View source for Indian religions

{{Short description|Religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent}}
{{About|the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent|religious demographics of the Republic of India|Religion in India|the book|The Religion of India{{!}}''The Religion of India''|the religions of indigenous peoples of North America|Native American religions}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Dharmic Religions.jpg|thumb|Symbols of major Indian religions]]
{{Pie chart
| caption = Indian religions as a percentage of world population
| label1 = Hinduism
| value1 = 16
| color1 = orange
| label2 = Buddhism
| value2 = 7.1
| color2 = yellow
| label3 = Sikhism
| value3 = 0.35
| color3 = DarkKhaki
| label4 = Jainism
| value4 = 0.06
| color4 = LightCoral
| other = yes
| other-label = Non-Indian religions and irreligion
}}

'''Indian religions''', sometimes also termed '''Indic religions''' or '''Dharmic religions''', are the [[religion]]s that originated in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. These religions, which include [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]],<ref group=web name = EB>Adams, C. J., [https://www.britannica.com/topic/classification-of-religions "Classification of religions: Geographical"] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707224218/https://www.britannica.com/topic/classification-of-religions |date=7 July 2015 }}), ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2007. Retrieved 15 July 2010.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Adams: "Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also Theravāda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia".}} are also classified as [[Eastern religions]]. Although Indian religions are connected through the [[history of India]], they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.<ref group=web name="EB" />

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Indian religions by number of followers (2020 survey)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/26/tables/load4_1_1.html |title=Központi Statisztikai Hivatal |publisher=Nepszamlalas.hu |access-date=2 October 2013 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065121/http://www.ksh.hu/nepszamlalas/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact |date=January 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141543/http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017|website=gordonconwell.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57817615| title = Viewpoint: Why Sikhs celebrate kindness |publisher = BBC News| date = 15 July 2021| access-date = 17 July 2021| archive-date = 28 June 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230628103028/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57817615| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-with-the-largest-jain-populations.html| title = Countries with the Largest Jain Populations |work=WorldAtlas | date = 11 June 2020| access-date = 17 July 2021| archive-date = 4 July 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230704065357/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-with-the-largest-jain-populations.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
|-
! Religion
! Population
|-
| [[Hindus]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 1.25 billion
|-
| [[Buddhists]] [[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|18px]]
| 320 million
|-
| [[Sikhs]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 30 million
|-
| [[Jains]][[File:Jainism.svg|18px]]
| 6 million
|-
| Others
| 4 million
|-
| Total
| '''1.61 billion'''
|}

Evidence attesting to [[prehistoric religion]] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered [[Mesolithic]] rock paintings. The [[Harappa]]n people of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), had an early urbanised culture which predates the Vedic religion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html |newspaper=Hindustan Times |author=Vir Sanghvi |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324162028/https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Vir Singhvi is a journalist, not a scholar.|date=February 2017}}

The documented history of Indian religions begins with the [[historical Vedic religion]], the religious practices of the early [[Indo-Aryan peoples]], which were collected and later [[shakha|redacted]] into the ''[[Vedas]]'', as well as the [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] of [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] origin. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the [[Vedic period]], which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}} The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarised in [[Upanishads]], which are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up ''The Upanishads''], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five{{refn|group=note|The pre-Buddhist Upanishads are: Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Kaushitaki, Aitareya, and Taittiriya Upanishads.{{sfn|Olivelle|2014|pp=12–14}}}} of the eleven [[principal Upanishads]] were composed in all likelihood before the 6th century BCE,{{sfn|Olivelle|2014|pp=12–14}}{{sfn|King|1995|p=52}} and contain the earliest mentions of [[yoga]] and [[moksha]].{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}

The [[śramaṇa]] period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a "turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, often defied many of the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). In the 6th century BCE, the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism{{sfn|Jain|2008|p=210}} and Buddhism{{sfn|Svarghese|2008|pp=259–60}} and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika, which venerates Veda (e.g., six orthodox schools of Hinduism) and [[nastika]] (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, etc.). However, both branches shared the related concepts of yoga, ''[[saṃsāra]]'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''moksha'' (liberation from that cycle).{{refn|group=note|The shared concepts include rebirth, samsara, karma, meditation, renunciation and moksha.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=xx–xxiv}}}}{{refn|group=note|The Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions, which share some common concepts and interests. While [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]]-[[Panchala]], at the central Ganges Plain, formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition, [[Kosala]]-[[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other [[shramanic]] traditions.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}}{{refn|group=note|[[Buddhism and Hinduism#Similarities|Buddhism and Hinduism Similarities]]}}

The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and early medieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especially [[bhakti]] and [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Smarta]], and smaller groups like the conservative [[Shrauta]].

The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of [[Guru Nanak]] and the nine successive [[Sikh Gurus]] in [[Northern India]].<ref group=web name="ADR">{{cite web |author=Adherents.com |url=http://www.adherents.com/misc/rel_by_adh_CSM.html |title=Religions by adherents |format=PHP |access-date=9 February 2007 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229121302/http://www.adherents.com/misc/rel_by_adh_CSM.html |archive-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> The vast majority of its adherents originate in the [[Punjab region]]. During the period of [[British rule in India]], a [[Neo-Vedanta|reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism]] arose, which aided the [[Indian independence movement]].

== History ==
{{See also|Outline of South Asian history|History of India|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism}}
{{History of South Asia}}

=== Periodisation ===
{{Main|Periodisation of Hinduism}}

Scottish historian [[James Mill]], in his seminal work ''[[The History of British India]]'' (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods", although this periodisation has also received criticism.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|pp=19–20}}

[[Romila Thapar]] notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions",{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth centuries, while the south was never completely conquered.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=20}}{{refn|group=note|See also Tanvir Anjum, ''[https://www.academia.edu/6647852/Temporal_Divides_A_Critical_Review_of_the_Major_Schemes_of_Periodization_in_Indian_History Temporal Divides: A Critical Review of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History]''.}}

Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:{{sfn|Michaels|2004}}

* Indian pre-history including [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (until c. 1750 BCE)
* Iron Age including [[Vedic period]] (c. 1750–600 BCE)
* "Second Urbanisation" (c. 600–200 BCE)
* Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE){{refn|group=note|Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
* Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism{{refn|group=subnote|Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.{{sfn|Smart|2003|pp=52, 83–86}}}} Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.{{sfn|Smart|2003|p=52}}
* For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=36}} whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}
* Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.{{sfn|Muesse|2003|p=14}}}}
** Pre-Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)
** "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE)
** Late-Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE)
* Medieval period (c. 1200–1500 CE)
* Early Modern (c. 1500–1850)
* Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850)

=== Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE) ===
==== Prehistory ====
The earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including those of the [[Indus Valley]] and [[Ganges Valley]], was likely [[Ethnic religion|local]] [[animism]] that did not have [[missionaries]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House UK |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |pages=235–236 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |oclc=910498369 |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref>

[[File:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumb|upright|"Priest King" of [[Indus Valley Civilisation]]]]

Evidence attesting to [[prehistoric religion]] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered [[Mesolithic]] rock paintings such as at [[Bhimbetka]], depicting dances and rituals. [[Neolithic]] agriculturalists inhabiting the [[Indus River]] Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|p=39}} Other [[South Asian Stone Age]] sites, such as the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] in central [[Madhya Pradesh]] and the [[Kupgal petroglyphs]] of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.<ref group=web>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |work=[[BBC News]] |date=19 March 2004 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |access-date=7 August 2007 |archive-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227021009/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Indus Valley Civilisation ====
{{Further|Prehistoric religion}}

The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the [[Indus script]] remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|pp=281–282}} An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites{{sfn|Ratnagar|2004}} was that of [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus ([[linga]]) and vulva ([[yoni]]); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.{{sfn|Marshall|1931|pp=48–78}}{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–156}}

[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''Pashupati seal'', showing a seated and possibly [[ithyphallic]] figure, surrounded by animals.]]

