View source for Hopi language

{{Short description|Uto-Aztecan language of Arizona, US}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Hopi
| nativename       = {{lang|hop|Hopilàvayi}}
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = Northeastern [[Arizona]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|6,080|2}}
| date             = 2015 census
| ref              = e25
| speakers2        = 40 [[monolingual]]s<ref name=e25/>
| ethnicity        = {{sigfig|7,350|2}} [[Hopi people|Hopis]] (Golla 2007)<ref name=e25/>
| familycolor      = Uto-Aztecan
| fam1             = [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]]
| fam2             = [[Northern Uto-Aztecan languages|Northern Uto-Aztecan]]
| script           = [[Latin script]]
| iso3             = hop
| glotto           = hopi1249
| glottorefname    = Hopi
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption       = {{center|Hopi is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.}}
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|person= |people= [[Hopi]]|language= Hopilàvayi,<br/>[[Plains Indian Sign Language|Hand Talk]]|country=[[Hopi Reservation|Hopitutskwa]]}}
'''Hopi''' (Hopi: {{lang|hop|Hopílavayi}}) is a [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan language]] spoken by the [[Hopi]] people (a [[Puebloan peoples|Puebloan]] group) of northeastern [[Arizona]], United States.

The use of Hopi has gradually declined over the course of the 20th century. In 1990, it was estimated that more than 5,000 people could speak Hopi as a native language (approximately 75% of the population), but only 40 of them were monolingual in Hopi. The 1998 language survey of 200 Hopi people showed that 100% of Hopi elders (60 years or older) were fluent, but fluency in adults (40–59) was only 84%, 50% in young adults (20–39), and 5% in children (2–19).<ref>{{Cite web |title = Status of Hopi language |url = http://mesamedia.org/Status_of_Hopi_language.html |access-date = 2015-09-08 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151215225513/http://mesamedia.org/Status_of_Hopi_language.html |archive-date = 2015-12-15 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

Despite the apparent decline, Hopi and [[Navajo language|Navajo]] both are supported by bilingual education programs in Arizona, and children acquire the [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] as their first language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://azednews.com/2014/07/07/dual-language-programs-grow-in-arizona-public-schools/ |title=Dual-language programs grow in Arizona public schools |website=azednews.com |quote=Tuba City Unified Superintendent Dr. Harold Begay is devoted to seeing the Navajo and Hopi languages and cultures thrive long into the future through district programs. |access-date=2015-08-17 |archive-date=2015-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719095615/http://azednews.com/2014/07/07/dual-language-programs-grow-in-arizona-public-schools/ |url-status=live}}</ref> More recently, Hopi language programs for children on the reservation have been implemented.<ref name="NprHopi">{{cite news |last=Sevigny |first=Melissa |author-link=Melissa Sevigny |title=Teaching To Protect The Hopi Language |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/17/751986794/teaching-to-protect-the-hopi-language |date=17 August 2019 |work=[[NPR]] |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817143718/https://www.npr.org/2019/08/17/751986794/teaching-to-protect-the-hopi-language |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Teaching and language revitalization efforts ==
The Hopi language has been part of several [[language revitalization]] projects.

In December 2000, [[Public broadcasting|public radio]] station [[KUYI]] 88.1 FM went on the air.  The [[National Public Radio]] affiliate was founded to preserve the Hopi culture and language by broadcasting to the community.  Online streaming was introduced on June 21, 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Locke |first1=Katherine |title=KUYI Hopi Radio brings culture to the airwaves |url=https://www.nhonews.com/news/kuyi-hopi-radio-brings-culture-to-the-airwaves/article_19eaf2d4-1131-5658-91bb-f8af7ba0a0f1.html |website=Navajo-Hopi Observer |access-date=19 May 2025 |date=14 April 2015}}</ref>

A comprehensive [[Hopi Dictionary: Hopìikwa Lavàytutuveni|Hopi-English dictionary]] edited by [[Emory Sekaquaptewa]] and others has been published, and a group, the Hopi Literacy Project, has focused its attention on promoting the language. As of 2013, "a pilot [[language revitalization]] project, the Hopi Lavayi Nest Model Program, for families with children birth through 5," is being planned for the village of [[Sipaulovi, Arizona|Sipaulovi]].<ref>{{Cite news
 |last        = Pardo
 |first       = Cynthia
 |title       = Preserving Hopi Language – Crucial to Children's Early Success
 |work        = Navajo-Hopi Observer
 |location    = Flagstaff, Arizona
 |access-date  = 2013-10-24
 |date        = 2013-10-18
 |url         = http://www.nhonews.com/main.asp?SectionID=109&SubSectionID=928&ArticleID=15783
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029195757/http://www.nhonews.com/main.asp?SectionID=109&SubSectionID=928&ArticleID=15783
 |archive-date = 2013-10-29
}}</ref>{{update inline|date=June 2014}}

