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{{Short description|Ancient Greek soldier in a phalanx}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
[[File:Hoplite1.gif|thumb|upright=0.8|right|A Greek hoplite]]
'''Hoplites''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒ|p|l|aɪ|t|s}} {{respell |HOP|lytes}}<ref>{{cite web |title=hoplite {{!}} Definition of hoplite in English by Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/hoplite |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115140724/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/hoplite |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 November 2018 |website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English |access-date=20 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Hoplite |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hoplite |website=www.merriam-webster.com |date=27 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=hoplite |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/hoplite |website=www.dictionary.com |access-date=5 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref>) ({{langx|grc|ὁπλῖται|hoplîtai}} {{IPA|el|hoplîːtai̯|}}) were citizen-soldiers of [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] [[Polis|city-states]] who were primarily armed with [[spear]]s and [[shield]]s. Hoplite soldiers used the [[phalanx]] formation to be effective in war with fewer soldiers. The formation discouraged the soldiers from acting alone, for this would compromise the formation and minimize its strengths.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jsycygAACAAJ |title=Art & Archaeology of the Greek World: A New History, C. 2500-c. 150 BC |last=Neer |first=Richard T. |author-link=Richard T. Neer |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |year=2012 |isbn=9780500288771 |location=New York |page=95 |oclc=745332893}}</ref> The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens &ndash; propertied farmers and artisans &ndash; who were able to afford a [[Linothorax|linen]] or [[bronze]] [[armour]] suit and weapons (estimated at a third to a half of its able-bodied adult male population).<ref>{{cite book |last=Gat |first=Azar |title=War in Human Civilization |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0199236633 |pages=295–98 |author-link=Azar Gat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3u1mPgAACAAJ&pg=PA295}}</ref>  Some states maintained a small elite professional unit, known as the ''[[wikt:επιλέγω|epilektoi]]'' or logades ('the chosen') because they were picked from the regular citizen infantry. These existed at times in [[Athens]], [[Sparta]], [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], among other places.<ref name="Tritle2014">{{cite book|author=Lawrence A. Tritle|title=Phocion the Good (Routledge Revivals)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-PgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77|date=23 June 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-75050-5|pages=77–8}}</ref><ref name="Geagan2011">{{cite book|author=Daniel J. Geagan|title=Inscriptions: The Dedicatory Monuments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoRoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94|date=9 September 2011|publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens|isbn=978-1-62139-001-5|page=94}}</ref> Hoplite soldiers made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/hoplite/ |title=Hoplite |encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |access-date=1 December 2016 |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |date=9 February 2013}}</ref>

In the 8th century BC, Greek armies started to adopt the [[phalanx]] formation. The formation proved successful in defeating the [[Achaemenid military|Persians]] when employed by the Athenians at the [[Battle of Marathon]] in 490 BC during the [[First Persian invasion of Greece|First Greco-Persian War]]. The Persian archers and [[Light infantry|light troops]] who fought in the Battle of Marathon failed because their [[Bow and arrow|bows]] were too weak for their arrows to penetrate the wall of Greek shields of the phalanx formation. The phalanx was also employed by the Greeks at the [[Battle of Thermopylae]] in 480 BC and at the [[Battle of Plataea]] in 479 BC during the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|Second Greco-Persian War]].

The word ''hoplite'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|ὁπλίτης}} ''hoplítēs''; pl. {{lang|grc|ὁπλῖται}} ''hoplĩtai'') derives from ''[[hoplon]]'' ({{lang|grc|ὅπλον}} : ''hóplon''; plural ''hópla'' {{lang|grc|ὅπλα}}), referring to the hoplite's equipment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwartz |first=Adam |date=2009 |title=Reinstating the hoplite. Arms, Armour and Phalanx Fighting in Archaic and Classical Greece |journal=Historia Einzelschriften 207|pages=25}}</ref> In the modern [[Hellenic Army]], the word ''hoplite'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{lang|el|oπλίτης}} : ''oplítîs'') is used to refer to an [[infantry]]man.

== Warfare ==
{{Main|Phalanx formation|Ancient Greek warfare}}
[[File:Hoplite 5th century.jpg|thumb|left|Hoplite, 5th century]]
[[File:Two hoplites.jpg|thumb|left|Hoplites shown in two attack positions, with both an underhand and an overhand stance]]
The fragmented political structure of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but at the same time limited the scale of warfare. Limited manpower did not allow most Greek city-states to form large armies which could operate for long periods because they were generally not formed from professional soldiers. Most soldiers had careers as farmers or workers and returned to these professions after the campaign. All hoplites were expected to take part in any military campaign when called for duty by leaders of the state. The [[Spartan army|Lacedaemonian]] citizens of [[Sparta]] were renowned for their lifelong combat training and almost mythical military prowess, while their greatest adversaries, the Athenians, were exempted from service only after the age of 60. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns and often resulted in the campaign season being restricted to one summer.{{clarify|Why?|date=June 2019}}

Armies generally marched directly to their destination, and in some cases the battlefield was agreed to by the contestants in advance. Battles were fought on level ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx so the formation could not be flanked. An example of this was the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], where the Spartans specifically chose a narrow coastal pass to make their stand against the massive Persian army. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days.