One Indus valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god [[Shiva]] (or [[Rudra]]), who is associated with asceticism, [[yoga]], and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the [[Pashupati Seal]], after ''[[Pashupati]]'' (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva.{{sfn|Marshall|1931|pp=48–78}}{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–144}} While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. [[Doris Srinivasan]] has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in [[Vedic literature]] Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.{{sfn|Srinivasan|1975}}{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|pp=180–181}} Herbert Sullivan and [[Alf Hiltebeitel]] also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with ''Mahisha'', the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with [[vahana]]s (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.{{sfn|Sullivan|1964}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=399–432}} Writing in 2002, [[Gregory L. Possehl]] concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–144}} Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the [[Tirthankara]] [[Rishabha]] by Jains and Vilas Sangave<ref>{{cite book|author= Vilas Sangave|year=2001 |title=Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture|publisher=Popular Prakashan|place=Mumbai|isbn=978-81-7154-839-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2FGSGmP4jNcC}}</ref> or an early [[Buddha]] by Buddhists.{{sfn|Ratnagar|2004}} Historians like [[Heinrich Zimmer]], [[Thomas McEvilley]] are of the opinion that there exists some link between first [[Jain]] Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Zimmer|1969|pp=60, 208–209}}<ref>[[Thomas McEvilley]] (2002) ''The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies''. Allworth Communications, Inc. 816 pages; {{ISBN|1-58115-203-5}}</ref>

Marshall hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of [[History of Shaktism|Shaktism]]. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust".{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–145}} Some of the [[baetyl]]s interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise ''yoni'' were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=286–287}}

Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeric creations]].<ref name=":100">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=18–19 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the [[Sumerian myth]] of such a monster created by goddess [[Aruru (goddess)|Aruru]] to fight [[Gilgamesh]].{{sfn|Marshall|1931|p=67}} Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him.<ref name=":1002">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=18 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> Some scholars theorise that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings.<ref name=":1002" />

In contrast to contemporary [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Ancient Near East|Mesopotamian]] civilisations, the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=18}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=85}} This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the [[Great Bath]] at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–145}}{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=275–277, 292}} The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=152, 157–176}}{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=293–299}}

=== Vedic period (1750–800 BCE) ===
{{Main|Vedic period|Historical Vedic religion}}
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion}}

The documented history of Indian religions begins with the [[historical Vedic religion]], the religious practices of the early [[Indo-Aryans]], which were collected and later [[shakha|redacted]] into the ''[[Samhitas]]'' (usually known as the [[Vedas]]), four canonical collections of hymns or [[mantra]]s composed in archaic [[Vedic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]]. These texts are the central ''[[shruti]]'' (revealed) texts of [[Hinduism]]. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the [[Vedic period]], which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}}

The [[Vedic Period]] is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important [[Sacred texts|canonical texts]] of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into its core beliefs.<ref name="Witzel">[[Stephanie W. Jamison]] and [[Michael Witzel]] in Arvind Sharma, editor, ''The Study of Hinduism''. University of South Carolina Press, 2003, page 65</ref>

Some modern Hindu scholars use the "Vedic religion" synonymously with "Hinduism".<ref>Kapur, Kamlesh (2010). ''Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India'', 1st ed. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Ltd. {{OCLC|707924398}}. {{ISBN|978-8120752122}}.</ref> According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion.<ref>K. R. Sundararajan; Bithika Mukerji, eds. ''Hindu Spirituality: Vedas Through Vedanta''. Volume 1. p. 382.</ref> Other authors state that the Vedas contain "the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma"{{refn|group=note|Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya declares that Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma.<ref>{{cite book |page=6 |title=Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures And Theology |author=Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya}}</ref>}} which is called "the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma".<ref>P. 46 ''I Am Proud To Be A Hindu'' By J. Agarwal</ref> The [[Arya Samaj]] recognises the Vedic religion as true Hinduism.<ref>''Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide'', Roshen Dalal, p. 41</ref> Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel:

{{Blockquote|...to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."<ref name="Witzel" />{{refn|group=note|[[Richard E. King]] notes: "Consequently, it remains an anachronism to project the notion of "Hinduism" as it is commonly understood into pre-colonial history."{{sfn|King|1999|p=176}}}}}}

==== Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions (c. 1750–1200 BCE) ====
{{Main|Vedas|Samhitas}}

The [[rishi]]s, the composers of the hymns of the [[Rigveda]], were considered inspired poets and seers.{{refn|group=note|In post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, ''[[Śrauta]]'' means "what is heard"}}

The mode of worship was the performance of [[Yajna]], sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parmar |first=Manish Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hutUDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+mode+of+worship+was+the+performance+of+Yajna%2C+sacrifices+which+involved+sacrifice+and+sublimation+of+the+havana+s%C3%A1magri+%28herbal+preparations%29&pg=PP13 |title=Ancient India: A Glimpse of Indias' Glorious Ancient Past |date=2018-04-10 |publisher=BookRix |isbn=978-3-7438-6452-8 |language=en |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029100619/https://books.google.com/books?id=hutUDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+mode+of+worship+was+the+performance+of+Yajna,+sacrifices+which+involved+sacrifice+and+sublimation+of+the+havana+s%C3%A1magri+(herbal+preparations)&pg=PP13 |url-status=live }}</ref> in the fire, accompanied by the singing of [[Samagana|Samans]] and 'mumbling' of [[Yajus]], the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña), and charity (dána).<ref>Nigal, S.G. Axiological Approach to the Vedas. Northern Book Centre, 1986. P. 81. {{ISBN|81-85119-18-X}}.</ref> An essential element was the sacrificial fire – the divine [[Agni]] – into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Central concepts in the Vedas are [[Satya]] and [[Rta]]. ''Satya'' is derived from [[Sat (Sanskrit)|Sat]], the present participle of the verbal root ''as'', "to be, to exist, to live".{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=166}} ''Sat'' means "that which really exists [...] the really existent truth; the Good",{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=166}} and ''Sat-ya'' means "is-ness".{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=167}} ''Rta'', "that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.{{sfn|Holdrege|2004|p=215}} "Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness."{{sfn|Krishnananda|1994|p=17}} "Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe."{{sfn|Krishnananda|1994|p=24}} Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:

{{Blockquote|''Ṛta'' is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything..."{{sfn|Panikkar|2001|pp=350–351}}}}

The term rta is inherited from the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]], the religion of the [[Indo-Iranian peoples]] prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and [[Zoroastrian]] (Iranian) scriptures. "[[Asha]]" is the [[Avestan language]] term (corresponding to [[Vedic language]] [[ṛta]]) for a concept of cardinal importance<ref name="DG_1963_46">{{harvnb|Duchesne-Guillemin|1963|p=46}}.</ref> to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. The term "Dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.{{sfn|Day|1982|pp=42–45}}

Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, [[Rishabha (hindu sage)|Rishaba]], [[Vamadeva]], and [[Angiras]].<ref>P. 285 ''Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary'' By S. Devadas Pillai</ref>

==== Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE) ====
{{See also|Painted Grey Ware culture}}

During the Middle Vedic period, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=34}} The [[Brahmans]] became powerful intermediairies.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=35}}

Historical roots of [[Jainism in India]] is traced back to 9th-century BCE with the rise of [[Parshvanatha]] and his non-violent philosophy.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=30}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182-183}}

==== Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE) ====
The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and [[Vedanta]], a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of [[Ishvara]] and [[Brahman]]. This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with the [[Upanishads]] and later texts like the [[Itihasa|epics]] (the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]]), is a major component of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative [[Śrauta]] tradition.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

=== Sanskritisation ===
{{Main|Sanskritisation}}

Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called [[Sanskritisation]].<ref name="EBHinbduism6">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/8975/Other-sources-the-process-of-Sanskritization |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, ''Other sources: the process of "Sanskritization"''. |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426181105/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/8975/Other-sources-the-process-of-Sanskritization |url-status=live }}</ref> It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.<ref name="EBHinbduism6" />

=== Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE) ===
{{multiple image |total_width=300
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| caption1 = A statue of [[Gautama Buddha]] from [[Sarnath]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India, 4th century CE.
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| caption2 = The idol of [[Mahavira]], the 24th and last [[Tirthankara]] of [[Jainism]].
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During the time of the shramanic reform movements "many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} According to Michaels, "it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}

==== Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upanishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE) ====
{{Main|Brahmanas|Upanishads|Vedanta}}

The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or [[Vedantic]] period.<ref group=web name="Indiana10">[http://www.indiana.edu/~isp/cd_rom/mod_10/mod_10_x.htm Indiana University "India Studies Program"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801152905/http://www.indiana.edu/~isp/cd_rom/mod_10/mod_10_x.htm |date=1 August 2009 }} ''Passage to India, Module 10''.</ref>{{refn|group=note|"Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The [[Brahmana]]s and [[Aranyaka]]s are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE."<ref group=web name="Indiana10" />}}{{sfn|Deussen|1966|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Deussen: "these treatises are not the work of a single genius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends [from] approximately 1000 or 800 BC, to c. 500 BCE, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time."{{sfn|Deussen |1966|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B0QzAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA51 51]}}}} This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the [[Upanishads]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Neusner|first=Jacob|year=2009|title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |isbn=978-0-664-23320-4 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183 |page=183}}</ref> later the [[Sanskrit epics]], still later followed by the [[Puranas]].

Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as [[Vedanta]] (conclusion of the [[Vedas]]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|last2=Baumann|first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref> The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.<ref>{{citation |title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T.M.P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd|page=57}}</ref>

Scholars believe that [[Parsva]], the 23rd Jain ''tirthankara'' lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1999|p=16}}

==== Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE) ====
{{See also|Shramana|Magadha}}
[[File:Buddha state at Dargeeling.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Buddha statue at Darjeeling]]

[[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE{{Sfn|Jain|2008|p=210}}{{sfn|Svarghese|2008|p=259-60}}{{sfn|Mallinson|2007|pp=17–18, 32–33}} in the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India",{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=217}} and were responsible for the related concepts of ''[[saṃsāra]]'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation from that cycle).{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}{{refn|group=note|Gavin Flood and [[Patrick Olivelle]]: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}}}

The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82 82]}} The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur</ref><ref name="Cromwell">S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972)</ref>{{refn|group=note|Cromwell Crwaford: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."<ref name="Cromwell" />}}<ref name="Masih">Y. Masih (2000). In: ''A Comparative Study of Religions''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 18. {{ISBN|81-208-0815-0}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Masih: "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to [sic] the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."<ref name="Masih" />}}<ref name="Jaini">Padmanabh S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169</ref>{{refn|group=note |Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism".<ref name="Jaini" />}} Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and [[Buddha]] (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.

Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]], and the concept of liberation.{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating among sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}}}}{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them."{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=51}}}}{{refn|group=note|Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."<ref>P. 93 ''World Religions'' By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski.</ref>}} The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While [[Radhakrishnan]], [[Hermann Oldenberg|Oldenberg]] and [[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]] were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, [[Charles Eliot (diplomat)|Eliot]] and [[Edward J. Thomas|Thomas]] highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.<ref>{{citation |last=Pratt |first=James Bissett |title=The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90 |year=1996 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1196-2 |page=90 |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183102/https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.<ref>{{citation|last=Upadhyaya|first=Kashi Nath |year=1998 |title=Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBbznHuPrTYC&pg=PA103 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0880-5|pages=103–104}}</ref> In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 139.</ref>

===== Jainism =====
{{Main|Mahavira|Jainism|Timeline of Jainism|Jain community}}

Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with [[Parshvanatha]] (9th century BCE) and [[Mahavira]] (6th century BCE).<ref name="Oldmeadow">[[Harry Oldmeadow]] (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, [[World Wisdom]], Inc. {{ISBN|1-933316-22-5}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Oldmeadow: "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as [[śramaṇa|Sramana Dharma]]. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."<ref name="Oldmeadow" /> Page 141}}

The 24th [[Tirthankara]] of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truthfulness), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment). As per Jain tradition, the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time. The scholars believe [[Parshva]], accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the [[shramana]] movement.<ref name="Fisher">Mary Pat Fisher (1997). [https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0 ''Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths''], 3rd ed. I. B. Tauris: London. {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}}. {{OCLC|41293467}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Fisher: "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira."<ref name="Fisher" />|p=[https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0/mode/2up?q=Mahavira p. 115].}}

===== Buddhism =====
{{Main|Gautama Buddha|Buddhism|Pre-sectarian Buddhism|History of Buddhism|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[File:Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand.jpg|thumb|Buddhist Monks creating a traditional sand mandala made from coloured sand]]