In 2004, Mesa Media, a nonprofit organization, was created to help revitalize the language.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mesamedia.org/about-us/ |title=About Us – Mesa Media |website=www.mesamedia.org |access-date=2017-05-29 |archive-date=2018-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305063245/https://www.mesamedia.org/about-us/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since 2019, more recent Hopi language revitalization programs have been reported, involving language immersion for children.<ref name="NprHopi"/>

== Language variation ==

[[Benjamin Lee Whorf|Benjamin Whorf]] identifies four varieties ([[dialect]]s) of Hopi:
* ''First Mesa'' (or Whorf's ''Polacca'')
* ''Mishongnovi'' (or Whorf's ''Toreva'')
* ''Shipaulovi'' (or Whorf's ''Sipaulovi'')
* ''Third Mesa'' (or Whorf's ''Oraibi'')

First Mesa is spoken on [[First Mesa, Arizona|First Mesa]] (which is the eastern mesa) in Polacca village in [[Walpi, Arizona|Walpi]] pueblo and in other neighboring communities.{{efn|Polacca is at the base of First Mesa, unlike the other villages, which are on the top of the mesa. Polacca is shared by Hopi and Tewa peoples.}} A community of [[Hopi-Tewa|Arizona Tewa]] live on First Mesa, and its members speak [[Tewa language|Tewa]], in addition to a variety of Hopi and English and Spanish.

Mishongnovi is spoken on [[Second Mesa, Arizona|Second Mesa]] (which is the central mesa) in Mishongnovi village. Mishongnovi has few speakers compared to First and Third Mesa dialects. Shipaulovi is also spoken on Second Mesa in Shipaulovi village, which is close to Mishongnovi village. Whorf notes that other villages on Second Mesa are of unknown dialectal affiliation.

An introductory textbook ({{Harvcoltxt|Kalectaca|1978}}) has been written by a [[Shongopovi, Arizona|Shongopavi]] speaker. Shongopavi is another village on the Second Mesa, but its relation to other dialects has not been analyzed. The Third Mesa dialect is spoken on [[Hotevilla-Bacavi, Arizona|Third Mesa]] (which is the western mesa) at [[Oraibi, Arizona|Oraibi]] village and in neighboring communities, as well as in [[Moenkopi, Arizona|Moenkopi]] village, which lies off Third Mesa and at a distance west of it.

The first published analysis of the Hopi language is [[Benjamin Lee Whorf|Benjamin Whorf]]'s study of Mishongnovi Hopi. His work was based primarily on a single off-reservation [[Informant (linguistics)|informant]], but it was later checked by other reservation speakers. In his study, he states that Mishongnovi is the most archaic and phonemically complex of the dialects. The Third Mesa dialect preserves some older relics that have been lost in Mishongnovi.

{{Harvcoltxt|Malotki|1983}} reports that Third Mesa speakers of younger generations have lost the [[labialization]] feature of ''w'' on the different subject subordinator ''-qw'' after the vowels ''a'', ''i'', ''e'', ''u'' where they have ''-q'' instead. This loss of labialization is also found on the simultaneity marker where younger speakers have ''-kyang'' against older ''-kyangw''. In words with ''kw'' or ''ngw'' in the [[syllable coda]], the labialization is also lost:
: {{lang|hop|naksu}} (younger) vs. {{lang|hop|nakwsu}} (older) "he started out"
: {{lang|hop|hikni}} (younger) vs. {{lang|hop|kikwni}} (older) "he will drink"
: {{lang|hop|tuusungti}} (younger) vs. {{lang|hop|tuusungwti}} (older) "he got frozen"

== Language contact ==
Hopi is part of the [[Pueblo linguistic area]] (a [[Sprachbund]]) along with members of the [[Tanoan languages|Tanoan]] family, the [[Keres language|Keresan languages]], [[Zuni language|Zuni]], and [[Navajo language|Navajo]].

Hopi speakers have traditionally used Hopi as the language of communication with [[Zuni people|Zuni]]. They have also been in close contact with a Tanoan language for over 300 years since the [[Arizona Tewa]], who speak [[Tewa language|Tewa]], moved from the [[Galisteo Basin]] following the [[Pueblo Revolt]] to reside on First Mesa. The Arizona Tewa have traditionally acted as translators for the Hopi-speaking Tewa, Hopi, Navajo, Spanish, and English.

