View source for Hugo Grotius

{{Short description|Dutch philosopher and jurist (1583–1645)}}
{{Redirect|Hugo de Groot|the crash of the KLM plane known under that name|KLM Flight 607-E}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region            = [[Western philosophy]]
| era               = [[Renaissance philosophy]]
| image             = Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt - Hugo Grotius.jpg
| caption           = Portrait of Hugo Grotius<br />by [[Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt]], 1631
| name              = Hugo Grotius
| birth_date        = 10 April 1583
| birth_place       = [[Delft]], [[County of Holland]], [[Dutch Republic]]
| death_date        = 28 August 1645 (aged 62)
| death_place       = [[Rostock]], [[Swedish Pomerania]]
| school_tradition  = [[Natural law]], [[humanism]]
| signature         = Hugo Grotius signature 1634.svg
| alma_mater        = [[Leiden University]]
| main_interests    = [[Philosophy of war]], [[international law]], [[political philosophy]]
| notable_ideas     = Theory of [[natural rights]], grounding [[just war]] principles in [[natural law]], [[governmental theory of atonement]]
| academic_advisors = [[Justus Lipsius]]
}}

'''Hugo Grotius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|r|oʊ|ʃ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|GROH|shee|əss}}; 10 April 1583&nbsp;– 28 August 1645), also known as '''Hugo de Groot'''{{fnf|de Groot|Groot|lang=Dutch}} ({{IPA|nl|ˈɦyɣoː də ˈɣroːt|lang}}) or '''Huig de Groot''' ({{IPA|nl|ˈɦœyɣ də ˈɣroːt|lang}}), was a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[humanist]], diplomat, lawyer, [[theologian]], jurist, statesman, poet and playwright. A teenage prodigy, he was born in [[Delft]] and studied at [[Leiden University]]. He was imprisoned in [[Loevestein Castle]] for his involvement in the controversies over religious policy of the [[Dutch Republic]], but escaped hidden in a chest of books that was regularly brought to him and was transported to [[Gorinchem]].<ref name="Murray">{{cite book |last=Murray |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/ahandbookfortra20firgoog |title=A hand-book for travellers on the continent: being a guide through Holland, Belgium, Prussia |publisher=BIBLIOBAZAAR |year=1838 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahandbookfortra20firgoog/page/n126 73]}}</ref><ref name="Davies">{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Charles Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9kBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA539 |title=History of Holland, from the beginning of the tenth to the end of the Eighteenth Century, Volume 2 |publisher=General Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-151-01164-0 |page=539 |author-link=Charles Maurice Davies}}</ref> Grotius wrote most of his major works in exile in [[France]].

Grotius was a major figure in the fields of philosophy, [[political philosophy|political theory]] and law during the 16th and 17th centuries. Along with the earlier works of [[Francisco de Vitoria]] and [[Alberico Gentili]], his writings laid the foundations for [[international law]]. Two of his books have had a lasting impact in the field: ''[[De jure belli ac pacis]]'' (''On the Law of War and Peace'') dedicated to [[Louis XIII]] of France and the ''[[Mare Liberum]]'' (''The Free Seas'') for which Grotius has been called the "father of international law."<ref name="britannica_Hugo-Grotius">{{Cite web |title=Hugo Grotius {{!}} Dutch statesman and scholar {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Grotius |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Grotius has also contributed significantly to the evolution of the notion of ''[[rights]]''. Before him, rights were, above all, perceived as attached to objects; after him, they are seen as belonging to persons, as the expression of an ability to act, or as a means of realizing something.

Peter Borschberg suggests that Grotius was significantly influenced by [[Francisco de Vitoria]] and the [[School of Salamanca]] in [[Spain]], who supported the idea that the sovereignty of a nation does not lie simply in a ruler through God's will, but originates in its people, who agree to confer such authority upon a ruler.<ref>Borschberg, Peter (2011), ''Hugo Grotius, the Portuguese and Free Trade in the East Indies'', Singapore and Leiden, NUS Press & KITLV Press, {{ISBN|978-9971-69-467-8}}</ref> It is also thought that Grotius was not the first to formulate the [[international society]] doctrine, but he was one of the first to define expressly the idea of one society of states, governed not by [[force (law)|force]] or [[warfare]] but by actual laws and mutual agreement to enforce those laws. As [[Hedley Bull]] declared in 1990: "The idea of international society which Grotius propounded was given concrete expression in the [[Peace of Westphalia]], and Grotius may be considered the intellectual father of this first general peace settlement of modern times."{{sfn|Bull|Roberts|Kingsbury|2003}} Additionally, his contributions to [[Arminianism|Arminian]] [[theology]] helped provide the seeds for later Arminian-based movements, such as [[Methodism]] and [[Pentecostalism]]; Grotius is acknowledged as a significant figure in the [[History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate|Arminian–Calvinist debate]]. Because of his theological underpinning of free trade, he is also considered an "economic theologist".{{sfn|Thumfart|2009}}

After fading over time, the influence of Grotius's ideas revived in the 20th century following the [[First World War]].

==Early life==
[[File:Hugo Grotius00.jpg|thumb|upright|Grotius at age 16, by [[Jan Antonisz. van Ravesteyn]], 1599]]

Born in [[Delft]] during the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch Revolt]], Grotius was the first child of [[Jan Cornets De Groot|Jan Cornets de Groot]] and Alida van Overschie. His father was a man of learning, once having studied with the eminent [[Justus Lipsius]] at [[Leiden University]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nellen|first=Henk J. M.|title=Hugo Grotius: A Lifelong Struggle for Peace in Church and State, 1583 – 1645|publisher=BRILL|year=2014|isbn=978-90-04-27436-5|location=Leiden|page=22}}</ref> as well as of political distinction. His family was considered Delft [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patrician]] as his ancestors played an important role in local government since the 13th century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Blom|first=Hans W.|title=Property, Piracy and Punishment: Hugo Grotius on War and Booty in De iure praedae: Concepts and Contexts|publisher=BRILL|year=2009|isbn=978-90-04-17513-6|location=Leiden|page=249}}</ref>

Jan de Groot was also the translator of [[Archimedes]] and a friend of [[Ludolph van Ceulen]]. He groomed his son from an early age in a traditional [[Humanism|humanist]] and [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] education.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Brunstetter|first1=Daniel R.|title=Just War Thinkers: From Cicero to the 21st Century|last2=O'Driscoll|first2=Cian|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-317-30711-2|location=Oxon|language=en}}</ref> A [[child prodigy|prodigious]] learner, Grotius entered [[Leiden University]] when he was just eleven years old.<ref name=":0" /> There he studied with some of the most acclaimed intellectuals in northern Europe, including [[Franciscus Junius (the elder)|Franciscus Junius]], [[Joseph Justus Scaliger]], and [[Rudolph Snellius]].{{sfn|Vreeland|1917|loc=chap 1}} At age 16 (1599), he published his first book: a scholarly edition of the [[late antiquity|late antique]] author [[Martianus Capella]]'s work on the [[seven liberal arts]], ''Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ Carthaginiensis viri proconsularis Satyricon.'' It remained a reference for several centuries.{{sfn|Stahl|1965}}

In 1598, at the age of 15 years, he accompanied [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt]] to a diplomatic mission in Paris. On this occasion, the King [[Henry IV of France|Henri IV of France]] would have presented Grotius to his court as "the miracle of [[Holland]]".{{sfn|von Siebold|1847}} During his stay in France, he passed or bought a law degree from the University of Orleans.{{sfn|Miller|2014|p=2}} In Holland, Grotius earned an appointment as advocate to [[The Hague]] in 1599<ref>{{Cite book|last=Korab-Karpowicz|first=W. Julian|title=A History of Political Philosophy: From Thucydides to Locke|publisher=Global Scholarly Publications|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59267-113-7|location=New York, NY|page=223}}</ref> and then as official [[historiographer]] for the States of Holland in 1601. It was on this date that the States of Holland requested from Grotius an account of the United Provinces' revolt against Spain;<ref name="britannica_Hugo-Grotius"/> Grotius is indeed contemporary with the [[Eighty Years' War]] between [[Spain]] and the [[Netherlands]].{{sfn|Miller|2014|p=2}} The resulting work, entitled ''Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis,'' describing the period from 1559 to 1609, was written in the style of the Roman historian [[Tacitus]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hugo Grotius {{!}} Dutch statesman and scholar {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Grotius |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} and: J. Waszink, 'Tacitism in Holland: Hugo Grotius' ''Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis''' in Rhoda Schnur (ed.), Acta Conventus Neo-Latini Bonnensis: Proceedings of the 12th International Congress of Neo-Latin Studies (Bonn 2003). Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies vol. 315, 2006</ref> and was first finished in 1612. The States, however, did not publish it, possibly because of the way the work resonated with the politico-religious tensions within the Dutch Republic (see below).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grotius and Waszink |editor-first1=Jan |editor-last1=Waszink |title=Annals of the War in the Low Countries, ed. with an introduction by J. Waszink |publisher=Leuven UP |year=2023 |isbn=978-94-6270-351-3 |series=Bibliotheca Latinitatis Novae |location=Leuven (BE)|doi=10.11116/9789461664853 |s2cid=251530133 }}</ref>

His first occasion to write systematically on issues of international justice came in 1604 when he became involved in the legal proceedings following the seizure by Dutch merchants of a Portuguese [[carrack]] and its cargo in the [[Singapore Strait]].{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Throughout his life Grotius wrote a variety of philological, theological and politico-theological works.