Buddhism was historically founded by [[Siddhartha Gautama]], a [[Kshatriya]] prince-turned-ascetic,<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1997 a829">{{cite web | title=Life of Gautama Buddha and the origin of Buddhism | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 1, 1997 | url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201164308/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism | url-status=live }}</ref> and was spread beyond India through missionaries.<ref name="Learman_2005">{{cite book |last=Learman L.(Ed.) |first=Linda |date=2005 |title=Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn4jw |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |page= |jstor=j.ctvvn4jw |isbn=978-0-8248-2810-3 |access-date=1 February 2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165225/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn4jw |url-status=live }}</ref> It later experienced a [[decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] in India, but survived in [[Nepal]]<ref name="Jain 2011 p955">{{cite web | last=Jain | first=Pankaj | title=Buddhism: Origin, Spread And Decline | website=HuffPost | date=September 1, 2011 | url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/buddhism-origin-spread-decline_b_939679 | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165748/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/buddhism-origin-spread-decline_b_939679 | url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Sri Lanka]], and remains more widespread in [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asian Buddhism|East Asia]].<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 d788">{{cite web | title=Buddhism | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=September 28, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/The-demise-of-Buddhism-in-India | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165748/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/The-demise-of-Buddhism-in-India | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Gautama Buddha]], who was called an "awakened one" ([[Buddhahood|Buddha]]), was born into the [[Shakya]] clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimed [[Angiras]]a and [[Gautama Maharishi]] lineage,<ref>''The Life of Buddha as Legend and History'', by [[Edward Joseph Thomas]]</ref> via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.

Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |title=A dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Hodge |first2=Stephen |last3=Jones |first3=Charles |last4=Tinti |first4=Paola |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-860560-7 |edition=1. publ |location=Oxford |chapter=Theravāda}}</ref> and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |title=A dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Hodge |first2=Stephen |last3=Jones |first3=Charles |last4=Tinti |first4=Paola |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-860560-7 |edition=1. publ |location=Oxford |chapter=Mahāyāna}}</ref> There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE) ====
{{Main|Maurya Empire|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
{{multiple image |total_width=300
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| caption1 = [[Buddhist]] [[Mahabodhi Temple]], [[Bodh Gaya]], [[Bihar]]
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| caption2 = [[Jain]] [[Palitana temples]], [[Shatrunjaya]] hill, [[Gujarat]]
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Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] empire.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the [[Maurya Empire]], who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref>

Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor [[Kharavela]] of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] in the 2nd century BCE due to his significant patronage of the religion. His reign is considered a period of growth and influence for the religion, although Jainism had flourished for centuries before and continued to develop in prominence after his time.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kharavela – The Great Philanthropic Emperor |url=https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissareview/apr-2007/engpdf/page40-41.pdf |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310235038/https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissareview/apr-2007/engpdf/page40-41.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Dravidian culture ====
{{See also|South India|Dravidian peoples|Dravidian folk religion|Dravidian languages}}

The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] form of [[Hinduism]] in that they were either historically or are at present [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamic]]. The Agamas are non-[[vedic]] in origin<ref>{{cite book |editor=Mudumby Narasimhachary |year=1976 |title=Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya |series=Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series |publisher=Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda}}</ref> and have been dated either as post-vedic texts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tripath |first=S.M. |year=2001 |title=Psycho-Religious Studies Of Man, Mind And Nature |publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |isbn=978-81-87746-04-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWFM_SaX24AC&pg=PA54 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007192931/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWFM_SaX24AC&pg=PA54 |url-status=live }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> or as pre-vedic oral compositions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nagalingam |first=Pathmarajah |year=2009 |title=Chapter 3 |work=The Religion of the Agamas |publisher=Siddhanta Publications |url=http://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html |access-date=27 July 2015 |archive-date=19 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019035505/http://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''Agamas'' are a collection of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and later [[Sanskrit]] [[scriptures]] chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of ''[[murti]]'', worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.<ref>{{cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |year=1996 |title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3068-2 |lccn=96012383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5p0ev3nJEC}}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The worship of [[tutelary deity]], sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognised as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Modern review: Volume 28|year=1920 |publisher=Prabasi Press}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}</ref>

[[File:WLA lacma 12th century Maharishi Agastya.jpg|upright|thumb|Saga Agastya, father of Tamil literature]]

Ancient Tamil grammatical works [[Tolkappiyam]], the ten anthologies [[Pattuppāṭṭu]], the eight anthologies [[Eṭṭuttokai]] also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians. ''[[Murugan|Seyon]]'' was glorified as ''the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent,'' as ''the favored god of the Tamils.''<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</ref> [[Shiva|Sivan]] was also seen as the supreme God.<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979" /> Early iconography of [[Murugan|Seyyon]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |title=A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery |date=6 May 2006 |url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-date=4 September 2006 |website=harappa.com}}</ref> and Sivan<ref name="Ranbir Vohra 2000 15">{{cite book |title=The Making of India: A Historical Survey |author=Ranbir Vohra |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=2000 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin 1985 45">{{cite book |title=Ancient Indian Civilization |author=Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin |publisher=Arnold-Heinemann |year=1985 |page=45}}</ref><ref name="Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig 2006 45">{{cite book |title=Essential Hinduism |author1=Steven Rosen |author2=Graham M. Schweig |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=45}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|1989}}<ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilisation.<ref name="Ranbir Vohra 2000 15" /><ref name="Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig 2006 45" />{{sfn|Basham|1967|pp=11–14}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Plants of life, plants of death |author=Frederick J. Simoons |year=1998 |page=363}}</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=29, Figure 1: Drawing of the seal}}<ref name="Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin 1985 45" /><ref>{{cite book |title=India: A History |publisher=Grove Press |author=John Keay|page=14}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The [[Sangam landscape]] was classified into five categories, ''thinais'', based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these ''thinai'' had an associated deity such Seyyon in ''Kurinji''-the hills, [[Vishnu|Thirumaal]] in ''Mullai''-the forests, and [[Durga|Kotravai]] in ''Marutham''-the plains, and [[Indra|Wanji-ko]] in the ''Neithal''-the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned were [[Krishna|Mayyon]] and [[Balaram|Vaali]] who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguistic influence<ref name="Q. Adams, 1997 p.308">J.P. Mallory and D. Q. Adams, ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'' (1997), p.308.</ref> on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known [[Indo-Aryan language]], the language of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (c. 1500 BCE),<ref name="Q. Adams, 1997 p.308" /> which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.<ref>K. Zvelebil, ''Dravidian Linguistics: an Introduction'', (Pondicherry: Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture 1990), p. 81.</ref>{{Sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=6}} This represents an early religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard|Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism.{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