When battles occurred, they were usually [[set piece battle|set piece]] and intended to be decisive. The battlefield would be flat and open to facilitate phalanx warfare. These battles were usually short and required a high degree of discipline. At least in the early classical period, when [[cavalry]] was present, its role was restricted to protection of the flanks of the phalanx, pursuit of a defeated enemy, and covering a retreat if required. [[Light infantry]] and missile troops took part in the battles but their role was less important. Before the opposing phalanxes engaged, the light troops would skirmish with the enemy's light forces, and then protect the flanks and rear of the phalanx.

The military structure created by the Spartans was a rectangular phalanx formation. The formation was organized from eight to ten rows deep and could cover a front of a quarter of a mile or more if sufficient hoplites were available. The two lines would close to a short distance to allow effective use of their spears, while the {{transliteration|grc|[[psiloi]]}} threw stones and javelins from behind their lines. The shields would clash and the first lines ([[protostates]]) would stab at their opponents, at the same time trying to keep in position. The ranks behind them would support them with their own spears and the mass of their shields gently pushing them, not to force them into the enemy formation but to keep them steady and in place. The soldiers in the back provided motivation to the ranks in the front being that most hoplites were close community members. At certain points, a command would be given to the phalanx or a part thereof to collectively take a certain number of steps forward (ranging from half to multiple steps). This was the famed ''[[othismos]]''.<ref>{{LSJ|w)qismo/s|othismos|ref}}.</ref>

[[File:Amphora phalanx Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1429.jpg|thumb|Phalanx fighting on a black-figure [[amphora]], {{Circa|560 BC}}. The hoplite phalanx is a [[Hoplite formation in art|frequent subject]] in ancient Greek art.]]
At this point, the phalanx would put its collective weight to push back the enemy line and thus create fear and panic among its ranks. There could be multiple such instances of attempts to push, but it seems from the accounts of the ancients that these were perfectly orchestrated and attempted organized ''en masse''. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, sometimes chased by [[psiloi]], [[peltast]]s, or light cavalry.

If a hoplite escaped, he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome {{transliteration|grc|[[aspis]]}}, thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family (becoming a {{transliteration|grc|ripsaspis}}, one who threw his shield).<ref>{{LSJ|r(i/yaspis|ripsaspis|ref}}.</ref> To lessen the number of casualties inflicted by the enemy during battles, soldiers were positioned to stand shoulder to shoulder with their [[aspis]]. The hoplites' most prominent citizens and generals led from the front. Thus, the war could be decided by a single battle.

[[File:Vix crater hoplite circa 500 BCE.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Probable [[Spartan]] hoplite ([[Vix crater]], c. 500 BC)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Charles |title=Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199651917 |page=154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXIVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT172 |language=en}}</ref>]]

Individual hoplites carried their shields on their left arm, protecting themselves and the soldier to the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half-protected. In battle, opposing phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy's right flank.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|page=10}}</ref> It also meant that, in battle, a phalanx would tend to drift to the right (as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbour). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx, to counteract these problems. According to [[Plutarch|Plutarch's]] ''Sayings of Spartans'', "a man carried a shield for the sake of the whole line".<ref>{{cite book|title=Hoplites: Classical Greek Battle Experience|last=Hanson|first=Victor Davis|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|page=303}}</ref>

The phalanx is an example of a military formation in which single combat and other individualistic forms of battle were suppressed for the good of the whole. In earlier [[Iliad|Homeric]], [[Greek Dark Ages|Dark Age]] combat, the words and deeds of supremely powerful heroes turned the tide of battle. Instead of having individual heroes, hoplite warfare relied heavily on the community and unity of soldiers. With friends and family pushing on either side and enemies forming a solid wall of shields in front, the hoplite had little opportunity for feats of technique and weapon skill, but great need for commitment and mental toughness. By forming a human wall to provide a powerful defensive armour, the hoplites became much more effective while suffering fewer casualties. The hoplites had a lot of [[discipline]] and were taught to be [[Loyalty|loyal]] and [[trustworthy]]. They had to trust their neighbours for mutual protection, so a phalanx was only as strong as its weakest elements. Its effectiveness depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation in combat, and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. The more disciplined and courageous the army, the more likely it was to win. Often engagements between various city-states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing after their phalanx had broken formation.