In 1608, he married [[Maria van Reigersberch]]; they had three daughters and four sons.{{sfn|Miller|2014|p=2}}

==Jurist career==
[[File:Grotius de iure praedae.jpg|thumb|upright|Page written in Grotius' hand from the manuscript of ''De Indis'' (circa 1604/05)]]

The Dutch were at [[Eighty Years' War|war with Spain]]; although Portugal was [[Dynastic union|closely allied]] with Spain, it was not yet [[Dutch–Portuguese War|at war with the Dutch]]. Near the start of the war, Grotius's cousin captain [[Jacob van Heemskerk]] captured a loaded Portuguese [[carrack]] merchant ship, ''[[Santa Catarina (ship)|Santa Catarina]]'', off present-day Singapore in 1603.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/48d0a785-2b61-467a-8c85-f2728e33702c |title=The Santa Catarina Incident |date=2021 |publisher=The National Library Board, Government of Singapore |access-date=2021-04-01 |quote=[The Santa Catarina] was taken under the laws of war by Dutch Admiral Jacob van Heemskerk}}</ref> Heemskerk was employed with the United Amsterdam Company (part of the [[Dutch East India Company]]), and though he did not have authorization from the company or the government to initiate the use of force, many shareholders were eager to accept the riches that he brought back to them.{{sfn|van Ittersum|2006|loc=Chap. 1}}

Not only was the legality of keeping the [[prize (law)|prize]] questionable under Dutch statute, but a faction of shareholders (mostly [[Mennonite]]) in the Company also objected to the forceful seizure on moral grounds, and of course, the Portuguese demanded the return of their cargo. The scandal led to a public judicial hearing and a wider campaign to sway public (and international) opinion. {{citation needed|date=June 2015}} It was in this wider context that representatives of the Company called upon Grotius to draft a [[polemic]]al defence of the seizure.{{sfn|van Ittersum|2006|loc=Chap. 1}}

[[File:Mierevelt grotius 1608.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Portrait of Grotius at age 25 ([[Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt]], 1608)]]

The result of Grotius' efforts in 1604/05 was a long, theory-laden treatise that he provisionally entitled ''De Indis'' (''On the Indies''). Grotius sought to ground his defense of the seizure in terms of the natural principles of justice. In this, he had cast a net much wider than the case at hand; his interest was in the source and ground of war's lawfulness in general. The treatise was never published in full during Grotius' lifetime, perhaps because the court ruling in favor of the Company preempted the need to garner public support.{{citation needed|reason=any source?|date=June 2015}}

[[File:Mare Liberum, or the Free Sea, by Hugo Grotius. Preface read in Latin.webm|thumb|right|Preface to the {{lang|la|Mare Liberum}}, read in Latin with English subtitles]] In ''The Free Sea'' (''[[Mare Liberum]]'', published 1609), Grotius formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory and all [[nation]]s were free to use it for seafaring [[trade]].{{sfn|Kraska|2011|p=88}} Grotius, by claiming 'free seas' ([[freedom of the seas]]), provided suitable ideological justification for the Dutch breaking up of various trade [[monopoly|monopolies]] through its formidable naval power. [[England]], competing fiercely with the Dutch for domination of world trade, opposed this idea and claimed in [[John Selden]]'s ''[[Mare clausum]]'' ''(The Closed Sea)'', "That the Dominion of the British Sea, or That Which Incompasseth the Isle of Great Britain, is, and Ever Hath Been, a Part or Appendant of the Empire of that Island.''"''{{sfn|Selden|1652}}

It is generally assumed that Grotius first propounded the principle of [[freedom of the seas]], although all countries in the [[Indian Ocean]] and other Asian seas accepted the right of [[Freedom of navigation|unobstructed navigation]] long before Grotius wrote his ''De Jure Praedae'' (''On the Law of Spoils'') in the year of 1604. Additionally, 16th-century Spanish theologian [[Francisco de Vitoria]] had postulated the idea of freedom of the seas in a more rudimentary fashion under the principles of ''[[jus gentium]]''.{{sfn|Nussbaum|1947}} Grotius's notion of the freedom of the seas would persist until the mid-20th century, and it continues to be applied even to this day for much of the [[high seas]], though the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea#Background|application of the concept and the scope of its reach is changing]].

==Arminian controversy, arrest and exile==
{{Further|History of Calvinist–Arminian debate}} {{further|Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae pietas}}

Aided by his continued association with [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt|Van Oldenbarnevelt]], Grotius made considerable advances in his political career, being retained as Oldenbarnevelt's resident advisor in 1605, Advocate General of the [[Fisc]] of [[Holland]], [[Zeeland]] and [[Friesland]] in 1607, and then as [[Pensionary]] of [[Rotterdam]] (the equivalent of a mayoral office) in 1613.{{sfn|Vreeland|1917|loc=chap 3}} Also in 1613, following the capture of two Dutch ships by the British, he was sent on a mission to London,{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 3}} a mission tailored to a man who wrote ''Mare liberum'' [''The Free Seas''] in 1609. However, it was opposed by the English by reason of force and he didn't obtain the return of the boats.{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 3}}

In these years a great [[theology|theological]] controversy broke out between the chair of theology at Leiden [[Jacobus Arminius]] and his followers (who are called Arminians or [[Remonstrants]]) and the strongly [[Calvinist]] theologian, [[Franciscus Gomarus]], whose supporters are termed Gomarists or Counter-Remonstrants.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Leiden University "was under the authority of the States of Holland&nbsp;– they were responsible, among other things, for the policy concerning appointments at this institution, which was governed in their name by a board of Curators&nbsp;– and, in the final instance, the States were responsible for dealing with any cases of heterodoxy among the professors."{{sfn|Grotius|Rabbie|1995}} The domestic dissension resulting over Arminius' professorship was overshadowed by the continuing war with Spain, and the professor died in 1609 on the eve of the [[Twelve Years' Truce]]. The new peace would move the people's focus to the controversy and Arminius' followers.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Grotius played a decisive part in this politico-religious conflict between the Remonstrants, supporters of religious tolerance, and the orthodox Calvinists or Counter-Remonstrants.{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 3}}

===Controversy within Dutch Protestantism===
The controversy expanded when the Remonstrant theologian [[Conrad Vorstius]] was appointed to replace Jacobus Arminius as the theology chair at Leiden. Vorstius was soon seen by Counter-Remonstrants as moving beyond the teachings of Arminius into [[Socinianism]] and he was accused of teaching irreligion. Leading the call for Vorstius' removal was theology professor [[Sibrandus Lubbertus]]. On the other side, [[Johannes Wtenbogaert]] (a Remonstrant leader) and [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt]], Grand Pensionary of Holland, had strongly promoted the appointment of Vorstius and began to defend their actions. Gomarus resigned his professorship at Leyden, in protest that Vorstius was not removed.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} The Counter-Remonstrants were also supported in their opposition by King [[James I of England]] "who thundered loudly against the Leyden nomination and gaudily depicted Vorstius as a horrid heretic. He ordered his books to be publicly burnt in London, Cambridge, and Oxford, and he exerted continual pressure through his ambassador in the Hague, Ralph Winwood, to get the appointment canceled."{{sfn|Nijenhuis|1972}} James began to shift his confidence from Oldenbarnevelt towards Maurice.

