintain high levels of hope have an improved prognosis for life-threatening illness and an enhanced quality of life.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Simonik|first1=T.|title=Reflections on hope and recovery|url=http://nedic.ca/|publisher=National Eating Disorder Information Centre|access-date=April 20, 2015}}</ref> Belief and expectation, which are key elements of hope, block pain in patients suffering from chronic illness by releasing endorphins and mimicking the effects of morphine. Consequently, through this process, belief and expectation can set off a chain reaction in the body that can make recovery from chronic illness more likely. This chain reaction is especially evident with studies demonstrating the [[placebo effect]], a situation when hope is the only variable aiding in these patients' recovery.<ref name="Enayati 2013" />

Overall, studies have demonstrated that maintaining a sense of hope during a period of recovery from illness is beneficial. A sense of hopelessness during the recovery period has, in many instances, resulted in adverse health conditions for the patient (i.e. depression and anxiety following the recovery process).<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Spot and Overcome Hopelessness in Recovery |url=https://www.newhoperanch.com/blog/overcoming-hopelessness/ |website=New Hope Ranch |date=July 2021 |access-date=Nov 19, 2022}}</ref> Additionally, having a greater amount of hope before and during cognitive therapy has led to decreased PTSD-related depression symptoms in war veterans.<ref name="Phillips 2012" /> Hope has also been found to be associated with more positive perceptions of subjective health. However, reviews of research literature have noted that the connections between hope and symptom severity in other mental health disorders are less clear, such as in cases of individuals with [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Schrank et al. 2008" />

Hope is a powerful protector against chronic or life-threatening illnesses. A person's hope (even when facing an illness that will likely end their life) can be helpful by finding joy or comfort. It can be created and focused on achieving life goals, such as meeting grandchildren or attending a child's wedding. Hope can be an opportunity for us to process and go through events, that can be traumatic. A setback in life, an accident, or our own final months of living can be times when hope is comfort and serves as a pathway from one stage to the next.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Stern |first1=Adam |title=Hope: Why it matters |date=16 July 2021 |url=https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/hope-why-it-matters-202107162547 |access-date=November 19, 2022}}</ref>

Hope is a powerful emotion that drives us to keep working and moving forward. It gives us the power to survive. In a study conducted by Harvard, Curt Richter experimented with 12 wild rats and 12 domesticated rats. The wild rats, known for their great swimming abilities, survived for only about two minutes when placed in a glass container of water with no way of escape. In contrast, the domesticated rats survived for days.<ref>{{cite web |last=Richter |first1=Curt |title=On the Phenomenon of Sudden Death in Animals and Man |date=July 1957 |url= https://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/abstract/1957/05000/on_the_phenomenon_of_sudden_death_in_animals_and.4.aspx |access-date=December 1, 2024}}</ref> Curt attributed this difference to hope. The domesticated rats hoped to be saved from drowning, but the wild rats had no such hope, as they had never experienced rescue.

Curt decided to run another experiment with 12 wild rats. He placed them in water, and when they were about to drown, he took them out and held them briefly, creating an experience of hope. He then returned the rats to the water to observe how long they would tread water. Remarkably, they survived just as long as the domesticated rats—about 60 hours. With hope, the rats went from surviving for 2 minutes to treading water for 60 hours.

Hope is a powerful emotion. It drives us to move faster, further, and longer than we thought possible. But for hope to thrive, it must be anchored in something more powerful than ourselves. The rats had hope that a saving hand would come and lift them out of the water.<ref name=":1" />

