View source for Hudson Bay

{{Short description|Large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada}}
{{About||the outlet of the Hudson River|New York Harbor|other uses}}
{{Use Canadian English|date= January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Hudson Bay
| native_name        = {{plainlist|
* ᑲᖏᖅᓱᐊᓗᒃ ᐃᓗᐊ {{native name|iu-Latn|Kangiqsualuk ilua}}
* ᑕᓯᐅᔭᕐᔪᐊᖅ {{native name|iu-Latn|Tasiujarjuaq}}
* ᐐᓂᐯᒄ {{native name|crj|Wînipekw}}
* ᐐᓂᐹᒄ {{native_name|crl|Wînipâkw}}
}}
| other_name         =
| image              = Hudson Bay 2008-07-21 by Aqua.jpg
| image_size = 255
| alt                =
| caption            = Hudson Bay, Canada
<!--    Stats      -->
| location           = Canada
| coordinates        = {{Coord|60|N|86|W|region:CA_type:waterbody_scale:10000000|notes=<ref name=OAHKV>{{Cite cgndb|OAHKV|Hudson Bay|date=24 August 2024}}</ref>|name=Hudson Bay|display=it}}
| type               = [[Bay]]
| etymology          = [[Henry Hudson]]
| oceans             = [[Arctic Ocean]]
| catchment          = {{cvt|3861400|km2}}
| basin_countries    = Canada and the United States
| length             = {{cvt|1370|km}}
| width              = {{cvt|1050|km}}
| area               = {{cvt|1230000|km2}}
| depth              = {{cvt|100|m}}
| max-depth          = {{cvt|270|m}}<ref name="EnBr"/>
| volume             =
| residence_time     =
| salinity           =
| temperature_high   = {{cvt|8 to 27|C}}
| temperature_low    = {{cvt|-51 to −29|C}}
| frozen             = middle of December to middle of June
| islands            = ≈ 1,500
| islands_category   = Islands of Hudson Bay
| cities             = [[Rankin Inlet]], [[Arviat]], [[Puvirnituq]], [[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]]
| pushpin_map             = Canada
| pushpin_label_position  = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption     = Location of Hudson Bay within Canada
| website            =
| reference          = <ref name="EnBr"/>
}}

'''Hudson Bay''',{{efn|{{langx|crj|text=ᐐᓂᐯᒄ|translit=Wînipekw}}; {{langx|crl|text=ᐐᓂᐹᒄ|translit=Wînipâkw}}; {{langx|iu|text=ᑲᖏᖅᓱᐊᓗᒃ ᐃᓗᐊ|translit=Kangiqsualuk ilua}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.posterwissen.de/?Canada_(Hudson_Bay)&id=72&ln=en|title=Wissenladen – Willkommen|website=posterwissen.de}}</ref> or {{langx|iu|text=ᑕᓯᐅᔭᕐᔪᐊᖅ|translit=Tasiujarjuaq}};<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itk.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Inuit_communities_of_Canada.pdf|title=Makivik Folding Map|website=Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami}}</ref> {{langx|fr|baie d'Hudson}}}} sometimes called '''Hudson's Bay''' (usually historically), is a large body of [[Saline water|saltwater]] in northeastern Canada with a surface area of {{cvt|1230000|km2}}. It is located north of [[Ontario]], west of [[Quebec]], northeast of [[Manitoba]], and southeast of [[Nunavut]], but politically entirely part of Nunavut.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-calls-for-urgent-extension-of-northern-border-1.3261668 |title=Quebec calls for 'urgent' extension of northern border|date=8 October 2015|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010232835/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-calls-for-urgent-extension-of-northern-border-1.3261668 |archive-date=10 October 2015|url-status=live |last=Hicks |first=Ryan |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref> It is an [[inland sea|inland]] [[List of seas on Earth#Marginal seas by ocean|marginal sea]] of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. The [[Hudson Strait]] provides a connection to the [[Labrador Sea]] and the Atlantic Ocean in the northeast, while the [[Foxe Channel]] connects Hudson Bay with the Arctic Ocean in the north.<ref name=":2" /> The [[Hudson Bay drainage basin]] drains a very large area, about {{cvt|3861400|km2}},<ref name=atlas>{{cite web |title= Canada Drainage Basins |year= 1985 |work= The National Atlas of Canada, 5th edition |publisher= Natural Resources Canada |url= http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/5thedition/environment/water/mcr4055 |access-date= 24 November 2010 |archive-date= 4 March 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110304184849/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/5thedition/environment/water/mcr4055 }}</ref> that includes parts of southeastern Nunavut, [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], all of [[Manitoba]], and parts of the U.S. states of [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Minnesota]], and [[Montana]]. Hudson Bay's southern arm is called [[James Bay]].

The [[East Cree|Eastern Cree]] name for Hudson and James Bay is '''{{lang|crj-Latn|Wînipekw}}''' (southern dialect) or '''{{lang|crl-Latn|Wînipâkw}}''' (northern dialect), meaning muddy or brackish water. [[Lake Winnipeg]] is similarly named by the local [[Cree]], as is the location for the city of [[Winnipeg]].

==Description==
[[File:Hudson-bassin.PNG|thumb|left|[[Hudson Bay drainage basin]]]]
The bay is named after [[Henry Hudson]], an Englishman sailing for the [[Dutch East India Company]], and after whom [[Hudson River|the river that he explored in 1609 is also named]]. Hudson Bay encompasses {{cvt|1230000|km2}}, making it the second-largest water body using the term "[[bay]]" in the world (after the [[Bay of Bengal]]). The bay is relatively shallow and is considered an [[Inland sea|epicontinental sea]], with an average depth of about {{cvt|100|m}} (compared to {{cvt|2600|m}} in the [[Bay of Bengal]]). It is about {{cvt|1370|km}} long and {{cvt|1050|km}} wide.<ref name=":2">[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0824440.html Private Tutor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811094102/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0824440.html |date=11 August 2012 }}. Infoplease.com. Retrieved on 12 April 2014.</ref> On the east it is connected with the Arctic Ocean ([[Davis Strait]]) by [[Hudson Strait]]; on the north, with the [[Arctic Ocean]] by [[Foxe Basin]] (which is not considered part of the bay), and [[Fury and Hecla Strait]].