Grotius joined the controversy by defending the civil authorities' power to appoint (independently of the wishes of religious authorities) whomever they wished to a university's faculty. He did this by writing ''[[Ordinum Pietas]]'', "a pamphlet...directed against an opponent, the Calvinist Franeker professor Lubbertus; it was ordered by Grotius' masters the States of Holland, and thus written for the occasion&nbsp;– though Grotius may already have had plans for such a book."{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}}

The work is twenty-seven pages long, is "polemical and acrimonious" and only two-thirds of it speaks directly about ecclesiastical politics (mainly of synods and offices).{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} The work met with a violent reaction from the Counter-Remonstrants, and "It might be said that all Grotius' next works until his arrest in 1618 form a vain attempt to repair the damage done by this book."{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} Grotius would later write ''De Satisfactione'' aiming "at proving that the [[Arminianism|Arminians]] are far from being [[Socinianism|Socinians]]".{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}}

===Edict of toleration===
Led by Oldenbarnevelt, the [[States of Holland]] took an official position of [[religious toleration]] towards Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants. Grotius (who acted during the controversy first as Attorney General of Holland and later as a member of the Committee of Counsellors) was eventually asked to draft an edict to express the policy of toleration.{{sfn|Vreeland|1917|loc=Appendix|ps= A translation edict is printed in full in the appendix}} This edict, ''Decretum pro pace ecclesiarum'' was completed in late 1613 or early 1614. The edict put into practice a view that Grotius had been developing in his writings on [[separation of church and state|church and state]] (see [[Erastianism]]): that only the basic tenets necessary for undergirding civil order (e.g., the existence of God and His [[divine providence|providence]]) ought to be enforced while differences on obscure theological doctrines should be left to private conscience.{{refn|See his manuscript for ''Meletius'' (1611) and the more systematic ''De imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra'' (finished 1617, published 1647)}}

[[File:Statue of Hugo Grotius.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of Grotius in [[Delft]], the Netherlands]]

The edict "imposing moderation and toleration on the ministry" was backed up by Grotius with "thirty-one pages of quotations, mainly dealing with the [[Five Articles of Remonstrance|Five Remonstrant Articles]]."{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} In response to Grotius' ''Ordinum Pietas'', Professor Lubbertus published ''Responsio Ad Pietatem Hugonis Grotii'' in 1614. Later that year, Grotius anonymously published ''Bona Fides Sibrandi Lubberti'' in response to Lubbertus.{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}}

[[Jacobus Trigland]] joined Lubberdus in expressing the view that tolerance in matters of doctrine was inadmissible, and in his 1615 works ''Den Recht-gematigden Christen: Ofte vande waere Moderatie'' and ''Advys Over een Concept van moderatie''{{sfn|Grotius|Blom|2009}} Trigland denounced Grotius' stance.

In late 1615, when Middelburg professor [[Antonius Walaeus]] published ''Het Ampt der Kerckendienaren'' (a response to [[Johannes Wtenbogaert]]'s 1610 ''Tractaet van 't Ampt ende authoriteit eener hoogher Christelijcke overheid in kerckelijkcke zaken'') he sent Grotius a copy out of friendship. This was a work "on the relationship between ecclesiastical and secular government" from the moderate counter-remonstrant viewpoint.{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} In early 1616, Grotius also received the 36-page letter championing a remonstrant view ''Dissertatio epistolica de Iure magistratus in rebus ecclesiasticis'' from his friend [[Gerardus Vossius]].{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}}

The letter was "a general introduction on (in)tolerance, mainly on the subject of predestination and the sacrament...[and] an extensive, detailed and generally unfavourable review of Walaeus' ''Ampt'', stuffed with references to ancient and modern authorities."{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} When Grotius wrote asking for some notes "he received a treasure-house of ecclesiastical history. ...offering ammunition to Grotius, who gratefully accepted it".{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} Around this time (April 1616) Grotius went to Amsterdam as part of his official duties, trying to persuade the civil authorities there to join Holland's majority view about church politics.

In early 1617 Grotius debated the question of giving counter-remonstrants the chance to preach in the [[Kloosterkerk, The Hague|Kloosterkerk in The Hague]] which had been closed. During this time lawsuits were brought against the States of Holland by counter-remonstrant ministers and riots over the controversy broke out in Amsterdam.

===Arrest and exile===
[[File:Slot loevestein 1619.jpg|thumb|[[Loevestein]] Castle at the time of Grotius' imprisonment in 1618–21]]
{{main|Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets}}
As the conflict between civil and religious authorities escalated, in order to maintain civil order Oldenbarnevelt eventually proposed that local authorities be given the power to raise troops (the [[Sharp Resolution]] of August 4, 1617). Such a measure undermined the unity of the Republic's military force, the very same reason Spain had managed to retake so much lost territory in the 1580s, something the Captain-General of the republic, [[Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange]] could not allow with the treaty nearing its end.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Maurice seized the opportunity to solidify the preeminence of the [[Gomarist]]s, whom he had supported, and to eliminate the nuisance he perceived in Oldenbarnevelt (the latter had previously brokered the [[Twelve Years' Truce]] with Spain in 1609 against Maurice's wishes). During this time Grotius made another attempt to address ecclesiastical politics by completing ''De Imperio Summarum Potestatum circa Sacra'', on "the relations between the religious and secular authorities...Grotius had even cherished hopes that publication of this book would turn the tide and bring back peace to church and state".{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}}

[[File:Fredrik-Duim-De-vlugt-van-Huig-de-Groot MG 1299.tif|thumb|left|upright|Grotius' escape from [[Loevestein]] Castle in 1621]]

The conflict between Maurice and the States of Holland, led by Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius, about the Sharp Resolution and Holland's refusal to allow a National Synod, came to a head in July 1619 when a majority in the States General authorized Maurice to disband the auxiliary troops in Utrecht. Grotius went on a mission to the States of Utrecht to stiffen their resistance against this move, but Maurice prevailed. The States General then authorized him to arrest Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and [[Rombout Hogerbeets]] on 29 August 1618. They were tried by a court of delegated judges from the States General. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death and was beheaded in 1619. Grotius was sentenced to life imprisonment and transferred to Loevestein Castle.{{sfn|Israel|1995}}

From his imprisonment in Loevestein, Grotius made a written justification of his position "as to my views on the power of the Christian [civil] authorities in ecclesiastical matters, I refer to my...booklet ''De Pietate Ordinum Hollandiae'' and especially to an unpublished book ''De Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra'', where I have treated the matter in more detail...I may summarize my feelings thus: that the [civil] authorities should scrutinize God's Word so thoroughly as to be certain to impose nothing which is against it; if they act in this way, they shall in good conscience have control of the public churches and public worship&nbsp;– but without persecuting those who err from the right way."{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}} Because this stripped Church officials of any power some of their members (such as [[Johannes Althusius]] in a letter to Lubbertus) declared Grotius' ideas diabolical.{{sfn|Van Dam|1994}}

[[File:WLANL - Pachango - Slot Loevestein - Boekenkist van Hugo de Groot.jpg|thumb|A book chest exhibited at [[Loevestein]], presumed to be that in which Grotius escaped in 1621]]

In 1621, with the help of his wife and his maidservant, [[Elsje van Houwening]], Grotius managed to escape the castle in a book chest and fled to [[Paris]]. In the Netherlands today, he is mainly famous for this daring escape. Both the [[Rijksmuseum]] in [[Amsterdam]] and the museum [[Prinsenhof|Het Prinsenhof]] in Delft claim to have the original book chest in their collection.{{sfn|Slot Loevestein|2019}}

==Life in Paris==
Grotius then fled to [[Paris]], where the authorities granted him an annual royal pension.{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 4}} Grotius lived in France almost continuously from 1621 to 1644. His stay coincides with the period (1624-1642) during which the [[Cardinal Richelieu]] led France under the authority of [[Louis XIII]]. In France in 1625 Grotius published his most famous book, ''[[De jure belli ac pacis]]'' [''On the Law of War and Peace''] dedicated to Louis XIII.

While in Paris, Grotius set about rendering into Latin prose a work which he had originally written as Dutch verse in prison, providing rudimentary yet systematic arguments for the truth of Christianity. The Dutch poem, ''Bewijs van den waren Godsdienst'', was published in 1622, the Latin treatise in 1627, under the title ''De veritate religionis Christianae''.