=== Applications ===
The inclusion of hope in treatment programs has potential in both physical and mental health settings. Hope as a mechanism for improved treatment has been studied in the contexts of PTSD, chronic physical illness, and terminal illness, among other disorders and ailments.<ref name="Phillips 2012">{{cite web|last1=Phillips|first1=Suzanne|title=Does Hope Really Make a Difference? Scientific Findings|url=http://blogs.psychcentral.com/healing-together/2012/07/does-hope-really-make-a-difference-scientific-findings/|website=PsychCentral|access-date=20 April 2015|date=August 2012|archive-date=21 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421220612/http://blogs.psychcentral.com/healing-together/2012/07/does-hope-really-make-a-difference-scientific-findings/}}</ref><ref name="Schrank et al. 2008">{{Cite journal|last1=Schrank|first1=Beate|last2=Stanghellini|first2=G|last3=Slade|first3=M|title=Hope in psychiatry: a review of the literature|journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica|volume=118|issue=6|pages=421–33|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01271.x|pmid=18851720|year=2008|s2cid=205802998|url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/hope-in-psychiatry-a-review-of-the-literature(d22cdded-f92e-4240-9e94-868928a538f6).html|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref> Within mental health practice, clinicians have suggested using hope interventions as a supplement to more traditional [[Cognitive behavioral therapy|cognitive behavioral therapies]].<ref name="Schrank et al. 2008" /> In terms of support for physical illness, research suggests that hope can encourage the release of [[endorphins]] and [[enkephalin]]s, which help to block pain.<ref name="Enayati 2013">{{cite news|last1=Enayati|first1=Amanda|title=How hope can help you heal|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/04/11/health/hope-healing-enayati/|website=CNN|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref>

=== Impediments ===
There are two main arguments based on [[Decision-making|judgment]] against those who are advocates of using hope to help treat [[Catastrophic illness|severe illnesses]]. The first of which is that if physicians have too much hope, they may aggressively treat the patient. The physician will hold on to a small shred of hope that the patient may get better. Thus, this causes them to try methods that are costly and may have many side effects. One physician noted<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jarrett|first1=Christian|title=Is it ethical to instill false hope?|url=http://digest.bps.org.uk/2013/09/is-it-ethical-to-instil-false-hope-in.html|website=Research Digest|access-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> that she regretted having hope for her patient; it resulted in her patient suffering through three more years of pain that the patient would not have endured if the physician had realized recovery was unfeasible.

The second argument is the division between hope and [[wish]]ing. Those that are hopeful are actively trying to investigate the best path of action while taking into consideration the obstacles. Research<ref name="Enayati 2013" /> has shown though that many of those who have "hope" are wishfully thinking and passively going through the motions, as if they are in denial about their actual circumstances. Being in [[denial]] and having too much hope may negatively impact both the patient and the physician.

=== Benefits ===
The impact that hope can have on a patient's recovery process is strongly supported through both empirical research and theoretical approaches. However, reviews of literature also maintain that more longitudinal and methodologically sound research is needed to establish which hope interventions are actually the most effective, and in what setting (i.e. [[Chronic condition|chronic illness]] vs. [[terminal illness]]).<ref name="Schrank et al. 2008" />

== In culture ==
In the matter of [[globalization]], hope is focused on economic and social empowerment.

Focusing on parts of Asia, hope has taken on a [[secular]] or [[Economic materialism|materialistic]] form in relation to the pursuit of economic growth. Primary examples are the rise of the economies of [[Economy of China|China]] and [[Economy of India|India]], correlating with the notion of [[Chindia]]. A secondary relevant example is the increased use of [[contemporary architecture]] in rising economies, such as the building of the [[Shanghai World Financial Center]], [[Burj Khalifa]] and [[Taipei 101]], which has given rise to a prevailing hope within the countries of origin.<ref>Moïsi, Dominique. "The Culture of Hope." The Geopolitics of Emotion: How Cultures of Fear, Humiliation, and Hope Are Reshaping the World. New York: Doubleday, 2009. 30–55. Print.</ref> In chaotic environments hope is transcended without cultural boundaries, Syrian refugee children are supported by UNESCO's education project through creative education and psycho-social assistance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/five_stories_of_hope_from_zaatari_refugee_camp/|title=Five stories of hope from Zaatari refugee camp - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|website=www.unesco.org|access-date=9 June 2017}}</ref> Other inter-cultural support for instilling hope involve food culture, disengaging refugees from trauma through immersing them in their rich cultural past.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2016/6/576d29884/berlin-refugee-guides-show-cultural-riches-home.html|title=Berlin refugee guides show off cultural riches from home|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|last=Refugees|access-date=9 June 2017}}</ref>