[[File:01AnnamalaiyarTemple&Thiruvannamalai&TamilNadu&AerialViewfromVirupakshaCave.jpg|thumb|left|Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from ''koyil'' as king's residence.]]
Throughout [[Tamilakam]], a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harman |first=William P. |title=The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess |year=1992 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=6}}</ref> The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is [[koil]]. Titual worship was also given to kings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Anand |first=Mulk Raj |title=Splendours of Tamil Nadu |year=1980 |publisher=Marg Publications |url=https://www.google.co.uk/search?tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God |access-date=21 July 2022 |archive-date=21 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721183333/https://www.google.co.uk/search?tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chopra |first=Pran Nath |title=History of South India |year=1979 |publisher=S. Chand |url=}}</ref> Modern words for god like "kō" ("king"), "iṟai" ("emperor"), and "āṇḍavar" ("conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of [[Shiva]] to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled [[Madurai]] or [[Legendary early Chola kings#Sangam period Chola rulers|Wanji-ko]], a god who later merged into [[Indra]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bate |first=Bernard |title=Tamil oratory and the Dravidian aesthetic: democratic practice in south India |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> [[Tolkappiyar]] refers to the [[Three Crowned Kings]] as the "Three Glorified by Heaven".<ref>{{cite book |last=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ |title=Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature |year=2000 |publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan |page=17}}</ref> In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.<ref>{{cite book |last=Embree |first=Ainslie Thomas |author-link=Ainslie Embree |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history: Volume 1 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-684-18898-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, typically associated with [[history of Shaktism|Shaktism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Thiruchandran |first=Selvy |title=Ideology, caste, class, and gender |year=1997 |publisher=Vikas Pub. House}}</ref> The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manickam |first=Valliappa Subramaniam |title=A glimpse of Tamilology |year=1968 |publisher=Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bIQOAAAAYAAJ&q=sangam+priestess |page=75}}</ref> In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=Mohan |year=2006 |title=The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature, Volume 5 (Sasay To Zorgot) |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=81-260-1221-8 |page=4396}}</ref> Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones ''Natukal'' or ''[[Hero Stone]]'' had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shashi |first=S. S. |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100 |year=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications}}</ref> It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Subramanium |first=N. |year=1980 |title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils |publisher=Ennes Publications}}</ref>

=== Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) ===
{{Main|Pala Empire|Gupta Empire}}
[[File:Met, india (uttar pradesh), gupta period, krishna battling the horse demon keshi, 5th century.JPG|thumb|upright|Krishna fighting the horse demon [[Keshi (demon)|Keshi]], 5th century, Gupta period.]]
[[File:Lalita statue.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A basalt statue of [[Tripura Sundari|Lalita]] flanked by [[Gaṇeśa]] and [[Kārttikeya]], Pala era.]]

Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period,{{sfn|Flood|1996}}{{sfn|Muesse|2011}} in which the epics and the first puranas were being written.{{sfn|Muesse|2011}} Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} which saw the rise of so-called "Classical Hinduism",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} with its "golden age"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} during the Gupta Empire.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}}

According to [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the [[Guptas]] (c. 320–467 CE), which he calls the "Hindus synthesis", "Brahmanic synthesis", or "orthodox synthesis".{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:
{{blockquote|The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=13}}}}

The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. Prominent among these developers were [[Yoga]], [[Dvaita]], [[Advaita]], and the medieval [[Bhakti]] movement.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Smriti ====
The ''smriti'' texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and "nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=14}} Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedic ''sruti'' tradition and are sometimes called ''smarta'' schools in the sense that they develop ''smarta'' orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like ''smriti'', directly on ''sruti''."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=18}} According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of ''bhakti''."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=20}} It is the ''Bhagavadgita'' that seals this achievement. The result is a universal achievement that may be called ''[[smarta]]''. It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=20}}

==== Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE) ====
{{Main|Vedanta}}

In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considers [[shabda]] [[pramāṇa]] ([[testimony|scriptural evidence]]) as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[pramana#Pratyakṣa|pratyakṣa]] ([[perception]]) and [[anumāna]] (logical [[inference]]) are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}

The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by [[Vyasa|Badarāyana]] in the [[Brahma Sutras]] which was composed around 200 BCE.<ref>{{Citation |first=S. |last=Rādhākrishnan |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume II |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-563820-4}}</ref> The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations. This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=javanesegraviton |url=https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfEarlyVedantaPhilosophyHajimeNakamura/page/n13/mode/2up |title=A History Of Early Vedanta Philosophy Hajime Nakamura}}</ref>

==== Indian philosophy ====
{{Main|Indian philosophy}}

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mimāṃsā]] and [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}.</ref> Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated [[atheism in Hinduism|atheistic schools]]. The thoroughly [[materialism|materialistic]] and anti-religious philosophical [[Cārvāka]] school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a ''[[nāstika]]'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref name="Radha227">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|pp=227–249}}.</ref> Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.<ref name="RChatterjee55">{{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=55}}.</ref> Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Hindu literature ====
{{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana|Puranas}}
[[File:Sripuram Temple Full View.jpg|thumb|The Golden Temple of [[Mahalakshmi]] at [[Vellore]].]]

Two of Hinduism's most revered ''epics'', the [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]] were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example, the ''Ganapati Purana'' was written for devotion to Ganapati (or [[Ganesha]]). Popular deities of this era were [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Durga]], [[Surya]], [[Murugan|Skanda]], and [[Ganesha]] (including the forms/incarnations of these deities).{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as [[Puranas]] allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Jainism and Buddhism ====
{{Main|Buddhism and Jainism|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised [[Buddhism]], which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

There were several Buddhistic kings who [[Vaishnavism|worshiped Vishnu]], such as the [[Gupta Empire]], [[Pala Empire]], [[Chalukyas]], [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavanshi]], and [[Satavahana]].<ref>Durga Prasad, P. 116, ''History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D.''</ref> Buddhism survived followed by Hindus.<ref>''National Geographic'' January 2008, VOL. 213, NO. 1 "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings."{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}</ref>

==== Tantra ====
{{Main|Tantra}}

Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the [[Gupta period]]. According to Michaels this was the "Golden Age of Hinduism"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40-41}} (c. 320–650 CE{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40-41}}), which flourished during the Gupta Empire{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the [[Harsha]] Empire{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardisarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=687}} The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}}

=== Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE) ===
==== Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE) ====
{{See also|History of India#Late Middle Kingdoms – The Late-Classical Age|History of Hinduism#Middle Ages|label 1=Late-Classical Age|label 2=Hinduism Middle Ages}}

After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}{{refn|group=note|In the east the [[Pala Empire]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (770–1125 CE{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), in the west and north the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–10th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), in the southwest the [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (752–973{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), in the Dekkhan the [[Chalukya dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–8th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), and in the south the [[Pallava dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–9th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}) and the [[Chola dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (9th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}).}} The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} as reflected in the Tantric [[Mandala]], which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.{{sfn|White|2000|pp=25–28}}

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}{{refn|group=note|This resembles the development of [[Chinese Chán]] during the [[Chinese Chán#An Lu-shan rebellion|An Lu-shan rebellion]] and the [[Chinese Chán#Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)|Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)]], during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.{{sfn|McRae|2003}}}} Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} was diminished.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Rural and devotional movements arose, along with [[Shaivism]], [[Vaisnavism]], [[Bhakti]], and Tantra,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}

===== Vedanta =====
{{See also|Advaita Vedanta|Ajativada}}

In the same period [[Vedanta]] changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|p=127-129}} In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a "living substance"{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|p=123}} to "maya-vada"{{refn|group=note|The term "maya-vada" is primarily being used by non-Advaitins. See <ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |title=Mayavada Philosophy |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185604/https://harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |title=The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183434/https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same |title=Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same? |access-date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706152155/http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same |archive-date=6 July 2017}}</ref>}}, where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|pp=123–124}} According to Scheepers, it is this "maya-vada" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|p=127-129}}