The Hopi had cursory contact with Spanish beginning with the explorers in 1540. In 1629 a small group of [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] missionaries started arriving in Hopi territory, building a church the following year. They remained there until 1680 when the [[Pueblo Revolt]] occurred and the Hopi expelled the Spanish from the region. Both the practices of the Spanish when there, and the stories of negative experiences of Puebloan refugees from the Rio Grande region, contributed to a Hopi attitude where acculturation was resisted or rejected.

A number of studies{{sfn|Dockstader|1955}}{{sfn|Hymes|1956}}{{sfn|Kennard|1963}}{{sfn|Hill|1997}} have focused on [[loanword]]s borrowed into Hopi from other languages.

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels ===

There are six basic vowels in Hopi:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | Non-front
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! [[unrounded]] || [[Roundedness|rounded]]
! [[unrounded]] || [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|High]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{grapheme|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɨ}} {{grapheme|u}}
|
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{grapheme|e}}
| {{IPA link|ø}} {{grapheme|ö}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}} {{grapheme|o}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Low]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ä|a}} {{grapheme|a}}
|
|}

{{IPA|/ø/}} descends from [[Proto-Uto-Aztecan language|Proto-Uto-Aztecan]] *o, while Hopi {{IPA|/o/}} descends from *u.{{sfn|Jeanne|1978|p=16}}

=== Consonants ===

Hopi dialects differ in their number of consonants. Below are two separate inventories of the Third Mesa and Mishongnovi dialects. The Third Mesa inventory has orthographic symbols and IPA transcriptions of those symbols when the IPA symbol differs from the orthographic symbol.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Third Mesa Hopi
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="3" | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="4" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! rowspan="2" | fronted
! colspan="2" | neutral
! rowspan="2" | backed
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! plain
! [[Labialization|labial]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{grapheme|ngy}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}} {{grapheme|ng}}
| {{IPA link|ŋʷ}} {{grapheme|ngw}}
| ||
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| {{IPA link|ts}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|cʲ}} {{grapheme|ky}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|kʷ}} {{grapheme|kw}}
| {{IPA link|k̠}} {{grapheme|q}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{grapheme|’}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|β}} {{grapheme|v}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʐ}} {{grapheme|r}}
| || || || ||
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|l}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|w}}
| ||
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Mishongnovi Hopi
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="3" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="4" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! rowspan="2" | fronted
! colspan="2" | neutral
! rowspan="2" | backed
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! plain
! [[Labialization|labial]]
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|m̥}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n̥}}
| || || || ||
| {{IPA link|ŋ̠̊}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ŋʷ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ̠}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
! <small>plain</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| {{IPA link|ts}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|kʲ}} {{IPAblink|cʲ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|kʷ}}
| {{IPA link|q}} {{IPAblink|k̠}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[Preaspiration|preaspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|ʰp}}
| {{IPA link|ʰt}}
| {{IPA link|ʰts}}
| || ||
| {{IPA link|ʰk}}
| {{IPA link|ʰkʷ}}
| {{IPA link|ʰq}} {{IPAblink|ʰk̠}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|v}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|r}}
| || || || ||
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|l̥}}
|
| {{IPA link|ȷ̊}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|w̥}}
| ||
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|l}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|w}}
| ||
|}

As seen above, the Mishongnovi dialect has a larger number of consonants when compared with the Third Mesa dialect. The additional consonants are a series of preaspirated stops and a series of voiceless sonorants.

There is [[idiolect]]al [[free variation]] with the voiced labial fricative represented with {{angbr|v}}, which varies between [[labiodental]] and [[Bilabial consonant|bilabial]] {{IPA|[v ~ β]}}. Before a consonant (word-medially) and at the end of words, it is not voiced although its realization is dependent upon dialect; Third Mesa speakers have {{IPAblink|p}} while Mishongnovi speakers have {{IPAblink|f}}.

The alveolar [[sibilants]] {{IPA|/ts/}} and {{IPA|/s/}} are [[Apical consonant|apical]]. In some Third Mesa speakers, they are palatalized to {{IPAblink|tsʲ}} and {{IPAblink|sʲ}}, which can sound similar to {{IPAslink|tʃ}} and {{IPAslink|ʃ}} of English. In Mishongnovi, {{IPA|/ts/}} is palatalized when at the beginning of syllables and non-palatalized elsewhere.