== In literature ==
[[File:Opened up a Pandora's box.jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Pandora]] trying to close the box that she had opened out of [[curiosity]]. At left, the evils of the world taunt her as they escape. The engraving is based on a painting by [[Frederick Stuart Church|F. S. Church]].]]
{{quote|text=Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul and sings the tune without the words and never stops at all.|author=[[Emily Dickinson]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sparknotes.com/poetry/dickinson/section2.rhtml|title=SparkNotes: Dickinson's Poetry: " 'Hope' is the thing with feathers—..."}}</ref>}}
A classic reference to hope which has entered modern language is the concept that "Hope springs eternal" taken from [[Alexander Pope]]'s ''Essay on Man'', the phrase reading "Hope springs eternal in the human breast, Man never is, but always ''to be'' blest:"<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8pEAAAAYAAJ&q=Essays%20on%20Man%2C%20Pope&pg=PA11 |title=An essay on man – Alexander Pope – Google Boeken |access-date=2012-10-02|year=1811 |last1=Pope |first1=Alexander }}</ref> Another popular reference, "Hope is the thing with feathers," is from a poem by [[Emily Dickinson]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/113/1032.html|first=Emily|last=Dickinson|title=Hope is the thing with feathers|access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref>

Hope can be used as an artistic plot device and is often a motivating force for change in dynamic characters. A commonly understood reference from western popular culture is the subtitle "[[Star Wars (film)|A New Hope]]" from the original first installment (now considered Episode IV) in the ''[[Star Wars]]'' science fiction [[space opera]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076759/|title="A New Hope" – Star Wars|publisher=IMDb.com|access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref> The subtitle refers to one of the lead characters, [[Luke Skywalker]], who is expected in the future to allow good to triumph over evil within the plot of the films.

The [[Swallow (bird)|swallow]] has been a symbol of hope, in [[Aesop's fables]] and numerous other historic literature.<ref>Christos A. Zafiropoulos (2001), Ethics in Aesop's Fables: The Augustana Collection, {{ISBN|978-9004118676}}, Brill Academic, page 61</ref> It symbolizes hope, in part because it is among the first birds to appear at the end of winter and the start of spring.<ref>Hope B. Werness (2006), The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in Art, {{ISBN|978-0826419132}}, page 395</ref> Other symbols of hope include the [[anchor]]<ref>M. Ferber, ''A Dictionary of Literary Symbolism'' (2007) 'Anchor'</ref> and the [[dove]].<ref>J. Matthews, ''The Grail Tradition'' (2011) p. 67</ref>

[[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] took a contrarian but coherent view of hope:-

{{quote|text=... Zeus did not wish man, however much he might be tormented by the other evils, to fling away his life, but to go on letting himself be tormented again and again. Therefore he gives Man hope,—in reality it is the worst of all evils, because it prolongs the torments of Man.|author=[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/Pessimism/comments/e0nf7q/nietzsche_on_the_last_evil_to_leave_pandoras_box/|title=Human, All Too Human (1878)|date=23 November 2019 }}</ref>}}