===== Buddhism =====
{{Main|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] continued.<ref name="BBC ethics2">{{cite web |title=The rise of Buddhism and Jainism |work=Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences |publisher=BBC |date=26 July 2004 |access-date=21 April 2007 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml |archive-date=5 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805180420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-13 |title=Buddhism - Southeast Asia, Theravada, Mahayana {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Southeast-Asia |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===== Bhakti =====
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Alwars|Nayanars}}

The [[Bhakti movement]] began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status – whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu ([[Rama]] and [[Krishna]]) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of [[Durga]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} The best-known proponents of this movement were the [[Alvars]] and the [[Nayanars]] from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was [[Basava]], while of the north it was [[Gorakhnath]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Female saints include figures like [[Akka Mahadevi|Akkamadevi]], [[Lalleshvari]] and [[Molla (poet)|Molla]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

The Alvars ({{langx|ta|ஆழ்வார்கள்}}, ''āḻvārkaḷ'' {{IPA|ta|aːɻʋaːr|}}, those immersed in god) were the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] poet-saints of south India, who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused "emotional devotion" or [[bhakti]] to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf |title=The Alvars |author=Andrea Nippard |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001609/http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was [[Ramanuja]], while of the north it was [[Ramananda]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men,<ref>Ramaswamy, P. 204 ''Walking Naked''</ref> and administration was many times composed mainly of women.<ref>Ramaswamy, P. 210 ''Walking Naked''</ref> Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mirabai |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0070.xml |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-03 |title=Mira Bai {{!}} Hindu Mystic Poet, Devotee of Krishna {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mira-Bai |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Vallabha|Sri Vallabha Acharya]] (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the [[Shuddhadvaita|Shuddha Advaita (''Pure Non-dualism'')]] school of Vedanta thought.

According to ''The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training'',

{{blockquote|Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India phenomenon, which started in the 6th–7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs.  The religion of [[Alvar]] poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions.<ref group=web>[http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training, ''Indian Literature Through the Ages''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515213735/http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm |date=15 May 2013}}</ref>}}

==== Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE) ====
{{Main|Muslim conquest of India|Islamic Empires in India|Bahmani Sultanate|Deccan Sultanates|Delhi Sultanate|Sufism in India|Islam in India}}

In the 12th and 13th centuries, [[Turkic people|Turks]] and [[Afghanistan|Afghans]] invaded parts of northern India and established the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the former [[Rajput]] holdings.<ref>[http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423014415/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html |date=23 April 2008}}</ref> The subsequent [[Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)|Slave dynasty]] of [[Delhi]] managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient [[Gupta Empire]], while the [[Khalji dynasty]] conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===== Bhakti movement =====
{{More citations needed|section|date=June 2013}}

During the 14th to 17th centuries, a great ''Bhakti'' movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or ''[[Sant (religion)|Sants]]''. [[Ramananda]], [[Ravidas]], [[Srimanta Sankardeva]], [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], [[Vallabha Acharya]], [[Sur (poet)|Sur]], [[Meera]], [[Kabir]], [[Tulsidas]], [[Namdev]], [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Tukaram]], and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while [[Annamacharya]], [[Bhadrachala Ramadas]], [[Tyagaraja]], and others propagated Bhakti in the South. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterised by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.

===== Lingayatism =====
{{Main|Lingayatism}}

Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning "one who wears ''Ishtalinga'' on their body" (''Ishtalinga'' is the representation of the God). In Lingayat theology, ''Ishtalinga'' is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.<ref>M. R. Sakhare, History and Philosophy of the Lingayat Religion, Prasaranga, Karnataka University, Dharwad</ref>

===== Unifying Hinduism =====
{{Main|Unifying Hinduism}}
[[File:An aerial view of Madurai city from atop of Meenakshi Amman temple.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3.7|An aerial view of the [[Meenakshi Temple]] from the top of the southern [[gopuram]], looking north. The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire.|alt=aerial image of a temple campus.]]

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,

{{blockquote|... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}}}

The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by [[Mikel Burley]].{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}} Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}

===== Sikhism (15th century) =====
{{Main|Sikhism}}
{{See also|History of Sikhism|Sikhism and Jainism|Sikhism and Hinduism|Sikhism in India}}
[[File:Golden Temple India.jpg|thumb|[[Harmandir Sahib]] (''The Golden Temple'') is culturally the most significant place of worship for the [[Sikhs]].]]

Sikhism originated in 15th-century [[Punjab]], Delhi Sultanate (present-day [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]) with the teachings of [[Nanak]] and nine successive [[Sikh Gurus|gurus]]. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in ''[[Vāhigurū]]''— represented by the sacred symbol of ''[[Ek Onkar|ēk ōaṅkār]]'' [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the [[Punjab]]. Adherents of Sikhism are known as [[Sikhs]] (''students'' or ''disciples'') and number over 25 million across the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-other/ |title=The Global Religious Landscape |access-date=4 February 2025 |archive-date=30 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250130075000/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-other/}}</ref>

=== Modern period (1500–present) ===
==== Early modern period ====
{{Main|Mughal period|Maratha Empire}}

According to [[Gavin Flood]], the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500.{{sfn|Flood|1996}}{{sfn|Muesse|2011}} The period of Mughal rule in India{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43}} saw the rise of new forms of religiosity.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43-44}}

==== Modern India (after 1800) ====
[[File:Mahamaham Festival in Kumbakonam.jpg|thumbnail|right|Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Mahamagam Festival, which is held at [[Kumbakonam]]. This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mahamagam Festival |url=http://blessingsonthenet.com/indian-festival/festival/id/227/mahamagam-festival/ |access-date=14 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Fairs and Festivals of India|page=326|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jAbgAAAAMAAJ&q=maha+magam |author1=Madan Prasad Bezbaruah |author2=Krishna Gopal |author3=Phal S. Girota |year=2003 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-212-0809-3|access-date=14 February 2014}}</ref>]]
[[File:Kumbh Mela 2001.jpg|thumb|The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, the 2001 [[Kumbh Mela|Maha Kumbh Mela]] held in [[Prayagraj|Prayag]] attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world.]]