As important as unity among the ranks was in phalanx warfare, individual fighting skill played a role in battle. Hoplites' shields were not locked all of the time. Throughout many points of the fight there were periods where the hoplites separated as far as two to three feet apart in order to have room to swing their shields and swords at the enemy. This led to individual prowess being more important than previously realized by some historians. 
It would have been nearly impossible to swing both shield and sword if the man next to you is practically touching.<ref>Creators, Conquerors, and Citizens</ref>{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}} One piece of evidence of this is the picking of individual champions after each battle was fought. This is most evident in Herodotus' account of the Battle of Thermopylae. "Although great valor was displayed by the entire corps of Spartans and Thespians, the man who proved himself best was a Spartan Officer named [[Dienekes]]".<ref>Herodotus on Thermopylae</ref> The brothers Alpheus and Maron were also honored for their battlefield prowess as well. This is just one example of an ancient historian giving credit to a few individual soldiers and the individuality of phalanx warfare.

== Equipment ==

=== Body armour ===

[[File:Hoplite armour exhibit at the Corfu Museum closeup.jpg|left|thumb|Hoplite armour exhibit from the [[Archaeological Museum of Corfu]].<!-- Helmets may have been moved to the [[Archaeological Museum of Igoumenitsa]], but [[WP:RS]] is needed to verify.--> Note the gold inserts around the chest area of the iron breastplate at the centre of the exhibit. The helmet on the upper left is a restored version of the [[oxidation|oxidised]] helmet on the right.]]

Each hoplite provided his own equipment. Thus, only those who could afford such weaponry fought as hoplites. As with the [[Roman Republic]]an army it was the middle classes who formed the bulk of the infantry. Equipment was not standardized, although there were doubtless trends in general designs over time, and between city-states. Hoplites had customized [[armour]], the shield was decorated with family or clan emblems, although in later years these were replaced by symbols or monograms of the city states. The equipment might be passed down in families, as it was expensive to manufacture.

The hoplite army consisted of heavy infantrymen. Their armour, also called [[panoply]], was sometimes made of full bronze for those who could afford it, weighing nearly {{convert|32|kg|lb|sigfig=1}}, although linen armor now known as [[linothorax]] was more common since it was cost-effective and provided decent protection. The average farmer-peasant hoplite could not afford any armor and typically carried only a shield, a spear, and perhaps a helmet plus a secondary weapon. The richer upper-class hoplites typically had a bronze [[cuirass]] of either the bell or [[Muscle cuirass|muscled]] variety, a bronze [[helmet]] with cheekplates, as well as [[greave]]s and other [[armour]]. The design of helmets used varied through time. The [[Corinthian helmet]] was at first standardized and was a successful design. Later variants included the [[Chalcidian helmet]], a lightened version of the Corinthian helmet, and the simple [[Pilos]] helmet worn by the later hoplites. Often the helmet was decorated with one, sometimes more horsehair crests, and/or bronze animal horns and ears. Helmets were often painted as well. The [[Thracian helmet]] had a large visor to further increase protection. In later periods, ''[[linothorax]]'' was also used, as it is tougher and cheaper to produce. The linen was {{convert|0.5|cm|in|adj=on}} thick.
[[File:Stele of Aristion.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Stele of Aristion]], heavy-infantryman or hoplite. 510 BC. Top of helmet and pointed beard missing.]]
[[File:Ancient athenian warrior.jpg|thumb|upright|Armour of an ancient Athenian Hoplite]]
By contrast with hoplites, other contemporary infantry (e.g., [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]]) tended to wear relatively light armour, [[wicker]] shields, and were armed with shorter spears, [[javelin]]s, and [[Bow (weapon)|bows]]. The most famous are the Peltasts, light-armed troops who wore no armour and were armed with a light shield, javelins and a short sword. The Athenian general [[Iphicrates]] developed a new type of armour and arms for his mercenary army, which included light linen armour, smaller shields and longer spears, whilst arming his [[Peltast]]s with larger shields, helmets and a longer spear, thus enabling them to defend themselves more easily against hoplites. With this new type of army he defeated a Spartan army in 392 BC. The arms and armour described above were most common for hoplites.