== In mythology ==
[[Elpis (mythology)|Elpis]] (Hope) appears in ancient [[Greek mythology]] with the story of [[Zeus]] and [[Prometheus]]. Prometheus stole fire from the god Zeus, which infuriated the supreme god. In turn, Zeus created a box that contained all manners of evil, unbeknownst to the receiver of the box. [[Pandora]] opened the box after being warned not to, and unleashed a multitude of harmful spirits that inflicted plagues, diseases, and illnesses on mankind. Spirits of greed, envy, hatred, mistrust, sorrow, anger, revenge, lust, and despair scattered far and wide looking for humans to torment. Inside the box, however, there was also an unreleased healing spirit named Hope. From ancient times, people have recognized that a spirit of hope had the power to heal afflictions and helps them bear times of great suffering, illnesses, disasters, loss, and pain caused by the malevolent spirits and events.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Magaletta, Philip R., & Oliver, J.M |date=April 1999|title=The Hope Construct, Will, and Ways: Their Relations with Self-Efficacy, Optimism, and General Well-Being|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199905)55:5<539::AID-JCLP2>3.0.CO;2-G|volume=55|issue=5|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology|pages=539–551|pmid=10392785|doi-access=free}}</ref> In [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Works and Days]]'', the [[personification]] of hope is named [[Elpis (mythology)|Elpis]].
::
[[Norse mythology]] however considered Hope (''Vön'') to be the slobber dripping from the mouth of [[Fenris Wolf]]:<ref>Tom Shippey, ''J. R. R. Tolkien'' (2001) p. 153</ref> their concept of courage rated most highly a cheerful bravery in the ''absence'' of hope.<ref>Tom Shippey, ''The Road to Middle-Earth'' (1992) p. 140–3</ref>

== In religion ==
Hope is a key concept in most major world religions, often signifying the "hoper" believes an individual or a collective group will reach a concept of [[heaven]]. Depending on the religion, hope can be seen as a prerequisite for and/or byproduct of spiritual attainment.

===Judaism===
The [[Jewish encyclopedia|Jewish Encyclopedia]] notes "tiḳwah" (תקווה) and "seber" as terms for hope, adding that "miḳweh" and "kislah" denote the related concept of "trust" and that "toḥelet" signifies "expectation".<ref>Kohler, K., Guttmacher, A., [https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7855-hope Hope], ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', accessed 16 February 2023</ref>

=== Christianity ===
{{main article|Hope (virtue)}}
[[File:Lourdes collecting water 1.jpg|thumbnail|People collecting the ''[[Lourdes water|miraculous water]]'' in [[Lourdes]], [[France]]]]

Hope is one of the [[three theological virtues]] of the Christian religion,<ref>"hope"  A Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Edited by Elizabeth Knowles. Oxford University Press, 2006. Oxford University Press.</ref> alongside [[faith (virtue)|faith]] and [[charity (virtue)|love]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bible-library.com/hope |title=Meaning of: Hope; Bible Definition |publisher=Bible-library.com |access-date=2012-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402102757/http://bible-library.com/hope |archive-date=April 2, 2012 }}</ref> "Hope" in the [[Holy]] [[Bible]] means "a strong and confident expectation" of future reward (see Titus 1:2). In modern terms, hope is akin to trust and a confident expectation".<ref name="bible1">{{cite web|url=http://bible.org/article/hope |title=Hope &#124; Bible.org – Worlds Largest Bible Study Site |publisher=Bible.org |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]] argued that Christ was a source of hope for Christians: "For in this hope we have been saved"<ref name="bible1"/> (see Romans 8:24).

According to the ''Holman Bible Dictionary'', hope is a "trustful expectation...the anticipation of a favorable outcome under God's guidance."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.studylight.org/dic/hbd/view.cgi?number=T2841 |title=HOPE – Holman Bible Dictionary on |publisher=Studylight.org |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref> In ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', it is [[Pilgrim's Progress#Characters|Hopeful]] who comforts Christian in Doubting Castle; while conversely at the entrance to [[Inferno (Dante)|Dante's Hell]] were the words, "Lay down all hope, you that go in by me".<ref>Dante, ''Hell'' (1975) p. 85</ref>