Hudson Bay is often considered part of the Arctic Ocean:<ref name="Wright2001">{{cite book |last=Wright |first=John |title=The New York Times Almanac 2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G81HonU81pAC&pg=PA459 |access-date=29 November 2010 |date=30 November 2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-57958-348-4 |page=459}}</ref> the [[International Hydrographic Organization]], in its 2002 working draft<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|title=IHO Publication S-23 Limits of Oceans and Seas; Chapter 9: Arctic Ocean|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|date=2002|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202105534/http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|archive-date=2 February 2014}}</ref> of ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', defined Hudson Bay, with its outlet extending from 62.5 to 66.5 degrees north (just a few miles south of the [[Arctic Circle]]) as being part of the Arctic Ocean, specifically "Arctic Ocean Subdivision 9.11". Other authorities include it in the Atlantic,<ref name="Calow1999">{{cite book |last=Calow |first=Peter |title=Blackwell's concise encyclopedia of environmental management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0E0LP-pPCWwC&pg=PA7 |access-date=29 November 2010 |date=12 July 1999 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-632-04951-6 |page=7}}</ref> in part because of its greater water budget connection with that ocean.<ref name="LewisJones2000">{{cite book |editor-last1=Lewis |editor-first1=Edward Lyn |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=E. Peter |display-editors=et al. |title=The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZX_p5IKAxUC&pg=PA282|access-date=26 November 2010|year=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-6439-9|pages=101, 282–283}}</ref><ref name="McColl2005">{{cite book |last=McColl |first=R.W. |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA57 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="EarleGlover2008">{{cite book |last1=Earle |first1=Sylvia A. |last2=Glover |first2=Linda K. |title=Ocean: An Illustrated Atlas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluNhV-8pbwC&pg=PA112 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2008 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-1-4262-0319-0 |page=112}}</ref><ref name="Reddy2001">{{cite book |last=Reddy |first=M. P. M. |title=Descriptive Physical Oceanography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC&pg=PA8 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-90-5410-706-4 |page=8}}</ref><ref name="DayGarratt2006">{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Trevor |last2=Garratt |first2=Richard |title=Oceans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VY9mCXOXIvQC&pg=PA21 |access-date=26 November 2010 |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5327-8 |page=21}}</ref>

==History==
{{stack|
[[File:Hudson bay explorer.png|thumb|Canada, routes of explorers (1497 to 1905)]]
[[File:Histoire de l'Amerique Septentrionale - divisée en quatre tomes (1753) (14577039230).jpg|thumb|A European ship coming into contact with [[Inuit]] in the ice of Hudson Bay (1697)]]
}}
The search for a western route to [[Cathay]] and the [[East Indies]], which had been actively pursued since the days of [[Christopher Columbus]] and [[John Cabot]], in the latter part of the 15th century, directly resulted in the first sighting of Hudson Bay by Europeans.{{sfn|Tyrrell|1931|p=3}} English explorers and colonists named Hudson Bay after Sir [[Henry Hudson]] who explored the bay beginning 2 August 1610, on his ship ''[[Discovery (1602 ship)|Discovery]]''.<ref name="Butts2009">{{cite book |last=Butts |first=Edward |title=Henry Hudson: New World voyager |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXuNx4D7DGUC |access-date=1 August 2011 |date=31 December 2009 |publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd. |isbn=978-1-55488-455-1 |page=170}}</ref>{{rp|170}} On his fourth voyage to North America, Hudson worked his way around [[Greenland]]'s west coast and into the bay, mapping much of its eastern coast. ''Discovery'' became trapped in the ice over the winter, and the crew survived onshore at the southern tip of [[James Bay]]. In the spring, as the ice receded, Henry Hudson expressed a desire to continue exploring the uncharted region. However, on 22 June 1611, the crew mutinied. They left Hudson and others adrift in a small boat. The fate of Hudson and the other men stranded with him remains undetermined. Nevertheless, there is little evidence in historical documents to suggest that they persisted for a long time thereafter.<ref name="Butts2009"/>{{rp|185}} In May 1612, Sir [[Thomas Button]] sailed from England with two ships to look for Henry Hudson, and to continue the search for the [[Northwest Passage]] to Asia.{{sfn|Tyrrell|1931|p=3}}

In 1668, ''[[Nonsuch (1650 ship)|Nonsuch]]'' reached the bay and traded for [[North American beaver|beaver]] pelts, leading to the creation of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC), which still bears the historic name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manitobamuseum.ca/main/museum/nonsuch-gallery/|title=Nonsuch Gallery|publisher=Manitoba Museum|access-date=1 August 2011|archive-date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727235052/http://www.manitobamuseum.ca/main/museum/nonsuch-gallery/}}</ref> The HBC negotiated a trading monopoly from the [[Kingdom of England|English Crown]] for the Hudson Bay [[drainage basin|watershed]], called [[Rupert's Land]].<ref name="Galbraith1957">{{cite book |last=Galbraith |first=John S. |author-link=John Semple Galbraith |title=The Hudson's Bay Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOscZfLNOQkC |year=1957 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>{{rp|4}} In 1670, the English Crown granted a charter to facilitate fur trading within the [[Hudson Bay drainage basin]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Ferguson |first=Lynn |title=The Hudson's Bay Company |date=19 January 2021 |encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781839104145.00048 |access-date=13 February 2024 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |doi=10.4337/9781839104145.00048 |isbn=978-1-83910-414-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref> France contested this grant by sending [[List of Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay|several military expeditions]] to the region, but abandoned its claim in the [[Peace of Utrecht|Treaty of Utrecht]] (April 1713).{{sfn|Tyrrell|1931}}