Hopi has a number of stop contrasts at the velar place of articulation that occur before the low vowel {{IPAslink|a}}. Elsewhere, the contrasts are neutralized. The velar in environments of neutralization is called "neutral" ''k'' by {{Harvcoltxt|Jeanne|1978}}. Before the front vowels {{IPAslink|i}} and {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, it is [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] with a fronted articulation and following palatal glide {{IPAblink|j}}. Thus, {{angbr|ki}} and {{angbr|ke}} are {{IPA|[cji]}} and {{IPA|[cjɛ]}}, respectively. Before the non-front vowels {{IPAslink|ɨ}} and {{IPAslink|o}}, it is a typical velar: {{angbr|ku}} is {{IPA|[kɨ]}} and {{angbr|ko}} is {{IPA|[ko]}}. Before the front rounded vowel {{IPAslink|ø}}, it has a backed articulation: {{angbr|kö}} is {{IPA|[ḵø]}}. Before {{IPAslink|a}}, there is a phonemic contrast with fronted velar with following palatal glide and the backed velar. Complicating this pattern are words borrowed from Spanish that have a velar followed by a low vowel. With the addition of these loanwords, a third velar contrast has been introduced into Hopi. Words with this borrowed velar are "neutral" and typically velar in articulation. Thus, there is a distinction between {{angbr|kya}} {{IPA|[cja]}} and {{angbr|qa}} {{IPA|[ḵa]}} in native words both of which are distinct from {{angbr|ka}} {{IPA|[ka]}} in [[loanword]]s.

The precise phonetics of these ''k'' consonants is unclear due to vague descriptions in the literature. {{Harvcoltxt|Voegelin|1956}} suggests that the fronted articulation represented by {{angbr|ky}} is distinguished more by presence of the palatal glide than by the difference in the articulatory position of the dorsal contact. He also mentions that the backed sound represented by {{angbr|q}} is "not-so-far-back". This suggests that this sound is post-velar and not quite [[Uvular consonant|uvular]]. {{Harvcoltxt|Malotki|1983}} describes the fronted sound and the sound from Spanish loanwords as palatal while the backed ones are velar. {{Harvcoltxt|Whorf|1946}} describes the fronted form as palatal with palatal glide before some vowels, The form from Spanish loanwords as "ordinary k", and the backed form as velar. Whorf's letter to [[Clyde Kluckhohn]] in {{Harvcoltxt|Kluckhohn|MacLeish|1955}} describes the backed velar as being like Arabic or Nootka {{angbr|q}}, which suggests a uvular articulation. Whorf's phonemicization of Mishongnovi posits the fronted version occurring before all vowels but {{IPAslink|ø}} (with a fronted allophone before {{IPAslink|i}}, {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, and {{IPAslink|a}}); the backed form occurring before non-high vowels ({{IPAslink|ɛ}}, {{IPAslink|ø}}, and {{IPAslink|a}}); and the form from Spanish loanwords before {{IPAslink|a}}.

Similarly to the velar stops, Hopi has a fronted dorsal nasal and a backed dorsal nasal represented as {{angbr|ngy}} and {{angbr|ng}}, respectively. The fronted nasal is palatal {{IPAblink|ɲ}}. The backed nasal is described as velar {{IPA|ŋ}} in Third Mesa speech and thus forms a "neutral" series with "neutral" ''k''. In Mishongnovi speech, Whorf describes the backed nasal as having the more rear articulation of the backed dorsal: {{IPAblink|ŋ̠}}.

The retroflex sound represented with {{angbr|r}} varies between a [[Voiced retroflex fricative|retroflex fricative]] ({{IPAblink|ʐ}}) and a flap {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, although the fricative realization is much more common. In Mishongnovi, this sound is only weakly fricative. In [[syllable]] coda position, it is devoiced to a [[Voiceless retroflex fricative|voiceless fricative]] {{IPAblink|ʂ}}.

The preaspirated stops {{IPA|/ʰp, ʰt, ʰts, ʰkʷ, ʰk, ʰq/}} and voiceless sonorants {{IPA|/m̥, n̥, ŋ̠̊, l̥, ȷ̊, w̥/}} of Mishongnovi only occur in syllable coda position. However, they do contrast with plain stops and voiced sonorants in this position. Whorf notes that the preaspirated stops also contrast with a similar sequence of {{IPA|/h/}} + stop.

=== Syllable structure ===

The most common syllable clusters are CV and CVC.

The CVCC cluster is very rare due to limited number of CC combinations in the language. This also makes it unusual to find the intrasyllabic clusters C-C and CC-C.

=== Stress ===

The stress pattern in Hopi follows a simple rule that applies to nearly all words.
* In words with one or two vowels, the first vowel is stressed.
* Where there are more than two vowels, the first vowel is stressed if it is long or it is directly followed by two consonants. Otherwise, the second vowel is stressed.

Some exceptions to this rule are {{lang|hop|sikisve}} "car", {{lang|hop|wehekna}} "spill" and {{lang|hop|warikiwta}} "running". We would expect the second vowel to be stressed but in fact the first one is stressed in these examples.