In 1631, he tried to return to Holland, but the authorities remained hostile to him. He moved to Hamburg in 1632. But as early as 1634, the Swedes - a European superpower - sent him to Paris as ambassador. He remained in this position for ten years, where he had the mission to negotiate for Sweden at the end of the [[Thirty Years' War]]. During this period, he had been interested in the unity of Christians and published many texts that would posthumously (1679) be published under the title of ''Opera Omnia Theologica''.

===Governmental theory of atonement===
Grotius also developed a particular view of the [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] of Christ known as the "[[Governmental theory of atonement]]". He theorized that Jesus' sacrificial death occurred in order for the Father to forgive while still maintaining his just rule over the universe. This idea, further developed by theologians such as [[John Miley]], became one of the prominent views of the atonement in [[Methodist]] [[Arminianism]].{{sfn|Tooley|2013|p=184}}

==''De Jure Belli ac Pacis''==
{{Main|De jure belli ac pacis}}
[[File:381px-Grotius de jure 1631.jpg|thumb|Title page from the second edition (Amsterdam 1631) of ''De jure belli ac pacis'']]

Living in the times of the [[Eighty Years' War]] between [[Spain]] and the Netherlands and the [[Thirty Years' War]] between Catholic and Protestant European nations (Catholic France being in the otherwise Protestant camp), it is not surprising that Grotius was deeply concerned with matters of conflicts between nations and religions. His most lasting work, begun in prison and published during his exile in Paris, was a monumental effort to restrain such conflicts on the basis of a broad moral consensus. Grotius wrote:

<blockquote>
Fully convinced...that there is a common law among nations, which is valid alike for war and in war, I have had many and weighty reasons for undertaking to write upon the subject. Throughout the Christian world, I observed a lack of restraint in relation to war, such as even barbarous races should be ashamed of; I observed that men rush to arms for slight causes or no cause at all and that when arms have once been taken up, there is no longer any respect for the law, divine or human; it is as if, in accordance with a general decree, frenzy had openly been let loose for the committing of all crimes.{{sfn|Grotius|Kelsey|1925}}
</blockquote>

''[[De jure belli ac pacis libri tres]]'' (''On the Law of War and Peace: Three books'') was first published in 1625, dedicated to Grotius' current patron, Louis XIII. The treatise advances a system of principles of natural law, which are held to be binding on all people and nations regardless of local custom. The work is divided into three books:
* Book I advances his conception of [[Philosophy of war|war]] and of natural [[justice]], arguing that there are some circumstances in which war is justifiable.
* Book II identifies three 'just causes' for war: [[self-defense]], [[restitution|reparation of injury]], and [[punishment]]; Grotius considers a wide variety of circumstances under which these rights of war attach and when they do not.
* Book III takes up the question of what rules govern the conduct of war once it has begun; influentially, Grotius argued that all parties to war are bound by such rules, whether their cause is just or not.
* Further information: ''[[Temperamenta belli]]''

==Natural law==
[[File:Hugo-de-Groot-Johann-Niclas-Serlin-Drey-Bücher-von-Kriegs-und-Friedens-Rechten 0157.tif|left|thumb|upright|Engraved portrait of Grotius]]

Grotius' concept of [[natural law]] had a strong impact on the philosophical and theological debates and political developments of the 17th and 18th centuries. Among those he influenced were [[Samuel Pufendorf]] and [[John Locke]], and by way of these philosophers, his thinking became part of the cultural background of the [[Glorious Revolution]] in England and the [[American Revolution]].{{sfn|Waldron|2002}} In Grotius' understanding, [[nature]] was not an entity in itself but God's [[creationism|creation]]. Therefore, his concept of natural law had a theological foundation.{{sfn|Wolf|1986}} The [[Old Testament]] contained moral precepts (e.g. the [[Decalogue]]), which [[Christ]] confirmed and therefore were still valid. They were useful in interpreting the content of natural law. Both Biblical [[revelation]] and natural law originated in God and could, therefore, not contradict each other.{{sfn|Elze|1958}}

==Later years==
Many exiled Remonstrants began to return to the Netherlands after the death of Prince Maurice in 1625 when toleration was granted to them. In 1630, they were allowed complete freedom to build and run churches and schools and to live anywhere in Holland. The Remonstrants guided by [[Johannes Wtenbogaert]] set up a presbyterial organization. They established a theological seminary at Amsterdam where Grotius came to teach alongside [[Simon Episcopius|Episcopius]], [[Philipp van Limborch|van Limborch]], [[Étienne de Courcelles|de Courcelles]], and [[Jean Leclerc (theologian)|Leclerc]].

In 1634, Grotius was given the opportunity to serve as [[Sweden]]'s ambassador to [[France]]. [[Axel Oxenstierna]], regent of the successor of the recently deceased Swedish king, [[Gustavus Adolphus]], was keen to have Grotius in his employ. Grotius accepted the offer and took up [[diplomacy|diplomatic]] residence in Paris, which remained his home until he was released from his post in 1645.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

In 1644, the queen [[Christine of Sweden]], who had become an adult, began to perform her duties and brought him back to Stockholm. During the winter of 1644–1645, he went to Sweden in difficult conditions, which he decided to leave in the summer of 1645.

While departing from his last visit to Sweden, Grotius was [[shipwreck]]ed on the voyage. He washed up on the shore of [[Rostock]], ill and weather-beaten, and on August 28, 1645, he died; his body at last returned to the country of his youth, being laid to rest in the [[Nieuwe Kerk (Delft)|Nieuwe Kerk]] in Delft.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Delft|volume= 07 |page= 954 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Spuyman|first=Ceren|date=2019-12-10|title=Hugo de Groot: one of the greatest Dutch thinkers of all time|url=https://dutchreview.com/culture/history/hugo-de-groot-history/|access-date=2020-08-28|website=DutchReview|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Personal life==
[[File:Hug. Grotii Bataui Syntagma Arateorum 981373 00009.jpg|thumb|upright|''Syntagma Arateorum'']]

Grotius' personal motto was ''Ruit hora'' ("Time is running away"); his last words were purportedly, "By understanding many things, I have accomplished nothing" (''Door veel te begrijpen, heb ik niets bereikt'').{{sfn|Miller|2014|ps=. While they are probably apocryphal, his supposed last words—"By attempting many things, I have accomplished nothing"—do evoke the span of his life's work and his personal assessment of the results.}} Significant friends and acquaintances of his included the theologian [[Franciscus Junius (the elder)|Franciscus Junius]], the poet [[Daniel Heinsius]], the philologist [[Gerhard Johann Vossius]], the historian [[Johannes Meursius]], the engineer [[Simon Stevin]], the historian [[Jacques Auguste de Thou]], the Orientalist and Arabic scholar [[Thomas van Erpe|Erpinius]], and the French ambassador in the Dutch Republic, [[Benjamin Aubery du Maurier]], who allowed him to use the French diplomatic mail in the first years of his exile. He was also friends with the [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabantian]] [[Jesuit]] [[Andreas Schottus]].{{sfn|H.M.|1988|loc=note 67}}

Grotius was the father of regent and diplomat [[Pieter de Groot]].

==Influence of Grotius==
Grotius designed his theory to apply not only to states but also to rulers and subjects of law in general. Grotius's masterpiece ''De Jure Belli ac Pacis'' thus proved useful in the later development of theories of both private and criminal law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hugo Grotius - Later life {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Grotius/Later-life |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== From his time to the end of the 17th century ===
The king of Sweden, [[Gustavus Adolphus]], was said to have always carried a copy of ''De jure belli ac pacis'' in his saddle when leading his troops.{{sfn|Miller|2014|p=25}} In contrast, [[King James VI and I]] of Great Britain reacted very negatively to Grotius' presentation of the book during a diplomatic mission.{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 25}}

Some philosophers, notably Protestants such as [[Pierre Bayle]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] and the main representatives of the Scottish Enlightenment [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], [[Adam Smith]], [[David Hume]], [[Thomas Reid]] held him in high esteem.{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 25}} The French Enlightenment, on the other hand, was much more critical. [[Voltaire]] called it boring and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] developed an alternative conception of human nature. [[Pufendorf]], another theoretician of the natural law concept, was also skeptical.{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 25}}

===Commentaries of the 19th century===
[[Andrew Dickson White]] wrote:

<blockquote>
Into the very midst of all this welter of evil, at a point in time to all appearance hopeless, at a point in space apparently defenseless, in a nation of which every man, woman, and child was under sentence of death from its sovereign, was born a man who wrought as no other has ever done for the redemption of civilization from the main cause of all that misery; who thought out for Europe the precepts of right reason in international law; who made them heard; who gave a noble change to the course of human affairs; whose thoughts, reasonings, suggestions, and appeals produced an environment in which came an evolution of humanity that still continues.{{sfn|White|1910}}
</blockquote>

In contrast, [[Robert A. Heinlein]] satirized the Grotian [[governmental theory of atonement|governmental]] approach to theology in ''[[Methuselah's Children]]'': "There is an old, old story about a theologian who was asked to reconcile the [[doctrine]] of [[Divine Mercy]] with the doctrine of [[original sin|infant damnation]]. 'The Almighty,' he explained, 'finds it [[predeterminism|necessary]] to do things in His official and public capacity which in His private and personal capacity He deplores.'"{{sfn|Heinlein|1958|p = 324}}

=== Revival of interest in the 20th century ===
The influence of Grotius declined following the rise of [[positivism]] in the field of international law and the decline of natural law in philosophy.{{sfn|Forde|1998|p=639}} The [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie Foundation]] has nevertheless re-issued and re-translated ''On the Law of War and Peace'' after the [[World War I]].{{sfn|Acton Institute|2010}} At the end of the 20th century, his work aroused renewed interest as a controversy over the originality of his ethical work developed. For Irwing, Grotius would only repeat the contributions of [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Francisco Suárez]].{{sfn | Irving | 2008}} On the contrary, Schneewind argues that Grotius introduced the idea that "the conflict can not be eradicated and could not be dismissed, even in principle, by the most comprehensive metaphysical knowledge possible of how the world is made up".{{sfn | Schneewind | 1993}}{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 25}}

As far as politics is concerned, Grotius is most often considered not so much as having brought new ideas but rather as one who has introduced a new way of approaching political problems. For Kingsbury and Roberts, "the most important direct contribution of ["On the Law of War and Peace"] lies in the way it systematically brings together practices and authorities on the traditional but fundamental subject of ''jus belli'', which he organizes for the first time from a body of principles rooted in the law of nature."{{sfn | Bull | Roberts | Kingsbury | 2003 | loc = Introduction}}{{sfn | Miller | 2014 | p = 24}}

The ''Grotiana Foundation'' seeks through its journal, ''Grotiana'', to advance "the Grotian tradition".<ref>Grotiana Foundation, [https://brill.com/view/journals/grot/grot-overview.xml Grotiana: A Journal published under the auspices of the Grotiana Foundation], ''Brill'', accessed on 6 May 2025</ref>

==Bibliography (selection)==
[[File:Hugo Grotius bas-relief in the U.S. House of Representatives chamber.jpg|thumb|upright|Marble bas-relief of Grotius among 23 reliefs of great historical lawgivers in the chamber of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] in the United States Capitol]]
[[File:Annotationes ad Vetus Testamentum.tif|thumb|upright|''Annotationes ad Vetus Testamentum'' (1732)]]

The [[Peace Palace Library]] in [[The Hague]] holds the Grotius Collection, which has a large number of books by and about Grotius. The collection was based on a donation from [[Martinus Nijhoff]] of 55 editions of ''De jure belli ac pacis libri tres''.

Works are listed in order of publication, with the exception of works published posthumously or after long delay (estimated composition dates are given).{{sfn|Peace Palace (The Hague)|1983}}{{sfn|van Bunge|2017}} Where an English translation is available, the most recently published translation is listed beneath the title.

* ''Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ Carthaginiensis viri proconsularis Satyricon, in quo De nuptiis Philologiæ & Mercurij libri duo, & De septem artibus liberalibus libri singulares. Omnes, & emendati, & Notis, siue Februis Hug. Grotii illustrati'' [The Satyricon by Martianus Minneus Felix Capella, a man from Carthage, which includes the two books of 'On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury', and the book named 'On the Seven Liberal Arts'. Everything, including corrections, annotations as well as deletions and illustrations by Hug. Grotius] - 1599
* ''Adamus exul'' (The Exile of Adam; tragedy) – The Hague, 1601
* ''De republica emendanda'' (To Improve the Dutch Republic; manuscript 1601) – pub. The Hague, 1984
* ''Parallelon rerumpublicarum'' (Comparison of Constitutions; manuscript 1601–02) – pub. Haarlem 1801–03
* ''De Indis'' (On the Indies; manuscript 1604–05) – pub. 1868 as ''De Jure Praedae''
* ''Christus patiens'' (The Passion of Christ; tragedy) – Leiden, 1608
* ''Mare Liberum'' (The Free Seas; from chapter 12 of ''De Indis'') – Leiden, 1609
* ''De antiquitate reipublicae Batavicae'' (On the Antiquity of the Batavian Republic) – Leiden, 1610 (An extension of [[François Vranck]]'s ''Deduction'' of 1587{{sfn|Leeb|1973}})
:''The Antiquity of the Batavian Republic'', ed. Jan Waszink and others (van Gorcum, 2000).
* ''Meletius'' (manuscript 1611) – pub. Leiden, 1988
:{{wikicite |ref={{harvid|H.M.|1988}} |reference=''Meletius'', ed. G.H.M. Posthumus Meyjes (Brill, 1988).}}
* ''Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis'' (Annals and History of the Low Countries' War; manuscript 1612-13) – pub. Amsterdam, 1657
:''The Annals and History of the Low-Countrey-warrs'', ed. Thomas Manley (London, 1665): 
: - Modern English translation of the ''Annales'' only in: Hugo Grotius, ''Annals of the War in the Low Countries'', ed. with introduction by J. Waszink (Latin/English edition), Leuven UP 2023. Bibliotheca Latinitatis Novae, {{ISBN|978-94-6270-351-3|978-94-6166-485-3}}, {{doi|10.11116/9789461664853}}.
: - Modern Dutch translation of the ''Annales'' only in: Hugo de Groot, "Kroniek van de Nederlandse Oorlog. De Opstand 1559-1588", ed. Jan Waszink (Nijmegen, Vantilt 2014), with introduction, index, plates.
* ''Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae pietas'' (The Piety of the States of Holland and Westfriesland) – Leiden, 1613
:''Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae pietas'', ed. Edwin Rabbie (Brill, 1995).
* ''De imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra'' (On the power of sovereigns concerning religious affairs; manuscript 1614–17) – pub. Paris, 1647
:''De imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra'', ed. Harm-Jan van Dam (Brill, 2001).
* ''De satisfactione Christi adversus Faustum Socinum'' (On the satisfaction of Christ against [the doctrines of] [[Faustus Socinus]]) – Leiden, 1617
:''Defensio fidei catholicae de satisfactione Christi'', ed. Edwin Rabbie (van Gorcum, 1990).
: {{cite book |language=en |last=Grotius |first=Hugo |title=A defence of the Catholic faith concerning the satisfaction of Christ against Faustus Socinus |place=Andover, MA |publisher=W. F. Draper |year=1889 |url=http://yoel.info/grotius.pdf}}
* ''Inleydinge tot de Hollantsche rechtsgeleertheit'' (Introduction to Dutch Jurisprudence; written in Loevenstein) – pub. The Hague, 1631
:''The Jurisprudence of Holland'', ed. R.W. Lee (Oxford, 1926).
* ''Bewijs van den waaren godsdienst'' (Proof of the True Religion; didactic poem) – Rotterdam, 1622
* ''Apologeticus'' (Defense of the actions which led to his arrest (This was for a long time the only source for what transpired during Grotius' trial in 1619, because the trial record was not published at the time. However, [[Robert Fruin]] edited this trial record in{{sfn|Fruin|1871}}) – Paris, 1922
* ''De jure belli ac pacis'' (On the Law of War and Peace) – Paris, 1625 (2nd ed. Amsterdam 1631)
:''Hugo Grotius: On the Law of War and Peace''. Student edn. Ed. Stephen C. Neff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012)
* ''De veritate religionis Christianae'' (On the Truth of the Christian religion) – Paris, 1627
:''The Truth of the Christian Religion'', ed. John Clarke (Edinburgh, 1819).
* ''Sophompaneas'' (Joseph; tragedy) – Amsterdam, 1635
* ''De origine gentium Americanarum dissertatio'' (Dissertation of the origin of the American peoples) – Paris 1642
* ''Via ad pacem ecclesiasticam'' (The way to religious peace) – Paris, 1642
* ''Annotationes in Vetus Testamentum'' (Commentaries on the Old Testament) – Amsterdam, 1644
* ''Annotationes in Novum Testamentum'' (Commentaries on the New Testament) – Amsterdam and Paris, 1641–50
* ''De fato'' (On Destiny) – Paris, 1648