The Treaty of Utrecht, signed on 11 April 1713, marked a significant agreement between Britain and France.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Treaty of Utrecht |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/treaty-of-utrecht |access-date=10 March 2024 |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca}}</ref> The treaty was negotiated in Utrecht, Netherlands, and marked a crucial stage in the conclusion of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].<ref name="auto1"/> Its provisions had a significant impact in shaping the postwar landscape and establishing a new order in both Europe and North America.<ref name="auto1"/> French concessions in North America as outlined in the Treaty of Utrecht included: Hudson Bay region, [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]].<ref name="EnBr">{{Cite web |date=13 February 2024 |title=Hudson Bay {{!}} Arctic Wildlife, Ecosystem, Map, & Exploitation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hudson-Bay |access-date=10 March 2024 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

During this period, the HBC built several [[Factory (trading post)|factories]] ([[Fortification|forts]] and [[trading post]]s) along the coast at the mouth of the major rivers (such as [[Fort Severn First Nation|Fort Severn]]; [[York Factory]], [[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]]; and the [[Prince of Wales Fort]]). The strategic locations were bases for inland exploration. More importantly, they were trading posts with [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous peoples]] who came to them with furs from their trapping season. The HBC shipped the furs to Europe and continued to use some of these posts well into the 20th century.{{fact|date=September 2024}}

The HBC's trade monopoly was abolished in 1870, by a British [[Order in Council]] called the [[Deed of Surrender]], ceded Rupert's Land to Canada, an area of approximately {{cvt|3900000|km2}}, as part of the [[Northwest Territories]].<ref name="Galbraith1957"/>{{rp|427}} In 1912, the western shore south of 60° and, following the [[Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912]], all the eastern shore were transferred to the adjacent provinces, but the bay and offshore islands remained part of the Northwest Territories.{{why|date=September 2024}} Starting in 1913, the bay was extensively charted by the Canadian government's {{ship|CSS|Acadia}} to develop it for navigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mma/AtoZ/acadia.html|title=CSS Acadia|publisher=[[Maritime Museum of the Atlantic]]|access-date=1 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807101017/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mma/AtoZ/Acadia.html|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> This mapping progress led to the establishment of Churchill, Manitoba, as a deep-sea port for wheat exports in 1929, after unsuccessful attempts at [[Port Nelson, Manitoba|Port Nelson]].{{fact|date=September 2024}}

The [[Port of Churchill]] was an important shipping link for trade with Europe and Russia until its closure in 2016 by owner [[OmniTRAX]].<ref name=portchur/> The port and the [[Hudson Bay Railway (1997)|Hudson Bay Railway]] were then sold to the [[Arctic Gateway Group]]—a consortium of [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]], local governments, and corporate investors—in 2018.<ref name=CBCKavanagh>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/churchill-rail-repairs-sale-1.4823974 |title=Feds to spend $117M for Churchill railway sale, repairs |last1=Kavanagh |first1=Sean |date=14 September 2018 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref>

On 9 July 2019, ships resupplying Arctic communities began stopping at the port for additional cargo,<ref name=thomcit>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thompsoncitizen.net/news/nickel-belt/first-ship-docks-at-churchill-july-9-to-load-cargo-bound-for-nunavut-1.23881220 |title=First ship docks at Churchill July 9 to load cargo bound for Nunavut |website=www.thompsoncitizen.net |publisher=[[Thompson Citizen]] |date=10 July 2019 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> and the port began [[grain trade|shipping grain]] again on 7 September 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Port of Churchill moves under 100% local and Indigenous ownership|url=https://www.realagriculture.com/2021/03/port-of-churchill-moves-under-100-local-and-indigenous-ownership/|access-date=24 March 2021|website=RealAgriculture.com|date=11 March 2021}}</ref>

==Geography and climate==
[[File:Operational Navigation Chart D-14, 5th edition.jpg|thumb|left|Map including Hudson Bay]]

===Extent===
The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the northern limit of Hudson Bay as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|year=1953|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|access-date=28 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|archive-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
{{blockquote|A line from [[Nuvuk Islands|Nuvuk Point]] ({{Coord|62|21|N|78|06|W|display=inline}}) to Leyson Point, the Southeastern extreme of [[Southampton Island]], through the Southern and Western shores of Southampton Island to its Northern extremity, thence a line to Beach Point ({{Coord|66|03|N|86|06|W|display=inline}}) on the Mainland.}}

===Climate===
[[File:Ursus maritimus walks over ice.jpg|thumb|Polar bear walks on newly formed ice in early November at Hudson Bay.]]
Northern Hudson Bay has a [[polar climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: ''ET'') being one of the few places in the world where this type of climate is found south of 60 °N, going farther south towards [[Quebec]], where [[Inukjuak]] is still dominated by the [[tundra]]. From [[Arviat]], [[Nunavut]], to the west to the south and southeast prevails the [[subarctic climate]] (Köppen: ''Dfc''). This is because in the central summer months, heat waves can advance from the hot land and make the weather milder, with the result that the average temperature surpasses {{cvt|10|C}}. The bay receives water from various surrounding rivers and currents originating from the Foxe Basin in the north, resulting in a counterclockwise overall flow.<ref name="EnBr"/> At the extreme southern tip of the extension known as James Bay arises a [[humid continental climate]] with a longer and generally hotter summer. (Köppen: ''Dfb'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plantmaps.com/koppen-climate-classification-map-canada.php|title=Interactive Canada Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Map|website=plantmaps.com|access-date=23 November 2018}}</ref> The average annual temperature in almost the entire bay is around {{cvt|0|C}} or below. In the extreme northeast, winter temperatures average as low as {{cvt|−29|C}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://solargis.info/imaps/#tl=GeoModel:t_yr_avg&loc=63.788228,-89.531335&c=64.358217,-86.704186&z=5 |title=Solargis :: iMaps |website=solargis.info|access-date=23 November 2018}}</ref>