=== Shield ===
Hoplites carried a large concave shield called an {{transliteration|grc|[[aspis]]}} (sometimes incorrectly referred to as a {{transliteration|grc|hoplon}}), measuring between {{convert|80|and|100|cm|in|abbr=off}} in diameter and weighing between {{convert|6.5|and|8|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.fairfield.edu/rosivach/cl115/military/hoplites.htm|title=Hoplites Arms and Armor|last=Zimmel, Girard|first=Jonathan, Todd|access-date=22 April 2013|archive-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026213835/http://faculty.fairfield.edu/rosivach/cl115/military/hoplites.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fink|first1=Dennis|title=The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship: Research, Theories and Controversies Since 1850|date=2014|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786479733|page=32|edition=illustrated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdFsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32}}</ref> This large shield was made possible partly by its shape, which allowed it to be supported on the shoulder. The shield was assembled in three layers: the center layer was made of thick wood, the outside layer facing the enemy was made of bronze, and leather comprised the inside of the shield. The revolutionary part of the shield was the grip. Known as an Argive grip, it placed the handle at the edge of the shield, and was supported by a leather fastening (for the forearm) at the centre. These two points of contact eliminated the possibility of the shield swaying to the side after being struck, and as a result soldiers rarely lost their shields. This allowed the hoplite soldier more mobility with the shield, as well as the ability to capitalize on its offensive capabilities and better support the phalanx. The large shields, designed for pushing ahead, were the most essential equipment for the hoplites.<ref>{{cite book|title=Warfare in Ancient Greece: A Sourcebook|last=Sage|first=Michael M|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|location=London, GBR|page=281}}</ref>

=== Spear ===
The main offensive weapon used was a {{convert|2.5|-|4.5|m|ft|1|adj=on}} long and {{convert|2.5|cm|in|0|adj=on}} in diameter [[spear]] called a {{transliteration|grc|[[Dory (spear)|''doru'', or ''dory'']]}}. It was held with the right hand, with the left hand holding the hoplite's shield. Soldiers usually held their spears in an underhand position when approaching but once they came into close contact with their opponents, they were held in an overhand position ready to strike. The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear of the spear had a spike called a {{transliteration|grc|sauroter}} ("lizard-killer") which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped, or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them. In addition to being used as a secondary weapon, the {{transliteration|grc|sauroter}} doubled to balance the spear, but not for throwing purposes. It is a matter of contention, among historians, whether the hoplite used the spear overarm or underarm. Held underarm, the thrusts would have been less powerful but under more control, and vice versa. It seems likely that both motions were used, depending on the situation. If attack was called for, an overarm motion was more likely to break through an opponent's defence. The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armour due to its lesser leverage. When defending, an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be 'couched' under the shoulder for maximum stability. An overarm motion would allow more effective combination of the ''aspis'' and ''doru'' if the shield wall had broken down, while the underarm motion would be more effective when the shield had to be interlocked with those of one's neighbours in the battle-line. Hoplites in the rows behind the lead would almost certainly have made overarm thrusts. The rear ranks held their spears underarm, and raised their shields upwards at increasing angles. This was an effective defence against missiles, deflecting their force.

=== Sword ===
Hoplites also carried a sword, mostly a short sword called a ''[[xiphos]]'', but later also longer and heavier types. The short sword was a secondary weapon, used if or when their spears were broken or lost, or if the phalanx broke rank. The xiphos usually had a blade around {{convert|60|cm}} long; however, those used by the Spartans were often only 30–45 centimetres long. This very short xiphos would be very advantageous in the press that occurred when two lines of hoplites met, capable of being thrust through gaps in the shieldwall into an enemy's unprotected groin or throat, while there was no room to swing a longer sword. Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had started to abandon body armour during the [[Peloponnesian War]]. Hoplites could also alternatively carry the ''[[kopis]]'', a heavy knife with a forward-curving blade.
The [[scabbard]] of the sword was called ''koleos'' (κολεός).<ref>{{cite book | author = G. H. Smith | title = A Manual Of Grecian Antiquities: Being A Compendious Account Of The Manners And Customs Of The Ancient Greeks(1832) | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pDxGwZ66FOkC| publisher = Kessinger Publishing| year = 2010| page = 170| isbn = 978-1164537380}}</ref>

== Theories on the transition to fighting in the phalanx ==
{{further|Phalanx}}
[[File:Grave_relief_of_Dexileos,_son_of_Lysanias,_of_Thorikos_(Ca._390_BC)_(4454389225).jpg|thumb|Athenian cavalryman Dexileos fighting a naked [[Peloponnesia]]n hoplite in the [[Corinthian War]].<ref name="GH">{{cite book |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Godfrey |title=Sparta: Unfit for Empire |date=2014 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=9781848322226 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hPm4BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |language=en}}</ref> Dexileos was killed in action near [[Corinth]] in the summer of 394 BC, probably in the [[Battle of Nemea]],<ref name="GH"/> or in a proximate engagement.<ref>{{cite web |title=IGII2 6217 Epitaph of Dexileos, cavalryman killed in Corinthian war (394 BC) |url=https://www.atticinscriptions.com/inscription/IGII2/6217 |website=www.atticinscriptions.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Grave Stele of Dexileos]], 394–393 BC.]]
Dark Age warfare transitioned into hoplite warfare from the 8th century BC onwards. Historians and researchers have debated the reason and speed of the transition for centuries. So far, 3 popular theories exist:

=== Gradualist theory ===
Developed by [[Anthony Snodgrass]], the Gradualist Theory states that the hoplite style of battle developed in a series of steps as a result of innovations in armour and weaponry.<ref name=TheoriesOnDevelopment>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.psu.edu/hoplitebattleexperience/theories-on-development/|title=Theories on Development {{!}} Hoplite Battles|website=sites.psu.edu|access-date=30 November 2016}}</ref> Chronologically dating the archeological findings of hoplite armour and using the findings to approximate the development of the phalanx formation, Snodgrass claims that the transition took approximately 100 years to complete from 750 to 650 BC.<ref name=Gradualism>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.psu.edu/cams180hoplite/phalanx-theories-2/gradualism/|title=Gradualism {{!}} The Hoplite Battle Experience|website=sites.psu.edu|access-date=30 November 2016}}</ref> The progression of the phalanx took time because as the phalanx matured it required denser formations that made the elite warriors recruit Greek citizens.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|page=8}}</ref> The large amounts of hoplite armour needed to then be distributed to the populations of Greek citizens only increased the time for the phalanx to be implemented. Snodgrass believes, only once the armour was in place that the phalanx formation became popular.<ref name=Gradualism/>

=== Rapid adoption theory ===
The rapid adaptation model was developed by historians [[Paul Cartledge]] and [[Victor Davis Hanson|Victor Hanson]].<ref name=RapidAdoption>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.psu.edu/cams180hoplite/phalanx-theories-2/rapid-adoption/|title=Rapid Adoption {{!}} The Hoplite Battle Experience|website=sites.psu.edu|access-date=30 November 2016}}</ref> They believed that the phalanx was created independently by military forces, but was so effective that others had to immediately adapt their way of war to combat the formation.<ref name=RapidAdoption/> Rapid adoptionists propose that the double grip shield that was required for the phalanx formation was so constricting in mobility that once it was introduced, Dark Age, free-flowing warfare was inadequate to fight against the hoplites, only escalating the speed of the transition.<ref name=TheoriesOnDevelopment/> Quickly, the phalanx formation and hoplite armour became widely used throughout Ancient Greece. Cartledge and Hanson estimate the transition took place from 725 to 675 BC.<ref name=RapidAdoption/>

=== Extended gradualist theory ===
[[File: Detail from the Chigi-vase.jpg|thumb|Chigi Vase with Hoplites holding javelins and spears]]
Developed by [[Hans Van Wees]], the Extended Gradualist theory is the most lengthy of the three popular transition theories. Van Wees depicts iconography found on pots of the Dark Ages believing that the foundation of the phalanx formation was birthed during this time.<ref name=TheoriesOnDevelopment/> Specifically, he uses an example of the Chigi Vase to point out that hoplite soldiers were carrying normal spears as well as javelins on their backs. Matured hoplites did not carry long-range weapons including javelins.<ref name=Gradualism/>  The [[Chigi vase]] is important for our knowledge of the hoplite soldier because it is one if not the only representation of the hoplite formation, known as the phalanx, in Greek art.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Greek art and archaeology. : a new history, c. 2500-c. 150 BCE|last=T.|first=Neer, Richard|isbn=9780500288771|location=New York|oclc=745332893|year = 2012}}</ref> This led Van Wees to believe that there was a transitional period from long-range warfare of the Dark Ages to the close combat of hoplite warfare. Some other evidence of a transitional period lies within the text of Spartan poet [[Tyrtaios]], who wrote, "…will they draw back for the pounding [of the missiles, no,] despite the battery of great hurl-stones, the helmets shall abide the rattle [of war unbowed]".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tyrtaios|location=Fragment 1}}</ref> At no point in other texts does Tyrtaios discuss missiles or rocks, making another case for a transitional period in which hoplite warriors had some ranged capabilities. Extended Gradualists argue that hoplite warriors did not fight in a true phalanx until the 5th century BC.<ref name=TheoriesOnDevelopment/>  Making estimations of the speed of the transition reached as long as 300 years, from 750 to 450 BC.