===== Hinduism =====
{{Main|Hindu reform movements|Neo-Vedanta|Hindutva|Communalism (South Asia)}}

In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces, a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]].{{sfn|King|1999}} These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India's religious history, emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions.{{sfn|King|1999}}

The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}} For example, [[Brahma Baba]] established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline of [[Raja Yoga]] to millions.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Representing traditional [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], [[Prabhupada]] founded the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] movement, another organisation with a global reach. In late 18th-century India, [[Swaminarayan]] founded the [[Swaminarayan Sampraday]]. [[Anandamurti]], founder of the [[Ananda Marga]], has also influenced many worldwide. Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===== Jainism =====
{{See also|Hinduism and Jainism}}

Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Karnataka]], and [[Tamil Nadu]]. Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===== Buddhism =====
{{Main|Navayana}}

The Dalit Buddhist movement also referred to as [[Navayana]]<ref name="Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste">Omvedt, Gail. ''Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste''. 3rd ed. London/New Delhi/Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2003. pp. 2, 3–7, 8, 14–15, 19, 240, 266, 271</ref> is a 19th- and 20th-century [[Buddhist]] revival movement in India. It received its most substantial impetus from [[B. R. Ambedkar]]'s call for the conversion of [[Dalit]]s to [[Buddhism]] in 1956 and the opportunity to escape the [[caste]]-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy.<ref>{{Citation |title=Political Ideas in Modern India: thematic explorations |author1=Thomas Pantham |author2=Vrajendra Raj Mehta |author3=Vrajendra Raj Mehta |year=2006 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=0-7619-3420-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJejtAaonsEC&q=%22Self-respect+movement%22&pg=PA48 |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=18 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918044504/https://books.google.com/books?id=KJejtAaonsEC&q=%22Self-respect+movement%22&pg=PA48 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Similarities and differences ==
[[File:Abraham Dharma.png|thumb|Map showing the prevalence of [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] (pink) and Indian religions (yellow) in each country]]

According to Tilak, the religions of India can be interpreted "differentially" or "integrally",{{sfn|Sherma|Sarma|2008|p=239}} that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities.{{sfn|Sherma|Sarma|2008|p=239}} According to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities.{{sfn|Sherma|Sarma|2008|p=239}}

=== Similarities ===
[[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]] share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.{{sfn|Sherma|Sarma|2008|p=239}} Until the 19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other, but "perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family."{{sfn|Lipner|1998|p=12}}

==== Dharma ====
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2021}}
[[File:2019 Jan 15 - Kumbh Mela - Devotee Reading Holy Booklet at Prayagraj Kumbh Mela.jpg|thumb|A devotee facing the [[Ganga]], reading a stack of holy books ("Chalisa" of various god) at the Kumbh Mela]]

The spectrum of these religions are called Dharmic religions because of their overlap over the core concept of [[Dharma]]. It has various meanings depending on the context. For example it could mean duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, conduct, etc.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

==== Soteriology ====
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share the concept of [[moksha]], liberation from the cycle of rebirth.{{sfn|Tiwari|1983|p=210}} They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation.{{sfn|Tiwari|1983|p=210}}

==== Ritual ====
Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The head-anointing ritual of ''[[abhiseka]]'' is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found within [[Vajrayana]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Others |first=Muzaffar H. Syed & |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy5gEAAAQBAJ |title=History of Indian Nation: Ancient India |date=2022-02-20 |publisher=K.K. Publications |page=358 |language=en |access-date=1 December 2023 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923090519/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy5gEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals.<ref name=":0" /> In literature, many classical narratives and puranas have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref group=web>cf. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref> All four traditions have notions of ''[[karma]]'', ''dharma'', ''[[samsara]]'', ''moksha'' and various ''forms of [[Yoga]]''.<ref name=":0" />

==== Mythology ====
[[Rama]] is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a [[Bodhisattva]]-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Buddhist [[Ramayana]]s are: ''Vessantarajataka'',<ref>Pollock, P. 661 ''Literary Cultures in History:''</ref> [[Reamker]], [[Ramakien]], [[Phra Lak Phra Lam]], [[Hikayat Seri Rama]], etc. There also exists the ''Khamti Ramayana'' among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an [[Avatar]] of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The ''Tai Ramayana'' is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

=== Differences ===
Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions.{{sfn|Larson|2012|pp=313–314}}{{sfn|Yelle|2012|pp=338–339}} All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects.{{sfn|Rodriques|Harding|2008|p=14}}

==== Mythology ====
Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions. A popular story tells how [[Vajrapani]] kills [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Mahesvara]], a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being.{{sfn|Davidson|2004|pp=148–153}}{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=220}} The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably the ''Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha'' and the ''Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra''.{{sfn|Davidson|2004|p=148}}{{refn|group=note|The story begins with the transformation of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra into Vajrapani by Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha, receiving a [[vajra]] and the name "Vajrapani".{{sfn|Davidson|2004|pp=148–150}} Vairocana then requests Vajrapani to generate his adamantine family, to establish a [[mandala]]. Vajrapani refuses, because Mahesvara (Shiva) "is deluding beings with his deceitfull religious doctrines and engaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct".{{sfn|Davidson|2004|p=150}} Mahesvara and his entourage are dragged to [[Mount Sumeru]], and all but Mahesvara submit. Vajrapani and Mahesvara engage in a magical combat, which is won by Vajrapani. Mahesvara's retinue become part of Vairocana's mandala, except for Mahesvara, who is killed, and his life transferred to another realm where he becomes a buddha named Bhasmesvara-nirghosa, the "Soundless Lord of Ashes".{{sfn|Davidson|2004|p=151}}}} According to Kalupahana, the story "echoes" the story of the conversion of Ambattha.{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=220}} It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and [[Shaivism]].{{sfn|Davidson|2004|p=152}}

== ''Āstika'' and ''nāstika'' categorisation ==
{{Main|Āstika and nāstika|Hindu philosophy|Buddhism and Hinduism}}
{{See also|Adi Shankara|Charvaka}}

''Āstika'' and ''nāstika'' are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions but we need to keep some caveats in mind. 

Satoshi Ogura argues – We have found no Sanskrit doxography completed up to the end of the sixteenth century that distinguishes only Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta as orthodox systems that acknowledge the revelation of the Vedas. To put it mildly, such a categorisation was not mainstream in Indian philosophy. In her dissertation dealing with the works by the Mughal prince Dārā Shukūh, Supriya Gandhi has, in contrast, asserted that Roy rather inherited religious discourses in early modern Persian literature in writing his treatises on religions, noting the similarity of Roy's word-usage to that of Dārā. We can say that the case of ṣaḍdarśana shares a common feature with that of Roy's thought, i.e., that a “traditional” Indic concept that has been discussed as a Western or colonial invention had probably sprouted in the late medieval or early modern cosmopolitan culture on the subcontinent before the time of Western impact. We thus should keep in mind the tendency of classification of Indic knowledge in Persianate discourses and its legacies in modern writings in both India and the Western world.<ref>Satoshi Ogura (2024), The Ā’īn-i Akbarī and Western Indology: with Special Reference to the Category of the Six Systems of Philosophy, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Supplement, No. 3, 2024: https://tufs.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/2000328/files/jaas-supp003008.pdf</ref>

The traditional definition, followed by [[Adi Shankara]], classifies religions and persons as ''āstika'' and ''nāstika'' according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Purva Mimamsa]] and [[Vedanta]] are classified as ''āstika'' schools, while [[Charvaka]] is classified as a ''nāstika'' school. Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified as ''nāstika'' religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Another set of definitions—notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy—loosely characterise ''āstika'' as "[[theist]]" and ''nāstika'' as "[[atheist]]". By these definitions, ''Sāṃkhya'' can be considered a ''nāstika'' philosophy, though it is traditionally classed among the Vedic ''āstika'' schools. From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remain ''nāstika'' religions.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in their own view. Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts,<ref>Page i, ''Forms of Indian Philosophical Literature and Other Papers'' by V.S. Kambi</ref> or those who deny the existence of the soul.<ref>P. 163 ''Mahāvīra: His Life and Teachings'' by Bimala Churn Law</ref>