The Hudson Bay region has very low year-round average temperatures. The average annual temperature for [[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]] at [[59th parallel north|59°N]] is {{cvt|-6|C}} and Inukjuak, facing cool westerlies in summer at [[58th parallel north|58°N]], an even colder {{cvt|−7|C}}. By comparison, [[Magadan]], in a comparable position at 59°N on the Eurasian landmass in the [[Russian Far East]] and with a similar [[subarctic climate]], has an annual average of {{cvt|−2.7|C}}.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://pogoda.ru.net/climate/25913.htm|title = КЛИМАТ МАГАДАНА |access-date = 7 June 2020 |publisher = Погода и Климат}}</ref> Vis-à-vis geographically closer Europe, contrasts stand much more extreme. [[Arkhangelsk]] at [[64th parallel north|64°N]] in northwestern Russia has an average of {{cvt|2|C}},<ref>GHCN climatic monthly data, GISS, using 1995–2007 annual averages</ref> while the mild continental coastline of [[Stockholm]] at 59°N on the shore of an analogous large hyposaline marine inlet – the [[Baltic Sea]] – has an annual average of {{cvt|8|C}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/listenormale-1981-2010-1-p207.php|title=Climate normals for Sweden 1981–2010|publisher=Météo Climat|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref>

Water temperature peaks at {{cvt|8|–|9|C}} on the western side of the bay in late summer. It is largely frozen over from mid-December to mid-June, when it usually clears from its eastern end westwards and southwards. A steady increase in regional temperatures over the last 100 years has led to decreases in the extent of the sea ice in Hudson Bay by 19.5% per decade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tivy |first1=Adrienne |last2=Howell |first2=Stephen E. L. |last3=Alt |first3=Bea |last4=McCourt |first4=Steve |last5=Chagnon |first5=Richard |last6=Crocker |first6=Greg |last7=Carrieres |first7=Tom |last8=Yackel |first8=John J. |date=5 March 2011 |title=Trends and variability in summer sea ice cover in the Canadian Arctic based on the Canadian Ice Service Digital Archive, 1960–2008 and 1968–2008 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=116 |issue=C3 |article-number=C03007 |doi=10.1029/2009JC005855 |bibcode=2011JGRC..116.3007T |issn=0148-0227|doi-access=free }}</ref> As well as a lengthening of the ice-free period, which was as short as four months in the late 17th century.<ref>General Survey of World Climatology, Landsberg ed., (1984), Elsevier.</ref>

The polar climate of Hudson Bay means it is home for a variety of polar climate animals, in the Western Hudson Bay (WHB) [[beluga whale]] population is the most significant known group in the [[Northern Canada|Canadian Arctic]], estimated to consist of approximately 54,473 individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ausen |first1=Emma L. |last2=Barber |first2=David G. |last3=Basu |first3=Atreya |last4=Ehn |first4=Jens |last5=Walker |first5=David |last6=Dalman |first6=Laura |last7=Marcoux |first7=Marianne |date=30 June 2023 |title=River-influenced beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas) summer habitat use in western Hudson Bay, Canada |journal=Arctic Science|volume=9 |issue=4 |page=869 |doi=10.1139/as-2022-0040 |bibcode=2023ArcSc...9..869A |s2cid=259758204 |issn=2368-7460|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{Arviat weatherbox}}
{{Churchill, Manitoba weatherbox}}
{{Coral Harbour weatherbox}}
{{Inukjuak weatherbox}}
{{Kuujjuarapik weatherbox}}
{{Rankin Inlet weatherbox}}

===Waters===
[[File:HudsonBay.MODIS.2005may21.jpg|thumb|In late spring (May), large chunks of ice float near the eastern shore of the bay, while the centre of the bay remains frozen to the west. Between 1971 and 2007, the length of the ice-free season increased by about seven days in the southwestern part of the Hudson Bay, historically the last area to thaw.]]

Hudson Bay has a lower average [[salinity]] level than that of ocean water. The main causes are the low rate of evaporation (the bay is ice-covered for much of the year), the large volume of [[Surface runoff|terrestrial runoff]] entering the bay (about {{cvt|700|km3}} annually, the Hudson Bay watershed covering much of Canada, many rivers and streams discharging into the bay), and the limited connection with the Atlantic Ocean and its higher salinity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Ransom A. |last2=Akenhead |first2=Scott A. |last3=Drinkwater |first3=Ken |date=1 June 1990 |title=The influence of Hudson Bay runoff and ice-melt on the salinity of the inner Newfoundland Shelf |journal=Atmosphere-Ocean |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=241–256 |doi=10.1080/07055900.1990.9649377 |issn=0705-5900|doi-access=free |bibcode=1990AtO....28..241M }}</ref> [[Sea ice]] is about three times the annual river flow into the bay, and its annual freezing and thawing significantly alters the salinity of the surface layer. Although its exact effects are not fully understood currently, the [[Cyclone|cyclonic]] storms in the bay are responsible for synoptic variability of salinity along the coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dmitrenko |first1=Igor A. |last2=Kirillov |first2=Sergei A. |last3=Babb |first3=David G. |last4=Kuzyk |first4=Zou Zou A. |last5=Basu |first5=Atreya |last6=Ehn |first6=Jens K. |last7=Sydor |first7=Kevin |last8=Barber |first8=David G. |date=15 September 2021 |title=Storm-driven hydrography of western Hudson Bay |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278434321001813 |journal=Continental Shelf Research|volume=227 |article-number=104525 |doi=10.1016/j.csr.2021.104525 |bibcode=2021CSR...22704525D |issn=0278-4343|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