=== Tone ===
The Third Mesa dialect of Hopi has developed [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] on long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel + sonorant sequences. This dialect has either falling tones or level tones.

The falling tone (high-low) in the Third Mesa dialect corresponds to either a vowel + preaspirated consonant, a vowel + voiceless sonorant, or a vowel + ''h'' sequence in the Second Mesa dialect recorded by Whorf.

== Orthography ==

Hopi is written using the Latin alphabet.

The vowel letters correspond to the phonemes of Hopi as follows, and long vowels are written double.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | IPA
| {{IPAslink|a}}
| {{IPAslink|ɛ}}
| {{IPAslink|ɪ}}
| {{IPAslink|o}}
| {{IPAslink|ɨ}}
| {{IPAslink|ø}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | orthography
! short
| {{angbr|a}}
| {{angbr|e}}
| {{angbr|i}}
| {{angbr|o}}
| {{angbr|u}}
| {{angbr|ö}}
|-
! long
| {{angbr|aa}}
| {{angbr|ee}}
| {{angbr|ii}}
| {{angbr|oo}}
| {{angbr|uu}}
| {{angbr|öö}}
|}

Consonants are written:
* {{angbr|’}} {{IPAslink|ʔ}}
* {{angbr|h}} {{IPAslink|h}}
* {{angbr|k}} {{IPAslink|k}}
* {{angbr|ky}} {{IPA|/kʲ/}}
* {{angbr|kw}} {{IPA|/kʷ/}}
* {{angbr|l}} {{IPAslink|l}}
* {{angbr|m}} {{IPAslink|m}}
* {{angbr|n}} {{IPAslink|n}}
* {{angbr|ng}} {{IPAslink|ŋ}}
* {{angbr|ngw}} {{IPA|/ŋʷ/}}
* {{angbr|ngy}} {{IPAslink|ɲ}}
* {{angbr|p}} {{IPAslink|p}}
* {{angbr|q}} {{IPA|/k̠/}}
* {{angbr|qw}} {{IPA|/k̠ʷ/}}
* {{angbr|r}} {{IPAslink|ʐ}}
* {{angbr|s}} {{IPAslink|s}}
* {{angbr|t}} {{IPAslink|t}}
* {{angbr|ts}} {{IPAslink|ts}}
* {{angbr|v}} {{IPAslink|β}}
* {{angbr|w}} {{IPAslink|w}}
* {{angbr|y}} {{IPAslink|j}}

Falling accent is marked with a grave {{angbr|`}}: {{lang|hop|tsirò}} 'birds'.

To distinguish certain consonants written as [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] from similar looking phonemes meeting across syllable boundaries, a period is used: {{lang|hop|kwaahu}} ('eagle') but {{lang|hop|kuk.wuwàaqe}} ('to follow tracks').

The [[Deseret alphabet]], an alphabetical system developed by Mormon scholars in modern-day Utah, was used for academic notation of the language in a handwritten English–Hopi dictionary made in 1860 that was rediscovered in 2014.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beesley |first1=Kenneth R. |last2=Elzinga |first2=Dirk |year=2014 |title=An 1860 English–Hopi Vocabulary Written in the Deseret Alphabet |publisher=University of Utah Press}}</ref>

== Morphology ==

=== Suffixes ===

Hopi uses suffixes for a variety of purposes. Some examples are:

{| class="wikitable"
! suffix
! purpose
! example
! meaning
|-
|{{lang|hop|ma}}
|go along
|{{lang|hop|wayma}}
|walking along
|-
|{{lang|hop|numa}}
|go around
|{{lang|hop|waynuma}}
|walking around
|-
|{{lang|hop|mi}}
|to, towards
|{{lang|hop|itamumi}}
|towards us
|-
|{{lang|hop|ni}}
|future
|{{lang|hop|tuuvani}}
|will throw
|-
|{{lang|hop|ngwu}}
|habitual suffix
|{{lang|hop|tuuvangwu}}
|usually throws
|-
|{{lang|hop|ve/pe}}
|location
|{{lang|hop|Ismo'walpe}}
|at Ismo'wala
|-
|{{lang|hop|q}}
|distance suffix
|{{lang|hop|atkyamiq}}
|all the way to the bottom
|-
|{{lang|hop|sa}}
|only
|{{lang|hop|suksa}}
|only one
|}

Hopi also has free postpositions:

{| class="wikitable"
|{{lang|hop|akw}}
|with (instrumental)
|-
|{{lang|hop|angkw}}
|from
|-
|{{lang|hop|ep}}
|at/in/on
|}

Nouns are marked as oblique by either the suffixes ''-t'' for simple nouns or ''-y'' for dual nouns (those referring to exactly two individuals), possessed nouns or plural nouns.