== Use of term "Dharmic religions" ==
{{See also|Saffronisation}}

Frawley and Malhotra use the term "Dharmic traditions" to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions.{{sfn|Frawley|1990|p=27}}{{sfn|Malhotra|2011}}{{refn|group=note|Occasionally the term is also being used by other authors. David Westerlund: "... may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of 'dharmic' religions."<ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16</ref>}} According to Frawley, "all religions in India have been called the Dharma",{{sfn|Frawley|1990|p=27}} and can be

{{blockquote|...put under the greater umbrella of "Dharmic traditions" which we can see as Hinduism or the spiritual traditions of India in the broadest sense.{{sfn|Frawley|1990|p=27}}}}

According to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, the term "dharma"

{{blockquote|...assumed a fundamentally new meaning and function in modern Indian thought, beginning with [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]] in the nineteenth century. This process, in which ''dharma'' was presented as an equivalent of, but also a response to, the western notion of "religion", reflects a fundamental change in the Hindu sense of identity and in the attitude toward other religious and cultural traditions. The foreign tools of "religion" and "nation" became tools of self-definition, and a new and precarious sense of the "unity of Hinduism" and of national as well as religious identity took root.{{sfn|Halbfass|1995|p=10}}}}

The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the Dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions.{{sfn|Larson|2012|pp=313–314}}{{sfn|Yelle|2012|pp=338–339}} According to [[Richard E. King]] it is typical of the "inclusivist appropriation of other traditions"{{sfn|King|1999}} of [[Neo-Vedanta]]:

{{blockquote|The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonizes the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the ''[[philosophia perennis]]'' underlying all cultural differences.{{sfn|King|1999}}}}

The "Council of Dharmic Faiths" (UK) regards [[Zoroastrianism]], while not originating in the Indian subcontinent, also as a Dharmic religion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://councilofdharmicfaithsuk.com/the-dharmic-faiths.php |title=Council of Dharmic Faiths UK |website=councilofdharmicfaithsuk.com |access-date=27 May 2017 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713113751/http://councilofdharmicfaithsuk.com/the-dharmic-faiths.php }}</ref>

== Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India ==
{{Main|Religion in India}}
{{See also|Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India}}

The inclusion of [[Buddhists]], [[Jains]], and [[Sikhs]] within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system. The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act "[defines] as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and anyone who is not a [[Christian]], [[Muslim]], Parsee ([[Zoroastrian]]) or [[Jew]]."{{sfn|Cavanaugh|2009|p=88}} And the [[Indian Constitution]] says that "reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion."{{sfn|Cavanaugh|2009|p=88}}

In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or ''special'' faiths within the larger Hindu fold,<ref group=web name="Supreme Court">{{cite web |url=http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 |title=Supreme Court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 |access-date=29 March 2008 |archive-date=2 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502180453/http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post-Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}} and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />{{refn|group=note|The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of ''Bal Patil vs. Union of India'': "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}} Although the Indian Government counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />{{refn|group=note|The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}} In 2005, the [[Supreme Court of India]] declined to issue a [[Mandamus|writ of mandamus]] granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective [[States and territories of India|states]] to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051125/edit.htm#4 |title=Minority rights are indivisible |author=Syed Shahabuddin |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308110842/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051125/edit.htm#4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />{{refn|group=note|In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}}

However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.<ref name="judis_basic_shiksha">(para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21 August 2006, Supreme Court of India) {{cite web|url=http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm%3D27962 |title=CASE NO.: Appeal (civil) 9595 of 2003 |access-date=29 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311225548/http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27962 |archive-date=11 March 2007}}</ref> However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held [[legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion#Chronological order of various court judgments on Jainism as a separate religion|Jainism to be a distinct religion]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=IQTIDAR KARAMAT CHEEMA |date=2017 |title=Constitutional and Legal Challenges Faced by Religious Minorities in India |url=https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Constitutional%20and%20Legal%20Challenges%20Faced%20by%20Religious%20Minorities%20in%20India.pdf |access-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920084503/https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Constitutional%20and%20Legal%20Challenges%20Faced%20by%20Religious%20Minorities%20in%20India.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another example is the [[Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill]], that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.<ref group=web>[http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:-4pb9oO2u_YJ:www.aiccindia.org/newsite/0804061910/resources/pdf/Gujarat%2520Freedom%2520of%2520Religion%2520Act%2520-%2520text%2520only.pdf+Gujarat+Freedom+of+religions+bill&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=20 Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003]{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, [[Governor of Gujarat|Governor]] [[Naval Kishore Sharma]] returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains<ref group=web>{{cite news |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/religious-freedom-bill-returned/ |title=Religious freedom Bill returned |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=31 July 2007 |access-date=15 September 2007 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226192527/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/religious-freedom-bill-returned/ |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court."<ref group=web>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Gujarat_govt_revokes_conversion_amendment/articleshow/2853456.cms The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710111705/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Gujarat_govt_revokes_conversion_amendment/articleshow/2853456.cms |date=10 July 2021 }} In his letter dated 27 July 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|India|Religion|Hinduism|Sikhism|Buddhism}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Abrahamic religions]], a similar term used to refer Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
* [[Ahimsa]]
* [[Bon]]
* [[Demographics of India]]
* [[Indology]]
* [[Iranian religions]]
* [[Kalasha (religion)]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]]
* [[Religion in India]]
** [[Buddhism in India]]
** [[Christianity in India]]
** [[Hinduism in India]]
** [[Jainism in India]]
** [[Sikhism in India]]
** [[Tribal religions in India]]
** [[Zoroastrianism in India]]
* [[Religion in South Asia]]
* [[Sanamahism]]
* [[Taoic religions]], a similar terms used to refer to East Asian religions such as Taoism, Shintoism and Muism
* [[Vegetarianism]]
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=subnote}}

{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}

== References ==
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{{Refend}}

=== Web sources ===
{{Reflist|group=web}}

== External links ==
; Statistics
* {{cite web |title=Census of India 2001: Data on religion |publisher=Government of India (Office of the Registrar General) |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |access-date=28 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=14 May 2007}}

; Constitution and law
* {{cite web |title=Constitution of India |publisher=Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice) |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html |access-date=28 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223171017/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html |archive-date=23 February 2015}}

; Reports
* {{cite web |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India |publisher=United States Department of State |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71440.htm |access-date=28 May 2007 |archive-date=12 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012182709/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71440.htm |url-status=live }}

{{Asia topic|Religion in|PS=Palestinian territories#Religion}}
{{South Asian topics}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian religions| ]]
[[Category:Religion in South Asia]]