One consequence of the lower salinity of the bay is that the [[Melting point|freezing point]] of the water is higher than in the rest of the world's oceans, thus decreasing the time that the bay remains ice-free. The increase of river inflows during the winter has decreased the season of sea ice by more than one month since the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eastwood |first1=Rosemary Ann |last2=Macdonald |first2=R. W. |last3=Ehn |first3=J. K. |last4=Heath |first4=J. |last5=Arragutainaq |first5=L. |last6=Myers |first6=P. G. |last7=Barber |first7=D. G. |last8=Kuzyk |first8=Z. A. |date=1 June 2020 |title=Role of River Runoff and Sea Ice Brine Rejection in Controlling Stratification Throughout Winter in Southeast Hudson Bay |journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=756–786 |doi=10.1007/s12237-020-00698-0 |s2cid=212641648 |issn=1559-2731|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EstCo..43..756E |hdl=1993/34772 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The lower salinity of the bay also has effects on the distribution and prevalence of common marine life such as micro algae. Research has shown that the lower salinity of the Hudson Bay limits the growth of micro algae, which causes a notable change in biomass along the bay's salinity gradient.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Legendre |first1=Louis |last2=Martineau |first2=Marie-Josée |last3=Therriault |first3=Jean-Claude |last4=Demers |first4=Serge |date=1 September 1992 |title=Chlorophyll a biomass and growth of sea-ice micro algae along a salinity gradient (southeastern Hudson Bay, Canadian Arctic) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00243115 |journal=Polar Biology|volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1007/BF00243115 |bibcode=1992PoBio..12..445L |s2cid=42347421 |issn=1432-2056|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Shores===
The western shores of the bay are a [[Upland and lowland|lowland]] known as the [[Hudson Bay Lowlands]], covering {{cvt|370000|km2}}, and are Canada's largest continuous [[peatland]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Da Silva |first1=Kristina A. |last2=Snyder |first2=Rebecca A. |last3=Packalen |first3=Maara S. |last4=McLaughlin |first4=James W. |last5=Peteet |first5=Dorothy M. |last6=Finkelstein |first6=Sarah A. |date=June 2022 |title=Mineral inputs, paleoecological change, and Holocene carbon accumulation at a boreal peatland in the Hudson Bay Lowlands, Canada |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031018222001663 |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=596 |article-number=110996 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.110996|bibcode=2022PPP...59610996D |s2cid=248188286 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Much of the landform has been shaped by the actions of [[glacier]]s and the shrinkage of the bay over long periods of time. The coastal area, located in a region characterized by permanently frozen layers of soil, known as [[permafrost]], is a low-lying wetland that receives water from lakes and fast-flowing rivers.<ref name="EnBr"/> Signs of numerous former beach fronts can be seen far inland from the current shore. A large portion of the lowlands in the province of Ontario is part of the [[Polar Bear Provincial Park]], and a similar portion of the lowlands in Manitoba is contained in [[Wapusk National Park]], the latter location being a significant [[maternity den]]ning area for [[polar bear]]s.<ref>C. Michael Hogan (2008) [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=36084 ''Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus'', globalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205716/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=36084 |date=24 December 2008 }}</ref>

In contrast, most of the eastern shores (the Quebec portion) form the western edge of the [[Canadian Shield]] in Quebec. The area is rocky and hilly. Its vegetation is typically [[Boreal forest of Canada|boreal forest]].The northern shores are [[tundra]].

Measured by shoreline, Hudson Bay is the largest bay in the world (the largest in area being the Bay of Bengal).<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2021 |title=Hudson Bay |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/bays/hudson-bay.html |access-date=10 October 2023 |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref>

The distinctive arcuate segment on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay is referred to as the [[Nastapoka arc]].

===Islands===
There are many islands in Hudson Bay, mostly near the eastern coast. All the islands, including those in James Bay, are part of Nunavut and lie in the [[Arctic Archipelago]]. Several are disputed by the Cree.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/archives/nunavut990528/nvt90514_11.html|title=Cree ask court to defend traditional rights on James Bay islands|access-date=11 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107022139/http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/archives/nunavut990528/nvt90514_11.html|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> One group of islands is the [[Belcher Islands]]. The Belcher Islands are located in the centre of the Nastapoka arc.<ref name=":1" /> Another group includes the [[Ottawa Islands]] which are located near the eastern shore of the Hudson Bay.<ref>{{Cite journal |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |date=7 December 2015 |title=GEOSCAN Search Results: Fastlink |url=https://geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca/starweb/geoscan/servlet.starweb?path=geoscan/fulle.web&search1=R=294068 |access-date=10 October 2023 |website=geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca |doi=10.4095/294068|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Geology==
Hudson Bay occupies a large [[Depression (geology)|structural basin]], known as the Hudson Bay basin, that lies within the [[Canadian Shield]]. The collection and interpretation of outcrop, seismic and drill hole data for [[Hydrocarbon exploration|exploration for oil and gas reservoirs]] within the Hudson Bay basin found that it is filled by, at most, {{cvt|2500|m}} of [[Ordovician]] to Devonian [[limestone]], [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]], [[evaporite]]s, black [[shale]]s, and various [[Clastic rock|clastic]] [[sedimentary rock]]s that overlie less than {{cvt|60|m}} of Cambrian [[Stratum|strata]] that consist of [[wiktionary:unfossiliferous|unfossiliferous]] [[quartz arenite|quartz sandstone]]s and [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]]s, overlain by sandy and [[Stromatolite|stromatolitic]] dolomites. In addition, a minor amount of terrestrial [[Fluvial sediment processes|fluvial]] sands and gravels of the [[Cretaceous]] period are preserved in the fill of a prominent ring-like depression about {{cvt|325–650|km}} across created by the dissolution of [[Silurian]] evaporites during the Cretaceous period.<ref name="Burgess2008a">Burgess, P.M., 2008, ''Phanerozoic evolution of the sedimentary cover of the North American craton.'', in Miall, A.D., ed., ''Sedimentary Basins of the United States and Canada'', Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp. 31–63.</ref><ref name="LavoieOthers2015a">Lavoie, D., Pinet, N., Dietrich, J. and Chen, Z., 2015. ''The Paleozoic Hudson Bay Basin in northern Canada: New insights into hydrocarbon potential of a frontier intracratonic basin.'' ''American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin'', 99(5), pp. 859–888.</ref><ref name="Roksandic1987a">Roksandic, M.M., 1987, ''The tectonics and evolution of the Hudson Bay region'', in C. Beaumont and A. J. Tankard, eds., ''Sedimentary basins and basin-forming mechanisms.'' Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 12, p. 507–518.</ref><ref name="SanfordOthers1998a">Sanford, B.V. and Grant, A.C., 1998. ''Paleozoic and Mesozoic geology of the Hudson and southeast Arctic platforms.'' ''Geological Survey of Canada Open File 3595'', scale 1:2 500 000.</ref>