Some examples are shown below:

{| class="wikitable"
! nominative
! oblique
! meaning
|-
|{{lang|hop|himutski}}
|{{lang|hop|himutskit}}
|shrub
|-
|{{lang|hop|iisaw}}
|{{lang|hop|iisawuy}}
|coyote
|-
|{{lang|hop|itam}}
|{{lang|hop|itamuy}}
|we/us
|-
|{{lang|hop|nuva}}
|{{lang|hop|nuvat}}
|snow
|-
|{{lang|hop|nu'}}
|{{lang|hop|nuy}}
|I/me
|-
|{{lang|hop|paahu}}
|{{lang|hop|paahut}}
|spring water
|-
|{{lang|hop|pam}}
|{{lang|hop|put}}
|he/she/it
|-
|{{lang|hop|puma}}
|{{lang|hop|pumuy}}
|they
|-
|{{lang|hop|tuuwa}}
|{{lang|hop|tuuwat}}
|sand
|-
|{{lang|hop|um}}
|{{lang|hop|ung}}
|you
|}

Verbs are also marked by suffixes but these are not used in a regular pattern. For example, the suffixes ''-lawu'' and ''-ta'' are both used to make a simple verb into a durative one (implying the action is ongoing and not yet complete) but it is hard to predict which suffix applies to which verbs. Second language learners of Hopi usually simply learn this by rote.

There are some gender specific terms in Hopi:

{| class="wikitable"
! male speech
! female speech
! meaning
|-
|{{lang|hop|a'ni}}
|{{lang|hop|hin'ur}}
|very
|-
|{{lang|hop|kwakwha}}
|{{lang|hop|askwali}}
|thank you
|-
|{{lang|hop|lolma}}
|{{lang|hop|nukwangw}}
|good
|-
|{{lang|hop|owi, 'wi}}
|{{lang|hop|oo'o, 'wiya}}
|yes
|}

=== Morphological processes ===
* [[Elision]] – when the stress-shift would cause a clipped vowel not in the first syllable to have a low stress, that vowel is elided.
* [[Lenition]] – initial ''p'' becomes ''v'' when it becomes internal to a word or when the word is preceded by another word used as an adjectival or an incorporated verbal [[Grammatical modifier|modifier]].
* [[Reduplication]] – stem-initial CV, stem-final CV and word-final V are reduplicated.

== Syntax ==
=== Word order ===
The simplest type of sentence in Hopi is simply a subject and a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]]: 'Maana wuupa' (the girl is tall).

However, many Hopi sentences also include an object, which is inserted between the subject and the verb. Thus, Hopi is a [[subject–object–verb]] language.

=== Case ===
Nouns are marked as [[subject case|subject]] or [[oblique case|oblique]], as shown above.

Pronouns are also marked as either nominative or oblique. For example, the singular subject pronoun "you" in Hopi is {{lang|hop|um}}, and the form for the singular object pronoun is {{lang|hop|ung}}.

[[Demonstrative]]s are marked by case in Hopi, shown first in their nominative form and then in their oblique form:

* {{lang|hop|iˈ/it}} – this
* {{lang|hop|pam/put}} – it
* {{lang|hop|miˈ/mit}} – that
* {{lang|hop|ima/imuy}} – these
* {{lang|hop|puma/pumuy}} – them
* {{lang|hop|mima/mimuy}} – those

=== Number ===
Hopi has [[plural verb]]s. [[Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]] noun subjects take the dual suffix ''-vit'' but singular verbs. Hopi does not have dual pronouns; instead, the plural pronouns may be used with singular verbs for a dual meaning. Noun and verb plurality is indicated, among other devices, by partial [[reduplication]], marked in the gloss below with a tilde (~).

{|class=wikitable
! !!Noun subject!!Pronoun subject
|-
!rowspan=2|Singular
|{{lang|hop|taaqa nöösa}}
|{{lang|hop|ni’ nöösa}}
|-
|a man ate
|I ate
|-
!rowspan=2|Dual
|{{lang|hop|taaqa-vit nöösa}}
|{{lang|hop|itam nöösa}}
|-
|two men ate
|we two ate
|-
!rowspan=2|Plural
|{{lang|hop|taa~taqt nöö~nösa}}
|{{lang|hop|itam nöö~nösa}}
|-
|several men ate
|we all ate
|}