=== Hinduism ===
In historic literature of Hinduism, hope is referred to with ''Pratidhi'' (Sanskrit: प्रतिधी),<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/index.php?sfx=pdf prati-dhi] Sanskrit Lexicon, University of Koeln, Germany (2009), see page 666</ref> or ''Apêksh'' (Sanskrit: अपेक्ष).<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/index.php?sfx=pdf Apêksh] Sanskrit Lexicon, University of Koeln, Germany (2009), see page 56</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=apekSA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 apekSA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630151027/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=apekSA&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |date=2017-06-30 }} Spoken Sanskrit-English dictionary Version 4.2, Germany (2008)</ref> It is discussed with the concepts of desire and wish. In [[Vedas|Vedic philosophy]], ''karma'' was linked to ritual sacrifices (''yajna''), hope and success linked to correct performance of these rituals.<ref name=djr>De John Romus (1995), [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ijt/37-1_001.pdf Karma and Bhakti ways of Salvation: A Christological Perspective], Indian Journal of Theology, Volume 37, Issue 1, pages 1–14</ref><ref name=dsr>De Smet, R. (1977), A Copernican Reversal: The Gītākāra's Reformulation of Karma, Philosophy East and West, 27(1), pages 53–63</ref> In [[Vishnu Smriti]], the image of hope, morals and work is represented as the virtuous man who rides in a chariot directed by his hopeful mind to his desired wishes, drawn by his five senses, who keeps the chariot on the path of the virtuous, and thus is not distracted by the wrongs such as wrath, greed, and other vices.<ref name=mb>[[Maurice Bloomfield]], [https://archive.org/details/jstor-592741 The Mind as Wish-Car in the Veda], Journal of the American Oriental Society, Volume 39, pages 280–282</ref>

In the centuries that followed, the concept of ''karma'' changed from sacramental rituals to actual human action that builds and serves society and human existence<ref name=djr/><ref name=dsr/>–a philosophy epitomized in the [[Bhagavad Gita]]. Hope, in the structure of beliefs and motivations, is a long-term ''karmic'' concept. In Hindu belief, actions have consequences, and while one's effort and work may or may not bear near term fruits, it will serve the good, that the journey of one's diligent efforts ([[karma]]) and how one pursues the journey,<ref>David Krieger (1989), Salvation in the World – A Hindu-Christian Dialogue on Hope and Liberation, in Jerald Gort (Editor, Dialogue and Syncretism: An Interdisciplinary Approach), {{ISBN|0-8028-0501-9}}, see Chapter 14</ref> sooner or later leads to bliss and [[moksha]].<ref name=djr/><ref>Jeffrey Wattles, [http://www.wabashcenter.wabash.edu/syllabi/w/wattles/hkarma.htm The Concept of Karma in the Bhagawad Gita], Department of Philosophy, Wabash Center, Kent State University (2002)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Oliver |date=2011-03-22 |title=The manufacture of hope: religion, eschatology and the culture of optimism |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10286632.2010.543462 |journal=International Journal of Cultural Policy |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=115–130 |doi=10.1080/10286632.2010.543462 |s2cid=11071239 |issn=1028-6632|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
Buddhism's teachings are centered around the concept of hope. It puts those who are suffering on a path to a more harmonious world and better well-being. Hope acts as a light to those who are lost or suffering. Factors of Saddha (faith), wisdom, and aspiration work together to form practical hope. Practical hope is the foundation of putting those suffering on a path toward inner freedom and holistic well-being. It instills the belief in positive outcomes even in the midst of suffering and adversity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ask the Teachers: What is the Buddhist view of hope? |url=https://www.lionsroar.com/ask-the-teachers-what-is-the-buddhist-view-of-hope/ |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=Lion's Roar |language=en-US}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Defeatism]]
* [[Disappointment]]
* [[El Dorado]]
* [[Micawberism]]
* [[Optimism]]
* "[[Self-Reliance]]"
* ''[[The Principle of Hope]]''
* [[Utopianism]]
* [[Spe salvi]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Averill, James R. ''Rules of hope''. Springer-Verlag, 1990.
* Miceli, Maria and [[Cristiano Castelfranchi]]. "Hope: The Power of Wish and Possibility" in ''Theory Psychology''. April 2010 vol. 20 no. 2 251–276.
* Kierkegaard, Søren A. ''The Sickness Unto Death''. Princeton University Press, 1995.
* Snyder, C. R. ''Handbook of hope: theory, measures, & applications''. Academic [Press], 2000.
* Stout, Larry. ''Ideal Leadership'': Time for a Change. Destiny Image, 2006

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[[Category:Hope| ]]
[[Category:Emotions]]
[[Category:Propositional attitudes]]
[[Category:Optimism]]