From the large quantity of published geologic data that has been collected as the result of hydrocarbon exploration, academic research, and related [[geological map]]ping, a detailed history of the Hudson Bay basin has been reconstructed.<ref name="LavoieOthers2015a"/> During the majority of the [[Cambrian]] Period, this basin did not exist. Rather, this part of the Canadian Shield area was still topographically high and emergent. It was only during the later part of the Cambrian that the rising sea level of the [[Sauk sequence|Sauk]] [[marine transgression]] slowly submerged it. During the Ordovician, this part of the Canadian Shield continued to be submerged by [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] except for a brief middle Ordovician [[marine regression]]. Only starting in the Late Ordovician and continuing into the Silurian did the gradual regional [[subsidence]] of this part of the Canadian Shield form the Hudson Bay basin. The formation of this basin resulted in the accumulation of black [[Bitumen|bituminous]] [[oil shale]] and evaporite deposits within its centre, thick basin-margin limestone and [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]], and the development of extensive [[reef]]s that ringed the basin margins that were [[Tectonic uplift|tectonically uplifted]] as the basin subsided. During Middle Silurian times, subsidence ceased and this basin was uplifted. It generated an emergent arch, on which reefs grew, that divided the basin into eastern and western sub-basins. During the [[Devonian]] Period, this basin filled with terrestrial [[red beds]] that interfinger with marine limestone and dolomites. Before deposition was terminated by marine regression, Upper Devonian black bituminous shale accumulated in the south-east of the basin.<ref name="Burgess2008a"/><ref name="LavoieOthers2015a"/><ref name="Roksandic1987a"/><ref name="SanfordOthers1998a"/>

The remaining history of the Hudson Bay basin is largely unknown as a major [[unconformity]] separates Upper Devonian strata from [[Glacial period|glacial deposits]] of the [[Pleistocene]]. Except for poorly known terrestrial Cretaceous fluvial sands and gravels that are preserved as the fills of a ring of subsided strata around the centre of this basin, strata representing this period of time are absent from the Hudson Bay basin and the surrounding Canadian Shield.<ref name="Burgess2008a"/><ref name="SanfordOthers1998a"/>

The Precambrian Shield underlying Hudson Bay and in which Hudson Bay basin formed is composed of two [[Archean]] proto-continents, the [[Churchill craton|Western Churchill]] and [[Superior cratons]]. These [[craton]]s are separated by a tectonic collage that forms a [[Suture (geology)|suture zone]] between these cratons and the [[Trans-Hudson orogeny|Trans-Hudson Orogen]]. The Western Churchill and Superior cratons collided at about 1.9–1.8 Ga in the Trans-Hudson orogeny. Because of the irregular shapes of the colliding cratons, this collision trapped between them large fragments of juvenile crust, a sizable [[Continental fragment|microcontinent]], and [[island arc]] [[terrane]]s, beneath what is now the centre of modern Hudson Bay as part of the Trans-Hudson Orogen. The [[Belcher Islands]] are the eroded surface of the Belcher Fold Belt, which formed as a result of the tectonic [[Compression (geology)|compression]] and folding of sediments that accumulated along the margin of the Superior Craton before its collision with the Western Churchill Craton.<ref name="DarbyshireOthers2010a">Darbyshire, F.A., and Eaton, D.W., 2010. ''The lithospheric root beneath Hudson Bay, Canada from Rayleigh wave dispersion: No clear seismological distinction between Archean and Proterozoic mantle'', ''Lithos''. 120(1–2), 144–159, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2010.04.010.</ref><ref name="EatonOthers2010a">Eaton, D.W., and Darbyshire, F., 2010. ''Lithospheric architecture and tectonic evolution of the Hudson Bay region'', ''Tectonophysics''. 480(1–4), 1–22, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.09.006.</ref>

[[File:PGR Paulson2007 Rate of Lithospheric Uplift due to PGR.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of post-glacial rebound. Hudson Bay is in the region of the most rapid uplift.]]

=== Free-air gravity anomaly ===
Hudson Bay and the associated structural basin lie within the centre of a large [[free-air gravity anomaly]] that lies within the Canadian Shield. The similarity in areal extent of the free-air gravity anomaly with the perimeter of the former [[Laurentide ice sheet]] that covered this part of [[Laurentia]] led to a long-held conclusion that this perturbation in the Earth's gravity reflected still ongoing [[Post-glacial rebound|glacial isostatic adjustment]] to the melting and disappearance of this ice sheet. Data collected over Canada by the [[GRACE and GRACE-FO|Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment]] (GRACE) satellite mission allowed [[Geophysics|geophysicists]] to isolate the gravity signal associated with glacial isostatic adjustment from longer–time scale process of [[mantle convection]] occurring beneath the Canadian Shield. Based upon this data, geophysicists and other [[Earth science|Earth scientists]] concluded that the Laurentide Ice Sheet was composed of two large domes to the west and east of Hudson Bay. Modelling glacial isostatic adjustment using the GRACE data, they concluded that ≈25 to ≈45% of the observed free-air gravity anomaly was due to ongoing glacial isostatic adjustment, and the remainder likely represents longer time-scale effects of mantle convection.<ref name="TamisieaOthers2007a">Tamisiea, M.E., Mitrovica, J.X. and Davis, J.L., 2007. ''GRACE gravity data constrain ancient ice geometries and continental dynamics over Laurentia''. ''Science'', 316(5826), pp. 881–883.</ref>