== Metalinguistics ==
{{main|Hopi time controversy}}
[[Benjamin Lee Whorf]], a well-known [[linguistics|linguist]] and still one of the foremost authorities on the relationships obtaining between southwestern and Central American languages, used Hopi to exemplify his [[Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis|argument]] that one's worldview is affected by one's language and vice versa. Among Whorf's best-known claims was that Hopi had "no words, grammatical forms, construction or expressions that refer directly to what we call 'time.'"<ref>Carroll, John B. (ed.) (1956). ''Language Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf''. MIT Press: Boston, Massachusetts. {{ISBN|978-0-262-73006-8}}</ref> Whorf's statement has been misunderstood by many to mean that Hopi has no concept of duration or succession of time at all, but in fact Whorf scholars like [[Penny Lee]] and [[John A Lucy]] have argued that he meant only that the Hopi have no conception of time as an object or a substance that may be divided and subdivided. Furthermore, according to John A. Lucy, many of Whorf's critics have failed to read his writings accurately, preferring instead to proffer uncharitable caricatures of his arguments.{{sfn|Lucy|1992}}

== See also ==
* [[Hopi Dictionary: Hopìikwa Lavàytutuveni]]
* [[Qatsi trilogy]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book
 |first = J. O. |last = Brew
 |date = 1979
 |chapter = Hopi prehistory and history to 1850
 |title = Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest
 |editor-first = A. |editor-last = Ortiz
 |volume = 9
 |pages = 514–523
 |location = Washington, D.C.
 |publisher = Smithsonian Institution
}}
* {{cite book
 |first = John C. |last = Connelly
 |date = 1979
 |chapter = Hopi social organization
 |title = Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest
 |editor-first = A. |editor-last = Ortiz
 |volume = 9
 |pages = 539–553
 |location = Washington, D.C.
 |publisher = Smithsonian Institution
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = Frederick J. |last = Dockstader
 |year = 1955
 |title = Spanish loanwords in Hopi: A preliminary checklist
 |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-american-linguistics_1955-04_21_2/page/156 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 21
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 157–159
 |s2cid = 143816567
 |doi = 10.1086/464324
}}
* Harrington, John P. (1913). [Linguistic fieldnotes based on work with a speaker of Oraibi Hopi]. (National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution).
* {{citation
 |first = Kenneth C. |last = Hill
 |year = 1997
 |chapter = Spanish loanwords in Hopi.
 |title = The life of language: Papers in linguistics in honor of William Bright
 |editor-first = J.H. |editor-last = Hill
 |editor-first2 = P.J. |editor-last2 = Mistry
 |editor-first3 = L. |editor-last3 = Campbell
 |series = Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs
 |number = 108
 |place = Berlin
 |publisher = Mouton de Gruyter.
 |pages = 19–24
}}
* Hopi Dictionary Project (University of Arizona Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology). (1998). ''Hopi dictionary: Hopìikwa Lavàytutuveni: A Hopi–English dictionary of the Third Mesa dialect with an English–Hopi finder list and a sketch of Hopi grammar''. Tucson, Arizona: [[University of Arizona Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8165-1789-4}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = D. H. |last = Hymes
 |year = 1956
 |title = The supposed Spanish loanword in Hopi for 'jaybird'
 |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-american-linguistics_1956-04_22_2/page/186 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 22
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 186–187
 |doi = 10.1086/464362
 |s2cid = 143642814
}}
* {{cite thesis
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 |year = 1978
 |title = Aspects of Hopi grammar
 |degree = PhD
 |publisher = MIT
 |hdl = 1721.1/16325
}}
* {{cite journal
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 |year = 1982
 |title = Some phonological rules of Hopi
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 |volume = 48
 |issue = 3
 |pages = 245–270
 |s2cid = 143643843
 |doi = 10.1086/465734
}}
* {{cite book
 |first = Milo |last = Kalectaca
 |date = 1978
 |title = Lessons in Hopi
 |location = Tucson, Arizona
 |publisher = University of Arizona Press
}}
* {{cite journal
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 |year = 1963
 |title = Linguistic acculturation in Hopi
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 |volume = 29
 |issue = 1
 |pages = 36–41
 |s2cid = 143928841
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}}
* {{cite book
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 |location = Palmer Lake, Colorado
 |publisher = Filter Press
}}
* {{cite journal
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 |year = 1955
 |title = Moencopi variations from Whorf's Second Mesa Hopi
 |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-american-linguistics_1955-04_21_2/page/150 |jstor = 1263941
 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 21
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 150–156
 |doi = 10.1086/464323
 |s2cid = 143319549
}}
* {{cite book
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 |date = 1992
 |title = Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
 |series = Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language