==History==

[[File:Globular aryballos Louvre Ele357.jpg|thumb|Hoplites on an [[aryballos]] from Corinth, c. 580–560 BC ([[Louvre]])]]

===Ancient Greece===
{{further|Ancient Greek warfare}}

The exact time when hoplite warfare was developed is uncertain, the prevalent theory being that it was established sometime during the 8th or 7th century BC, when the "heroic age was abandoned and a far more disciplined system introduced" and the [[aspis|Argive shield]] became popular.<ref>Peter Connoly, ''Greece and Rome at War'', p. 37.</ref> Peter Krentz argues that "the ideology of hoplitic warfare as a ritualized contest developed not in the 7th century [BC], but only after 480, when non-hoplite arms began to be excluded from the phalanx".<ref>Peter Krentz, ''Fighting by the Rules – The Invention of the Hoplite Agon''.</ref> Archaeo-anthropological discoveries of the earliest monumental polyandrion (communal burial of male warriors) at [[Paros]] Island in Greece unveiled a last quarter of the 8th century BC date for a hoplitic phalangeal military organization.<ref>F. Zafeiropoulou and A. Agelarakis, "Warriors of Paros", ''Archaeology'' 58.1(2005): 30–35.</ref> A recent compilation of the now available evidence came to the conclusion that the characteristic hoplite armour developed in the third quarter of the 8th century.<ref>Dörrer, Olaf (2022/2023). "Zum Beginn der 'hoplitischen' Bewaffnung in Griechenland" [On the beginning of “hoplite” armament in Greece]. ''Boreas. Münstersche Beiträge zur Archäologie'' '''45/46''', pp. 1-17.</ref>

The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was tied to the rise and fall of the [[city-state]]. As discussed above, hoplites were a solution to the armed clashes between independent city-states. As Greek civilization found itself confronted by the world at large, particularly the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]], the emphasis in warfare shifted. Confronted by huge numbers of enemy troops, individual city-states could not realistically fight alone. During the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] (499–448 BC), alliances between groups of cities (whose composition varied over time) fought against the Persians. This drastically altered the scale of warfare and the numbers of troops involved. The hoplite phalanx proved itself far superior to the Persian infantry at such conflicts as the [[Battle of Marathon]], [[Thermopylae]], and the [[Battle of Plataea]].

[[File:Squatting warrior Staatliche Antikensammlungen 8966.jpg|thumb|left|Crouching warrior, [[tondo (art)|tondo]] of an [[Attica|Attic]] [[black-figure]] [[kylix (cup)|kylix]], {{Circa|560 BC}} ([[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]])]]

During this period, [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] rose to a position of political eminence in Greece, and their rivalry in the aftermath of the Persian wars brought Greece into renewed internal conflict. The [[Peloponnesian War]] was on a scale unlike conflicts before. Fought between leagues of cities, dominated by Athens and Sparta respectively, the pooled manpower and financial resources allowed a diversification of warfare. Hoplite warfare was in decline. There were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War, and none proved decisive. Instead there was increased reliance on navies, skirmishers, mercenaries, city walls, [[siege engines]], and non-set piece tactics. These reforms made [[Attrition warfare|wars of attrition]] possible and greatly increased the number of casualties. In the Persian war, hoplites faced large numbers of skirmishers and missile-armed troops, and such troops (e.g., [[peltast]]s) became much more commonly used by the Greeks during the Peloponnesian War. As a result, hoplites began wearing less armour, carrying shorter swords, and in general adapting for greater mobility. This led to the development of the [[ekdromos]] light hoplite.

Many famous personalities, philosophers, artists, and poets fought as hoplites.<ref>[[Socrates]] as a hoplite: Plato, ''Symposium'' 219e–221b.</ref><ref>[[Epicurus]] as a hoplite: ''[[Diogenes Laërtius]], Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X''.</ref>

According to Nefiodkin, fighting against Greek heavy infantry during the Greco-Persian Wars inspired the Persians to introduce [[scythed chariot]]s.<ref>{{Citation | last = Nefiodkin | first = Alexander K. | title = On the Origin of the Scythed Chariots | journal = Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte | volume = 53 | issue = 3 | year = 2004 | pages = 371–378}}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Sparta===
{{further|Spartan army}}

[[File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Achaemenid]] king killing a Greek hoplite. Circa 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of [[Xerxes I]] ([[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]).]]

[[Sparta]] is one of the most famous city-states, along with Athens, which had a unique position in ancient Greece. Contrary to other city states, the free citizens of Sparta served as hoplites their entire lives, training and exercising in peacetime, which gave Sparta a professional standing army. Often small, numbering around 6000 at its peak to no more than 1000 soldiers at lowest point,<ref>Lane Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books. {{ISBN|0-465-02496-3}}.</ref> divided into six [[Mora (military unit)|mora]] or [[battalion]].  The Spartan army was feared for its discipline and ferocity, and was considered the best at the ''othismos''. Military service was the primary duty of Spartan men, and Spartan society was organized around its army.