===Southeastern semicircle===
Earth scientists have disagreed about what created the semicircular feature known as the [[Nastapoka arc]] that forms a section of the shoreline of southeastern Hudson Bay. The Nastapoka arc forms a 155 degree curve and appears to be very circular.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=28 November 2022 |title=Hudson Bay's Nastapoka Arc |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150665/hudson-bays-nastapoka-arc |access-date=10 October 2023 |website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov}}</ref> Noting the paucity of impact structures on Earth in relation to the Moon and Mars, [[Carlyle S. Beals]]<ref name="Beals1968a">Beals, C.S., 1968. ''On the possibility of a catastrophic origin for the great arc of eastern Hudson Bay.'' In: Beals, C.S. (Ed.), pp. 985–999. ''Science, History and Hudson Bay'', Vol. 2, Department of Energy Mines and Resources, Ottawa.</ref> proposed that it is possibly part of a [[Precambrian]] extraterrestrial impact structure that is comparable in size to the [[Mare Crisium]] on the Moon. In the same volume, [[John Tuzo Wilson]]<ref name="Wilson1968a">Wilson, J.T., 1968. ''Comparison of the Hudson Bay arc with some other features.'' In: Beals, C.S. (Ed.), pp. 1015–1033. ''Science, History and Hudson Bay'', Vol. 2. Department of Energy Mines and Resources, Ottawa.</ref> commented on Beals' interpretation and alternately proposed that the Nastapoka arc may have formed as part of an extensive Precambrian continental collisional [[orogeny|orogen]], linked to the closure of an ancient [[Oceanic basin|ocean basin]]. The current general consensus is that it is an arcuate boundary of tectonic origin between the Belcher Fold Belt and undeformed basement of the Superior Craton created during the Trans-Hudson orogeny. This is because no credible evidence for such an [[impact structure]] has been found by regional magnetic, [[Bouguer anomaly|Bouguer gravity]], or other geologic studies.<ref name="DarbyshireOthers2010a"/><ref name="EatonOthers2010a"/> However, other Earth scientists have proposed that the evidence of an Archean impact might have been masked by deformation accompanying the later formation of the Trans-Hudson orogen and regard an impact origin as a plausible possibility.<ref name="GoodingOthers1992a">Goodings, C.R. & Brookfield, M.E., 1992. ''Proterozoic transcurrent movements along the Kapuskasing lineament (Superior Province, Canada) and their relationship to surrounding structures.'' ''Earth-Science Reviews'', 32: 147–185.</ref><ref name="BleekerOthers2004a">Bleeker, W., and Pilkington, M., 2004. ''The 450-km-diameter Nastapoka Arc: Earth's oldest and largest preserved impact scar?'' ''Program with Abstracts – Geological Association of Canada; Mineralogical Association of Canada: Joint Annual Meeting, 2004'', Vol. 29, pp. 344.</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Arctic Routes (RUS).svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The Arctic Bridge [[shipping route]] (blue line) is hoped to link North America to [[market (economics)|market]]s in Europe and Asia using ice-free routes across the Arctic Ocean]]

===Arctic Bridge===
The longer periods of ice-free navigation and the reduction of Arctic Ocean ice coverage have led to Russian and Canadian interest in the potential for commercial trade routes across the Arctic and into Hudson Bay. The so-called [[Arctic Bridge]] would link Churchill, Manitoba, and the Russian port of [[Murmansk]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071018.wChurchill18/BNStory/National/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |date=18 October 2007 |title=Russian ship crosses 'Arctic bridge' to Manitoba  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220164851/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071018.wChurchill18/BNStory/National/ |archive-date=20 February 2009 }}</ref> The increase in ships traversing the proposed Arctic Bridge could result in an increase in accidents. Any pollutants released into the environment would be harder to remove as the cleanup would be complicated by ice sheets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tao |first1=Ran |last2=Myers |first2=Paul G. |date=February 2021 |title=Modelling the advection of pollutants in the Hudson Bay complex |journal=Journal of Marine Systems|volume=214 |article-number=103474 |doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2020.103474|bibcode=2021JMS...21403474T |s2cid=228822549 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Port ===
{{Main|Port of Churchill}}
The biggest port in the Hudson bay is the city of Churchill, which lies on the river with the same name, Churchill River. The Port of Churchill is a privately owned [[port]] on Hudson Bay in [[Churchill, Manitoba]], Canada. Routes from the port connect to the [[Atlantic#North Atlantic|North Atlantic]] through the [[Hudson Strait]]. As of 2008, the port had four deep-sea berths capable of handling [[Panamax]]-size vessels for the loading and unloading of grain, bulk commodities, general cargo, and tanker vessels. The port is connected to the [[Hudson Bay Railway (1997)|Hudson Bay Railway]], which shares the same parent company, and cargo connections are made with the [[Canadian National Railway]] system at HBR's southern terminus in [[The Pas]]. It is the only port of its size and scope in Canada that does not connect directly to the country's road system; all goods shipped overland to and from the port must travel by rail.

The port was built and owned by the [[Government of Canada]], but was sold in 1997 to the American company [[OmniTRAX]] to run privately. In December 2015, OmniTRAX announced it was negotiating a sale of the port, and the associated Hudson Bay Railway, to a group of [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] based in northern Manitoba.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/omnitrax-sells-churchill-first-nations-1.3371553|title=OmniTrax sells Port of Churchill, Hudson Bay rail line to First Nations group|date=19 December 2015|publisher=CBC News|access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref><ref name=portchur>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/business/2016/07/28/port-of-churchill-shut-down-after-being-refused-bailout-premier-suggests.html |title=Port of Churchill shut down after being refused bailout, premier suggests |newspaper=Toronto Star |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> With no sale finalized by July 2016, OmniTRAX shut down the port and the major railroad freight operations in August 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/abondoned-churchill/|title=How Ottawa abandoned Churchill, our only Arctic port|website=Maclean's|date=18 August 2016 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> The railway continued to carry cargo to supply the town of Churchill itself until the line was damaged by flooding on 23 May 2017. The Port and the Hudson Bay Railway were sold to [[Arctic Gateway Group]]—a consortium of First Nations, local governments, and corporate investors—in 2018.<ref name=CBCKavanagh/> On 9 July 2019, ships resupplying Arctic communities began stopping at the port for additional cargo,<ref name=thomcit/> and the port began shipping grain again on 7 September 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.grainews.ca/daily/grain-leaves-churchill-for-first-time-in-four-years/|title=Grain leaves Churchill for first time in four years|website=Grainews|date=9 September 2019|access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref>

==Coastal communities==
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2017}}<!--populations have no references, as well as Military development section-->

The coast of Hudson Bay is extremely sparsely populated; there are only about a dozen communities. Some of these were founded as trading posts in the 17th and 18th centuries by the Hudson's Bay Company, making them some of the oldest settlements in [[Western Canada]]. With the closure of the HBC posts and stores, although many are now run by [[The North West Company]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northwest.ca/about-us/operations|title=Operations &#124; The North West Company|website=northwest.ca}}</ref> in the second half of the 20th century, many coastal villages are now almost exclusively populated by [[Cree]] and [[Inuit]]. Two main historic sites along the coast were [[York Factory]] and [[Prince of Wales Fort]].