==See also==
* [[Coenraad van Beuningen]]
* [[Emer de Vattel]]
* [[English school of international relations theory]]
* [[International waters]]
* [[Grotius Lectures]]
* [[9994 Grotius]] – an asteroid named after Grotius

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
*{{cite journal |language=en |last1=Acton Institute |title=Hugo Grotius |journal=Religion & Liberty |volume=9 |issue=6 |year=2010 |url=https://acton.org/pub/religion-liberty/volume-9-number-6/hugo-grotius}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last1=Bull |first1=Hedley |last2=Roberts |first2=Adam |last3=Kingsbury |first3=Benedict |title=Hugo Grotius and International Relations |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford UP |year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-825569-7}}
*{{cite journal |language=de |last1=Elze |first1=M. |title=Grotius, Hugo |journal=Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart |volume=3 |location=Tübingen (Germany) |publisher=Mohr |year=1958}}
*{{cite journal |language=en |last1=Forde |first1=Steven |title=Hugo Grotius on Ethics and War |journal=The American Political Science Review |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=639–648 |year=1998 |doi=10.2307/2585486 |jstor=2585486 |s2cid=143831729 }}
*{{cite web |language=nl |first=R. |last=Fruin |title=Verhooren en andere bescheiden betreffende het rechtsgeding van Hugo de Groot|year=1871| publisher=Kemink en Zn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN9FAAAAcAAJ&q=proces+tegen++Hugo+Grotius&pg=PR5|website=Google Books |access-date=26 January 2019}}
*{{cite book|language=en |last1=Grotius |first1=Hugo |last2=Kelsey |first2=Francis W. |title=The Law of War and Peace |place=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |year=1925 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/46564}}
*{{cite book|language=en |last1=Grotius |first1=Hugo |last2=Rabbie |first2=Edwin |title=Hugo Grotius: Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae Pietas, 1613. |place=New York |publisher=Brill |year=1995}}
*{{cite book|language=en |last1=Grotius |first1=Hugo |last2=Blom |first2=Hans W. |title=Property, Piracy and Punishment: Hugo Grotius on War and Booty in De Iure Praedae&nbsp;– Concepts and Contexts |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2009}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=Heinlein |first=Guillaume |title=Hugo Grotius, Meletius sive De iis quae inter Christianos conveniunt Epistola: Critical Edition with Translation, Commentary and Introduction |publisher=Brill|year=1988 |page=33}}
*{{cite book |author-link=Robert A. Heinlein |language=en |last=Heinlein |first=Robert A. |title=Revolt in 2100 & Methuselah's Children |location=Riverdale, New York |publisher=Baen |year=1958 }}
*{{cite book |language=en |last1=Irving |first1=Terence |title=The Development of Ethics |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last1=Israel |first1=Jonathan|title=The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806 |publisher=Clarendon Press |place=Oxford|isbn=0-19-873072-1|year=1995 |pages=447–449}}
*{{cite book |language=en |title=Contemporary Maritime Piracy: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea |first=James |last=Kraska |date=June 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-38725-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NgPm_7mP0-YC}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=Leeb|first=I. Leonard|title=Ideological Origins of the Batavian Revolution: History and Politics in the Dutch Republic, 1747–1800|year=1973|publisher=Springer|pages=21ff, 89}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|language=en |last1=Miller |first1=John |title=Hugo Grotius |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |location=Stanford|publisher=Stanford University|date=2014|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/grotius/}}
*{{cite journal |last=Nellen |first=Henk |date=January 2012 |title=Minimal Religion, Deism, and Socinianism: On Grotius's Motives for Writing ''De Veritate'' |journal=Grotiana |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=25–57 |doi=10.1163/18760759-03300006 |eissn=1876-0759 |issn=0167-3831}}
*{{cite book|language=en |last1=Nijenhuis |first1=Willem |title=Ecclesia reformata: Studies on the Reformation|location=Leiden, Netherlands|publisher=Brill|date=1972}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=Nussbaum |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Nussbaum |title=A concise history of the law of nations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxkQAQAAMAAJ|year=1947|place=New York |edition=1st|publisher=Macmillan Co.|page=62}}
*{{cite journal |last=Palladini |first=Fiammetta |date=January 2012 |title=The Image of Christ in Grotius's ''De Veritate Religionis Christianae'': Some Thoughts on Grotius's Socinianism |journal=Grotiana |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=58–69 |doi=10.1163/18760759-03300003 |eissn=1876-0759 |issn=0167-3831}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=Peace Palace (The Hague) |title=Catalogue of the Grotius Collection |location=Assen |publisher=Van Gorcum |year=1983}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last1=Schneewind |first1=J.B. |chapter=Kant and natural law ethics |title=Ethics, vol.104:53-74 |year=1993 }}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=Selden |first=John |title=Mare Clausum. Of the Dominion, or, Ownership of the Sea |location=London |publisher=Printed by William Du-Gard, by appointment of the Council of State and sold at the Sign of the Ship at the New Exchange |year=1652 |url=https://archive.org/details/ofdominionorowne00seld}}
*{{Cite news |language=nl-NL |last=Slot Loevestein |url=https://www.slotloevestein.nl/geschiedenis/hugo-de-groot|title=Hugo de Groot - Slot Loevestein |newspaper=Slot Loevestein |date=2019 |access-date=2019-11-28}}
*{{Cite journal |language=en| last1 = Stahl | first1 = William H. | year = 1965 | title = To a Better Understanding of Martianus Capella | journal = Speculum | volume = 40 | issue = 1| pages = 102–115 | doi=10.2307/2856467| jstor = 2856467 |s2cid=161708230}}
*{{Cite journal |language=en| last1 = Thumfart | first1 =Johannes | title = On Grotius's Mare liberum and Vitoria's de indis, following Agamben and Schmitt | url =https://www.academia.edu/3067362 | journal = Grotiana | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 65–87 | year = 2009 |doi=10.1163/016738309X12537002674286}}
* {{cite book |language=en |last=Tooley |first=W. Andrew |title=Reinventing Redemption: The Methodist Doctrine of Atonement in Britain and America in the Long Nineteenth Century |type=Phd thesis |location=Stirling |publisher=University of Stirling |date=2013 |url=https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/20230/1/Final%20Version_Tooley%20PhD%20Thesis_Reinventing%20Redemption%20The%20Methodist%20Doctrine%20of%20Atonement%20in%20Britain%20and%20America%20in%20the%20Long%20Nineteenth%20Century.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |language=en |last=van Bunge |first=Wiep |title=Grotius, Hugo |journal=Dictionary of Seventeenth Century Dutch Philosophers |location=England |publisher= Bloomsbury |year=2017}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last1=Van Dam |first1=Harm-Jan |title=Hugo Grotius Theologian – Essays in Honor of G.H.M. Posthumus Meyjes| editor=Henk J.M. Nellen & Edwin Rabbie |article=De Imperio Summarum Potestatum Circa Sacra |location=New York |publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1994}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=van Ittersum|first=Martine Julia |title=Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies 1595–1615 |location=Boston |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-04-14979-3}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last1=Waldron |first1=Jeremy |title=God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought |location=Cambridge (UK) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-89057-1 |pages=189, 208}}
*{{cite journal |language=fr |last1=von Siebold |first1= Philipp Franz |title=Nécrologie de Jhr. Hugo Cornets de Groot |journal=Le Moniteur des Indes-Orientales et Occidentales |volume=3 |year=1847 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OPlKAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA3 |page=3}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=Vreeland|first=Hamilton|title=Hugo Grotius: The Father of the Modern Science of International Law|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1917 |url= https://archive.org/details/hugogrotiusfathe00vreeuoft/page/n10 |access-date= 16 February 2019 |via= Internet Archive}}
*{{cite book |language=en |last=White |first=Andrew Dickson |title=Seven great Statesmen in the warfare of humanity with unreason By Andrew Dickson White |location=New York |publisher=Century Co |year=1910}}
*{{Cite journal |language=de |last1=Wolf |first1=Ernst |title=Naturrecht |journal=Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart |volume=3 |location=Tübingen (Germany) |publisher=Mohr |year=1986}}

==Further reading==
See ''Catalogue of the Grotius Collection'' (Peace Palace Library, The Hague) and 'Grotius, Hugo' in ''Dictionary of Seventeenth Century Dutch Philosophers'' (Thoemmes Press 2003).