 |publisher = Cambridge University Press
 |place = Cambridge
 |isbn = 978-0521387972
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = Alexis |last = Manaster-Ramer |author-link = Alexis Manaster Ramer
 |year = 1986
 |title = Genesis of Hopi tones
 |jstor = 1265374
 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 52
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 154–160
 |doi = 10.1086/466010
 |s2cid = 144768505
}}
* {{cite book
 |first = Ekkehart |last = Malotki |author-link = Ekkehart Malotki
 |year = 1983
 |title = Hopi time: A linguistic analysis of the temporal concepts in the Hopi language
 |series = Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs (No. 20)
 |publisher = Mouton De Gruyter
 |place = Berlin / New York / Amsterdam
 |ISBN = 90-279-3349-9
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = P. David |last = Seaman
 |date = 1977
 |title = Hopi Linguistics: An Annotated Bibliography
 |journal = Anthropological Linguistics
 |volume = 19
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 78–97
 |jstor = 30027313
}}
* Seqaquaptewa, E. (1994). ''Iisaw niqw tsaayantotaqam tsiròot''. Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light.
* Seqaquaptewa, E. (1994). ''Iisaw niqw yöngösonhoya''. Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light.
* Stephen, Alexander M. (1936). ''Hopi journal of Alexander M. Stephen''. Parsons, E. C. (Ed.). Columbia University contributions to anthropology (No. 23). New York: Columbia University Press.
* {{cite journal
 |first = Mischa |last = Titiev
 |year = 1946
 |title = Suggestions for the further study of Hopi
 |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-american-linguistics_1946_12_2/page/88 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 12
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 89–91
 |doi = 10.1086/463895
 |s2cid = 144830663
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = C. F. |last = Voegelin
 |year = 1956
 |title = Phonemicizing for dialect study: With reference to Hopi
 |journal = Language
 |volume = 32
 |issue = 1
 |pages = 116–135
 |doi = 10.2307/410660
 |jstor = 410660
}}
* Whorf, Benjamin Lee. (1936). [Notes on Hopi grammar and pronunciation; Mishongnovi forms]. In E. C. Parsons (Ed.), ''Hopi journal of Alexander M. Stephen'' (Vol. 2, pp.&nbsp;1198–1326). Columbia University contributions to anthropology (No. 23). New York: Columbia University Press.
* {{cite journal
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |year = 1936
 |title = The punctual and segmentative aspects of verbs in Hopi
 |jstor = 408755
 |journal = Language
 |volume = 12
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 127–131
 |doi = 10.2307/408755
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |year = 1938
 |title = Some verbal categories of Hopi
 |jstor = 409181
 |journal = Language
 |volume = 14
 |issue = 4
 |pages = 275–286
 |doi = 10.2307/409181
}}
* {{cite book
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |date = 1941
 |chapter = The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language
 |title = Language, culture, and personality: Essays in memory of Edward Sapir
 |editor-first1 = L. |editor-last1 = Spier
 |editor-first2 = A. I. |editor-last2 = Hallowell
 |editor-first3 = S. S. |editor-last3 = Newman 
 |pages = 75–93
 |location = Menasha, WI
 |publisher = Sapir Memorial Publication Fund
}}
* {{cite book
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |year = 1946
 |chapter = The Hopi language, Toreva dialect
 |editor-first = C. |editor-last = Osgood
 |title = Linguistic structures of native America
 |pages = 158–183
 |series = Viking Fund publications in anthropology (No. 6)
 |location = New York
 |publisher = The Viking Fund, Inc.
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |year = 1950
 |title = An American Indian model of the universe
 |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-american-linguistics_1950-04_16_2/page/66 |jstor = 1262850
 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 16
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 67–72
 |doi = 10.1086/464066
 |s2cid = 54491985
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |year = 1952
 |title = Linguistic factors in the terminology of Hopi architecture
 |jstor = 1262812
 |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics
 |volume = 19
 |issue = 2
 |pages = 141–145
 |s2cid = 144233449
 |doi = 10.1086/464204
}}
* {{cite book
 |first = Benjamin Lee |last = Whorf |author-link = Benjamin Lee Whorf
 |date = 1956
 |chapter = Discussion of Hopi linguistics
 |title = Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin L. Whorf
 |editor-first = J. B. |editor-last = Carroll
 |pages = 102–111
 |publisher = John Wiley
 |location = New York
}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [[wiktionary:Appendix:Uto-Aztecan_Swadesh_lists|Hopi Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words]] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix])
* [https://www.cs.vu.nl/~dick/Summaries/Languages/Hopi.pdf Hopi: Survey of an Uto-Aztecan Language]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111221080319/http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED226942.pdf Lessons in the Hopi language by the University of Arizona Press (free downloadable PDF)]
* [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-hopi/en/hop/ How to count in Hopi]

{{Uto-Aztecan languages}}
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