Communities along the Hudson Bay coast or on islands in the bay are (all populations are as of 2016):

* Nunavut
** [[Arviat]], population 2,657<ref name="census2016ARV">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6205015&Geo2=CD&Code2=6205&Data=Count&SearchText=Keewatin&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=6205&TABID=1 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Arviat|date=8 February 2017 | publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref>
** [[Chesterfield Inlet, Nunavut|Chesterfield Inlet]], population 437<ref name="census2016CHI">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6205019&Geo2=CD&Code2=6205&Data=Count&SearchText=Chesterfield%20Inlet&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=6205019&TABID=1|title=Statistics Canada: 2016 Census Profile Chesterfield Inlet|publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref>
** [[Coral Harbour]], population 891<ref name="2016 Coral Harbour Census">{{cite web|title=2016 Coral Harbour Census|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6205014&Geo2=CD&Code2=6205&Data=Count&SearchText=Coral%20Harbour&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=6205014&TABID=1|publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref>
** [[Rankin Inlet]], population 2,842<ref name=2016censusRI>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6205017&Geo2=CD&Code2=6205&Data=Count&SearchText=Rankin%20Inlet&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=6205017&TABID=1 | title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Rankin Inlet| publisher=Statistics Canada | access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref>
** [[Sanikiluaq]], population 882<ref name="census2016san">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6204001&Geo2=CD&Code2=6204&Data=Count&SearchText=Sanikiluaq&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=6204001&TABID=11 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Sanikiluaq|date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=3 March 2017}}</ref>
** [[Whale Cove, Nunavut|Whale Cove]], population 435<ref name="census2016WC">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6205016&Geo2=CD&Code2=6205&Data=Count&SearchText=Whale%20Cove&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=6205016&TABID=1|title=Statistics Canada: 2016 Census Profile Whale Cove|publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref>
* Manitoba
** [[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]], population 899<ref name="census2016CH">{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=4623056&Geo2=CD&Code2=4623&SearchText=Churchill&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Churchill, Town [Census subdivision], Manitoba and Division No. 23, Census division [Census division], Manitoba|date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>
* Ontario
** [[Fort Severn First Nation]], population 361<ref name="census2016FS">{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3560078&Geo2=CD&Code2=3560&SearchText=Fort%20Severn&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Fort Severn 89, Indian reserve [Census subdivision], Ontario and Kenora, District [Census division], Ontario|publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>
* Quebec
** [[Akulivik]], population 633<ref name=cp2016ak>{{SCref |year=2016| unit=csd |code=2499125}}</ref>
** [[Inukjuak]], population 1,757<ref name="cp2016in">{{SCref|year=2016|unit=csd|type=prof|code=2499085|name="cp2016"}}</ref>
** [[Kuujjuarapik]], population 686<ref name="cp2016ku">{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=2499075&Geo2=CD&Code2=2499&SearchText=Kuujjuarapik&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Kuujjuarapik, Village nordique [Census subdivision], Quebec and Nord-du-Québec, Census division [Census division], Quebec|date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>
** [[Puvirnituq]], population 1,779<ref name="cp2016pu">{{cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=2499120&Geo2=PR&Code2=24&Data=Count&SearchText=Puvirnituq&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&TABID=1&B1=All |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Puvirnituq, Village nordique [Census subdivision], Quebec and Quebec [Province]|date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref>
** [[Umiujaq]], population 442<ref name="cp2016um">{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=2499080&Geo2=CD&Code2=2499&SearchText=Umiujaq&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census Umiujaq, Village nordique [Census subdivision], Quebec and Nord-du-Québec, Census division [Census division], Quebec|date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>
** [[Whapmagoostui]], population 984<ref name="census2016wh">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=2499816&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Whapmagoostui&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |title=Census Profile |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-date=25 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025073723/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=2499816&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Whapmagoostui&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1  }}</ref>

===Military development===
The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] built forts as fur trade strongholds against the French or other possible invaders. One example is [[York Factory]] with angled walls to help defend the fort. In the 1950s, during the [[Cold War]], a few sites along the coast became part of the [[Mid-Canada Line]], watching for a potential Soviet bomber attack over the North Pole. The only Arctic deep-water port in Canada is the [[Port of Churchill]], located at Churchill, Manitoba.

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
* {{annotated link|Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal}}
* {{annotated link|Lake Agassiz}}
* {{annotated link|Tyrrell Sea}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== General sources ==
* ''Atlas of Canada'', [http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/index.html online version].
* Some references of geological/impact structure interest include:
** Rondot, Jehan (1994). "Recognition of eroded astroblemes". ''Earth-Science Reviews'' 35, 4, pp.&nbsp;331–365.
** Wilson, J. Tuzo (1968). "Comparison of the Hudson Bay arc with some other features". In: ''Science, History and Hudson Bay'', v. 2. Beals, C. S. (editor), pp.&nbsp;1015–1033.
*{{Cite book |title=Documents Relating to the Early History of Hudson Bay: The Publications of the Champlain Society |doi=10.3138/9781442618336 |publisher=Champlain Society |date=1931 |location=Toronto |first=Joseph Burr |last=Tyrrell |author-link=Joseph Tyrrell |isbn=978-1-4426-1833-6 |editor1-first=Joseph Burr |editor1-last=Tyrrell }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hudson Bay}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Hudson Bay |volume=13 |short=x}}

{{List of seas}}
{{Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean}}
{{Bays of Nunavut}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hudson Bay| ]]
[[Category:Borders of Nunavut]]
[[Category:Landforms of Nord-du-Québec]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Manitoba]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Kivalliq Region]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Qikiqtaaluk Region]]
[[Category:Bays of Ontario]]
[[Category:Bays of Quebec]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Seas of the Arctic Ocean]]
[[Category:Seas of Canada]]
[[Category:Bays of Nunavut]]