Military service for hoplites lasted until the age of 40, and sometimes until 60 years of age, depending on a man's physical ability to perform on the battlefield.

===Macedonia===
{{further|Ancient Macedonian army}}

[[File:Ancient Macedonian soldiers, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Greece.jpg|thumb|right|200px|upright|Paintings of [[Ancient Macedonia]]n [[Ancient Macedonian army|soldiers]], arms, and armaments, from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]] in Greece, 4th century BC]]

Later in the hoplite era, more sophisticated tactics were developed, in particular by the [[Thebes (Greece)|Theban]] general [[Epaminondas]]. These tactics inspired the future king [[Philip&nbsp;II of Macedon]], who was at the time a hostage in Thebes, to develop a new type of infantry, the [[Macedonian phalanx]]. After the Macedonian conquests of the 4th century BC, the hoplite was slowly abandoned in favour of the [[phalangite]], armed in the Macedonian fashion, in the armies of the southern Greek states. Although clearly a development of the hoplite, the Macedonian phalanx was tactically more versatile, especially used in the combined arms tactics favoured by the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonians]]. These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] (338 BC), after which Athens and its allies joined the Macedonian empire.

While [[Alexander the Great|Alexander's]] [[Ancient Macedonian army|army]] mainly fielded ''[[Pezhetairoi]]'' (= Foot Companions) as his main force, his army also included some classic hoplites, either provided by the [[League of Corinth]] or from hired mercenaries. Beside these units, the Macedonians also used the so-called ''[[Hypaspists]]'', an elite force of units possibly originally fighting as hoplites and used to guard the exposed right wing of Alexander's phalanx.

===Hoplite-style warfare outside Greece===

[[File:Etruscan warrior near Viterbe Italy circa 500 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|left|175px|Etruscan warrior, found near [[Viterbo]], [[Italy]], dated circa 500 BC]]
[[File:Spartan hoplite-1 from Vinkhuijzen.jpg|thumb|200px|Spartan hoplite (image from Vinkhuijzen Collection of Military Costume Illustration, before 1910)]]

Hoplite-style warfare was influential, and influenced several other nations in the Mediterranean. Hoplite warfare was the dominant fighting style on much of the [[Italian Peninsula]] until the early 3rd century BC, employed by both the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] and the [[Early Roman army]], though [[Scutum (shield)|scutum]] infantry had existed for centuries and some groups fielded both. The Romans later standardized their fighting style to a more flexible [[Maniple (military unit)|maniple]] organization, which was more versatile on rough terrain like that of the [[Apennines]]. Roman equipment also changed, trading spears for heavy javelins (''[[pilum]]''). In the end only the ''[[triarii]]'' would keep a long spear (''[[Hasta (spear)|hasta]]'') as their main weapon. The triarii would still fight in a traditional phalanx formation. Though this combination or similar was popular in much of Italy, some continued to fight as hoplites. Mercenaries serving under [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] or [[Hannibal]] (namely Lucanians) were equipped and fought as hoplites.

[[Ancient Carthage|Early in its history, Ancient Carthage]] also equipped its troops as Greek hoplites, in units such as the [[Sacred Band of Carthage]]. Many Greek hoplite mercenaries fought in foreign armies, such as Carthage and [[Achaemenid Empire]], where it is believed by some that they inspired the formation of the [[Cardaces]]. Some hoplites served under the [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] king [[Bardylis]] in the 4th century. The Illyrians were known to import many weapons and tactics from the Greeks.

The [[Diadochi]] imported the Greek phalanx to their kingdoms. Though they mostly fielded Greek citizens or mercenaries, they also armed and drilled local natives as hoplites or rather Macedonian phalanx, like the [[Machimoi]] of the [[Ptolemaic army]].

===Hellenistic period===
{{main|Hellenistic armies}}

The [[Hellenistic armies|Greek armies]] of the [[Hellenistic period]] mostly fielded troops in the fashion of the Macedonian phalanx. Many armies of mainland Greece retained hoplite warfare. Besides classical hoplites Hellenistic nations began to field two new types of hoplites, the ''[[Thureophoroi]]'' and the ''[[Thorakitai]]''. They developed when Greeks adopted the [[Galatia]]n ''[[Thureos]]'' shield, of an oval shape that was similar to the shields of the Romans, but flatter. The Thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword and, if needed, javelins. While the Thorakitai were similar to the Thureophoroi, they were more heavily armoured, as their name implies, usually wearing a mail shirt. These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps.