* {{Cite book|last=Alvarado|first=Ruben|title=The Debate That Changed the West: Grotius versus Althusius|publisher=Pantocrator Press|year=2018|isbn=978-90-76660-51-6|location=Aalten|oclc=1060613096}}
* [[Pierre Bayle|Bayle, Pierre]]. (1720). "Grotius", in ''Dictionaire historique et critique'', 3rd ed. (Rotterdam: Michel Bohm).
* Bell, Jordy: ''Hugo Grotius: Historian''. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1980
* {{cite book |language=en |last1=Blom |first1=Andrew |chapter=Hugo Grotius |title=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |chapter-url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/grotius/ |access-date=2016-01-12}}
* Blom, H. W.; Winkel, L. C.: ''Grotius and the Stoa''. Van Gorcum Ltd, 2004, 332pp
* Borschberg, Peter, 2011, [https://www.academia.edu/4302729 ''Hugo Grotius, the Portuguese and Free Trade in the East Indies''], Singapore and Leiden: Singapore University Press and KITLV Press.
* Brandt, Reinhard: ''Eigentumstheorien von Grotius bis Kant (Problemata)''. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1974, 275pp
* {{cite journal |last1=Brett |first1=Annabel |title=Natural Right and Civil Community: The Civil Philosophy of Hugo Grotius |journal=The Historical Journal |date=2 April 2002 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=31–51 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X01002102 |s2cid=159489997 }}
* Buckle, Stephen: ''Natural Law and the Theory of Property: Grotius to Hume''. Oxford University Press, USA, 1993, 344pp
* Burigny, Jean Lévesque de: ''The Life of the Truly Eminent and Learned Hugo Grotius: Containing a Copious and Circumstantial History of the Several Important and Honourable Negotiations in Which He was Employed; Together with a Critical Account of His Works''. London: printed for A. Millar, 1754. Also Echo Library, 2006.
* Butler, Charles: ''The Life of Hugo Grotius: With Brief Minutes of the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History of the Netherlands''. London: John Murray, 1826.
* Chappell, Vere: ''Grotius to Gassendi (Essays on Early Modern Philosophers)''. Garland Publishing Inc, New York, 1992, 302pp
* {{cite book |language=en |last1=Craig |first1=William Lane |title=The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Christ During the Deist Controversy |place=Lewiston |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |year=1985}}
* {{cite book |language=en |last1=Dulles |first1=Avery |title=A History of Apologetics |place=Eugene, Oregon |publisher=Wipf & Stock |year=1999}}
* Dumbauld, Edward, 1969. ''The Life and Legal Writings of Hugo Grotius.'' Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
* Edwards, Charles S., 1981. ''Hugo Grotius, The Miracle of Holland: A Study in Political and Legal Thought''. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
* Falk, Richard A.; Kratochwil, Friedrich; Mendlovitz, Saul H.: ''International Law: A Contemporary Perspective (Studies on a Just World Order, No 2)''. Westview Press, 1985, 702pp
* Feenstra, Robert; Vervliet, Jeroen: ''Hugo Grotius: Mare Liberum (1609–2009)''. BRILL, 2009, 178pp
* Figgis, John Neville: ''Studies of Political Thought from Gerson to Grotius 1414–1625''. Cambridge University Press, 1907, 258pp
* Gellinek, Christian: ''Hugo Grotius (Twayne's World Authors Series)''. Twayne Publishers Inc., Boston, U.S., 1986, 161pp
* ''Grotiana.'' Assen, The Netherlands: Royal Van Gorcum Publishers. A journal of Grotius studies, 1980–.
* Gurvitch, G. (1927). ''La philosophie du droit de Hugo Grotius et la théorie moderne du droit international,''. ''Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale'', vol. 34: 365–391.
* Haakonssen, Knud: ''Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment''. Cambridge University Press, 1996
* {{cite journal |last1=Haakonssen |first1=Knud |title=Hugo Grotius and the History of Political Thought |journal=Political Theory |date=19 August 2016 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=239–265 |doi=10.1177/0090591785013002005 |s2cid=144743124 }}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last1=Haggenmacher |first1=Peter |title=Grotius et la doctrine de la guerre juste |location=Paris |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=1983}}
* Haskell, John D.: ''Hugo Grotius in the Contemporary Memory of International Law: Secularism, Liberalism, and the Politics of Restatement and Denial''. (''Emory International Law Review'', Vol. 25, No. 1, 2011), [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1893205 H. Grotius in the Contemporary Memory of Intl. Law: Secularism, Liberalism, & the Politics of Restatement & Denial]
* Heering, Jan-Paul: ''Hugo Grotius As Apologist for the Christian Religion: A Study of His Work De Veritate Religionis Christianae, 1640 (Studies in the History of Christian Thought)''. Brill Academic, 2004, 304pp
* Jeffery, Renée: ''Hugo Grotius in International Thought (Palgrave MacMillan History of International Thought)''. Palgrave Macmillan, 1st edition, 2006, 224pp
* Keene, Edward: ''Beyond the Anarchical Society: Grotius, Colonialism and Order in World Politics''. Port Chester, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 2002
* Kingsbury, Benedict: ''A Grotian Tradition of Theory and Practice?: Grotius, Law, and Moral Skepticism in the Thought of Hedley Bull''. (''Quinnipiac Law Review'', No.17, 1997)
* Knight, W.S.M., 1925. ''The Life and Works of Hugo Grotius''. London: Sweet & Maxwell, Ltd.
* {{Cite book|last=Kowalski|first=Klaus|title=Das Vertragsverständnis des Hugo Grotius. Zwischen Gerechtigkeit, Treue und Rechtsübertragung|publisher=Böhlau|year=2022|location=Cologne|doi=10.7788/9783412524944|isbn=978-3-412-52492-0 |s2cid=248843705}}
* [[Hersch Lauterpacht|Lauterpacht, Hersch]], 1946, "The Grotian Tradition in International Law," in ''British Yearbook of International Law''.
* Leger, James. St. (1962). ''The 'Etiamsi Daremus' of Hugo Grotius: A Study in the Origins of International Law'' (Rome: Pontificium Athenaeum Internationale).
* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hansong |title=Time, right and the justice of war and peace in Hugo Grotius's political thought |journal=History of European Ideas |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=536–552 |doi=10.1080/01916599.2018.1559750 |year=2019 |s2cid=149954929 }}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last1=Mattei |first1=Jean Mathieu |title=Histoire du droit de la guerre (1700–1819), Introduction à l'histoire du droit international, avec une biographie des principaux auteurs de la doctrine de l'antiquité à nos jours |place=Aix en Provence |publisher=Presses universitaires d'Aix en Provence |year=2006}}
* Mühlegger, Florian. ''Hugo Grotius. Ein christlicher Humanist in politischer Verantwortung''. Berlin and New York, de Gruyter, 2007, XIV, 546 S. (Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte, 103).
* Neff, Stephen C.: ''Hugo Grotius On the Law of War and Peace: Student Edition''. Cambridge University Press, 2012, 546pp
* Nellen, Henk J. M., 2007. ''Hugo de Groot: Een leven in strijd om de vrede (official Dutch State biography)''. The Hague: Balans Publishing.
* ——— and Rabbie, eds., 1994. ''Hugo Grotius, Theologian''. New York: E.J. Brill.
* [[Oliver O'Donovan|O'Donovan, Oliver]]. 2004. "The Justice of Assignment and Subjective Rights in Grotius," in ''Bonds of Imperfection: Christian Politics Past and Present''.
* O'Donovan, Oliver; O'Donovan, Joan Lockwood: ''From Irenaeus to Grotius: A Sourcebook in Christian Political Thought''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999, 858pp
* Onuma, Yasuaki (ed.): ''A Normative Approach to War: Peace, War, and Justice in Hugo Grotius''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993, 421pp
* Osgood, Samuel: ''Hugo Grotius and the Arminians''. Hila, MT: Kessinger Pub., 2007
* Powell, Jim; Powell, James; Johnson, Paul: ''The Triumph of Liberty: A 2,000 Year History Told Through the Lives of Freedom's Greatest Champions''. Free Press, 1st edition, 2002, 574pp
* {{cite book |last= Rattigan|first= William |author-link= William Henry Rattigan |chapter= GROTIUS |editor1= Macdonell, John |editor1-link = John Macdonell (judge)|editor2= Manson, Edward William Donoghue |title= Great Jurists of the World |place= London |publisher= John Murray |year= 1913 |pages= 169–184 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13326/page/n187|access-date= 11 March 2019 |via= Internet Archive}}
* Rattigan, William. "Hugo Grotius." Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation 6, no. 1 (1905): 68–81. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/752216].
* Remec, Peter Paul. (1960). ''The Position of the Individual in International Law according to Grotius and Vattel'' (The Hague: Nijhoff).
* Rommen, Heinrich: ''The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy''
* Salter, John. (2001) "Hugo Grotius; Property and Consent." Political Theory 29, no. 4, 537–55.
* Salter, John: ''Adam Smith and the Grotian Theory of Property''. The British Journal of Politics & International Relations, Volume 12, Issue 1, February 2010, p.&nbsp;3–21
* Scharf, Michael P.: ''Customary International Law in Times of Fundamental Change: Recognizing Grotian Moments''. Cambridge University Press, 2013
* Scott, Jonathan: ''The Law of war: Grotius, Sidney, Locke and the political theory of rebellion'' in Simon Groenveld and Michael Wintle (eds) ''Britain and the Netherlands, vol. XI The Exchange of Ideas'', pp.&nbsp;115–32.
* Sommerville, Johann P.: ''Selden, Grotius, and the Seventeenth-Century Intellectual Revolution in Moral and Political Theory,'' in Victoria Kahn and [[Lorna Hutson]], eds., ''Rhetoric and Law in Early Modern Europe''. New Haven, Yale University Press, 2001, pp.&nbsp;318–44
* Straumann, Benjamin: ''Hugo Grotius und die Antike. Römisches Recht und römische Ethik im frühneuzeitlichen Naturrecht''. Baden-Baden: NOMOS, 2007
* Stumpf, Christoph A., 2006. ''The Grotian Theology of International Law: Hugo Grotius and the Moral Fundament of International Relations''. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
* Takahashi, Sakuyei: ''The Influence of Grotius in the Far East''. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dept. of Law, 1908.
* {{cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=E. |title=France's Grotian moment? Hugo Grotius and Cardinal Richelieu's commercial statecraft |journal=French History |date=15 November 2007 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=377–394 |doi=10.1093/fh/crm053 }}
* [https://www.academia.edu/3067362/Economic_Theology_On_Grotiuss_Mare_Liberum_and_Vitorias_De_Indis_Following_Agamben_and_Schmitt Johannes Thumfart: "The Economic Theology of Free Trade. On the relationship between Hugo Grotius's ''Mare Liberum'' and Francisco de Vitoria's ''Relectio de Indis recenter inventis''], following Giorgio Agamben's enhancement of Carl Schmitt's notion of Political Theology". In: ''Grotiana'' 30/2009, pp.&nbsp;65–87.
* Tooke, Joan D.: ''The Just War in Aquinas and Grotius''. S.P.C.K, 1965, 337pp
* Tuck, Richard: ''Natural Rights Theories: Their Origin and Development''. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1982, 196pp
* ———, 1993. ''Philosophy and Government: 1572–1651''. Cambridge Univ. Press.
* ———, 1999. ''The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant''. Oxford Univ. Press.
* van Ittersum, Martine Julia, 2007. [https://www.academia.edu/6272104/_Preparing_Mare_Liberum_for_the_Press_Hugo_Grotius_Rewriting_of_Chapter_12_of_De_Jure_Praedae_in_November-December_1608_in_Property_Piracy_and_Punishment_Hugo_Grotius_on_War_and_Booty_in_De_Jure_Praedae_ed._H._W._Blom_Leiden_Brill_Academic_Publishers_2009_pp._246-280 "Preparing ''Mare liberum'' for the Press: Hugo Grotius' Rewriting of Chapter 12 of ''De iure praedae'' in November-December 1608"] (2005–2007) 26–28 ''Grotiana'' 246
*van Ittersum, Martine Julia. 2024. ''The Working Papers of Hugo Grotius : Transmission, Dispersal, and Loss, 1604-1864.'' Leiden: Brill.
* [[Cornelis van Vollenhoven|van Vollenhoven, Cornelius]], 1926. ''Grotius and Geneva'', Bibliotheca Visseriana, Vol. VI.
* ———, 1919. ''Three Stages in the Evolution of International Law''. The Hague: Nijhoff.
* Vreeland, Hamilton. "Hugo Grotius, Diplomatist." The American Journal of International Law 11, no. 3 (1917): 580–606. {{doi|10.2307/2188025}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Waszink |first1=Jan |title=Lipsius and Grotius: Tacitism |journal=History of European Ideas |date=13 September 2012 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=151–168 |doi=10.1080/01916599.2012.679114 |s2cid=154860314 }}
* ———, 2021. 'Hugo Grotius: Historical Writings', in: R. Lesaffer and J. Nijman (eds.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Hugo Grotius'', Cambridge UP, p.&nbsp;315-338 (chapter 15) {{doi|10.1017/9781108182751.021}}
* Weeramantry, Christopher: "The Grotius Lecture Series: Opening Tribute to Hugo Grotius". (''First Grotius Lecture'', 1999)
* [[Martin Wight|Wight, Martin]]: ''International Theory: the Three Traditions''. Leicester University Press for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996, 286pp
* Wight, Martin (author); Wight, Gabriele (ed.); Porter, Brian (ed.): ''[http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199273676.do Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant, and Mazzini]''. Oxford University Press, USA, 2005, 230 pp
* Wilson, Eric: ''Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and Dutch Hegemony within the Early Modern World-System (c. 1600–1619)''. Martinus Nijhoff, 2008, 534p
* [[Zuckert, Michael P.]]: ''Natural Rights and the New Republicanism''. Princeton University Press, 1998, 410pp