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book
 |last=Crowley |first=Jason
 |year=2012
 |title=The Psychology of the Athenian Hoplite: The culture of combat in classical Athens
 |place=Cambridge, UK
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |edition=hardcover
 |isbn=978-1-107-02061-0
}}

* Franz, Johann Peter (2002). ''Krieger, Bauern, Bürger. Untersuchungen zu den Hopliten der archaischen und klassischen Zeit'' [Warriors, farmers, citizens. Studies on the hoplites of the archaic and classical periods]. Frankfurt: Lang, {{ISBN|3-631-39128-5}}.

*  {{cite journal
 |last=Goldsworthy |first=A.K.
 |year=1997
 |title=The ''Othismos'', myths and heresies: The nature of hoplite battle
 |journal=War in History
 |volume=4  |issue=1 |pages=1–26
|doi=10.1177/096834459700400101
 |s2cid=159816282
 }}

* {{cite book
 |author-link=Victor Davis Hanson |last=Hanson |first=V.D.
 |year=1989
 |title=The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece
}} <br/> {{cite book
 |title=&nbsp;
 |year=1990
 |place=New York, NY
 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf
 |edition=hardcover
 |isbn=0-394-57188-6
}} <br/> {{cite book
 |author= — '&nbsp;' —
 |title= — '&nbsp;' —
 |year=1990
 |place=New York, NY
 |publisher=Oxford University Press U.S.
 |edition=paperback
 |isbn=0-19-506588-3
}} <br/> {{cite book
 |author= — '&nbsp;' — 
 |title= — '&nbsp;' —
 |year=2000
 |place=Berkeley, CA
 |publisher=University of California Press
 |edition=paperback
 |isbn=0-520-21911-2
}}

*  {{cite book
 |author-link=Victor Davis Hanson |last=Hanson |first=V.D.
 |title=Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece
 |series=Biblioteca di Studi Antichi
 |volume=40
 |place=Berkeley, CA
 |publisher=University of California Press
 |year=1998
 |edition=hardcover
 |isbn=0-520-21025-5
 |postscript=;
}} paperback ed., {{ISBN|0-520-21596-6}}

*  {{cite book
 |author-link=Victor Davis Hanson |last=Hanson |first=V.D.
 |year=1999 
 |title=The Other Greeks: The family farm and the agrarian roots of western civilization
 |title-link=The Other Greeks: The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization
 |place=Berkeley, CA
 |publisher=University of California Press
 |edition=paperback
 |isbn=0-520-20935-4
}}

*  {{cite book
 |last1=Kagan     |first1=Donald
 |last2=Viggiano  |first2=Gregory
 |year=2013
 |title=Men of Bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece
 |place=Princeton, NJ
 |publisher=Princeton University Press
}}

*  {{cite journal
 |last=Krentz |first=Peter
 |year=2002
 |title=Fighting by the rules: The invention of the hoplite agôn
 |journal=Hesperia
 |volume=71  |issue=1  |pages=23–39
}}

*  {{cite book
 |last=O'Connell |first=Robert L.
 |year=2002
 |title=Soul of the Sword
 |publisher=Simon and Schuster
 |isbn=0-684-84407-9
}}

*  {{cite book
 |last=Roisman  |first=Joseph
 |translator=Yardley, J.C. 
 |year=2011
 |title=Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander
 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing
 |isbn=978-1-4051-2776-9
}}

*  {{cite journal
 |last=Cartledge |first=P.
 |year=1977
 |title=Hoplites and Heroes: Sparta's contribution to the technique of ancient warfare
 |journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies
 |volume=97  |pages=11–27
|doi=10.2307/631018
 |jstor=631018
 |s2cid=161418816
 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hoplites}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180630064752/http://www.koryvantes.org/ Association of Greek Hoplites] Historic Studies Club "KORYVANTES"
* [[Perseus Digital Library]] database:
** [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Vase&field=Keyword&keyclass=Generic%20People&keyword=hoplite vases]
** [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Sculpture&field=Keyword&keyclass=Generic%20People&keyword=hoplite statues]
** [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Coin&field=Keyword&keyclass=Generic%20People&keyword=hoplite coins]
* [http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~sparta/index.html Sparta Pages] – web page on Sparta and the Hoplite.
* [http://rtw.heavengames.com/history/general/history_of_the_phalanx_hoplite/index.shtml The Phalanx Hoplite]
* [http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_shield_patterns_1.html Classical Greek Shield Patterns]

{{Ancient Greece topics}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek infantry types]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek titles]]
[[Category:Combat occupations]]
[[Category:Obsolete occupations]]
[[Category:Phalanx]]
[[Category:Warriors]]