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hugo Grotius}}
{{Wikiquote|Hugo Grotius}}
{{wikisource|works=or}}
'''Collections'''
* {{Gutenberg author |id=5744| name=Hugo Grotius}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=( (Hugo OR Huig) AND (Grotius OR Groot) )}}
* {{Librivox author |id=8308}}
* {{PRDL|952}}
* [http://picarta.pica.nl/xslt/DB=3.11/TTL=1/REL?PPN=068407017 Works by Hugo Grotius] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114154015/http://picarta.pica.nl/xslt/DB=3.11/TTL=1/REL?PPN=068407017 |date=14 January 2022 }} in [http://picarta.pica.nl Short Title Catalogue Netherlands (STCN)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531043354/http://picarta.pica.nl/xslt/login/LNG=NE/COOKIE/REQUEST?DB=2.41&REDIRECT=http%3A%2F%2Fpicarta.pica.nl%2Fxslt%2F |date=31 May 2020 }}

'''Individual works by Grotius'''
* [http://www.constitution.org/gro/djbp.htm ''On the Laws of War and Peace'' (abridged)]
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86069579.r=Hugo+Grotius.langEN ''On the Laws of War and Peace'' (Latin, first edition 1625)]
* [http://hdl.handle.net/1887/4549 ''Logicarum disputationum quarta de postpraedicamentis'']; disputation, aged 14, at Leiden University
* [http://hdl.handle.net/1887/4550 ''Physicarum disputationum septima de infinito, loco et vacuo'']; disputation, aged 14, at Leiden University

'''Other'''
* [https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/collection/special-collections/grotius-collection/ Extensive catalogue of Grotius' writings at the Peace Palace Library, The Hague.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503123400/https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/collection/special-collections/grotius-collection/ |date=3 May 2021 }} Unfortunately, this links leads to: "Forbidden. You don't have permission to access /files/Grotius_Collection.pdf on this server."
* [http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/blog/?catalogue=hugo-de-groot The Correspondence of Hugo de Groot (Grotius)] in [http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/home EMLO]
* {{cite IEP |url-id=grotius |title=Hugo Grotius |last=Blom |first=Andrew}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=grotius |title=Hugo Grotius |last=Miller |first=Jon}}
* [http://www.azquotes.com/author/23838-Hugo_Grotius/ Hugo Grotius' Quotes]

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