View source for Indian removal

{{Short description|Early 19th-century United States domestic policy}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title            = Indian removal
| partof           = [[Native American genocide in the United States]]
| image            = Trails of Tears en.png
| image_size       = 300px
| caption          = Routes of southern removals
| location         = United States
| target           = [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the eastern United States
| date             = 1830–1847
| type             = [[Death march]], [[population transfer]], [[ethnic cleansing]],  [[genocide]]
| fatalities       = 8,000+ (lowest estimate)
| perpetrators     =
* [[United States federal government]]
* [[Army on the Frontier|United States Army]]
* [[Militia (United States)|State militias]]
| motive           =
* [[Expansionist]] desire to acquire Native American land east of the [[Mississippi River]] ([[Manifest Destiny]])
* [[Racism against Native Americans in the United States|Anti-Native American racism]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crepelle |first1=Adam |title=LIES, DAMN LIES, AND FEDERAL INDIAN LAW: THE ETHICS OF CITING RACIST PRECEDENT IN CONTEMPORARY FEDERAL INDIAN LAW |journal=N.y.u. Review of Law & Social Change |date=2021 |volume=44 |page=565 |url=https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf |access-date=19 August 2023 |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414013841/https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
{{Genocide of Indigenous peoples|Americas}}
{{Native American topics sidebar}}

The '''Indian removal''' was the [[United States government]]'s policy of [[ethnic cleansing]] through the [[forced displacement]] of [[Tribe (Native American)|self-governing tribes of American Indians]] from their ancestral homelands in the [[eastern United States]] to lands west of the [[Mississippi River]]{{emdash}}specifically, to a designated [[Indian Territory]] (roughly, present-day [[Oklahoma]]), which many scholars have labeled [[Native American genocide in the United States|a genocide]].<ref name="NOTE2" /><ref name="Anderson2014" /><ref name="AmericanIndianSmithsonian" /> The [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]], the key law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed into law by [[United States president]] [[Andrew Jackson]] on May 28, 1830. Although Jackson took a hard line on Indian removal, the law was primarily enforced during the [[Martin Van Buren]] administration, 1837 to 1841. After the enactment of the Act, approximately 60,000 members of the [[Cherokee]], [[Muscogee (Creek) Nation|Muscogee]] (Creek), [[Seminole]], [[Chickasaw]], and [[Choctaw]] nations (including thousands of [[Amerindian slave ownership|their black slaves]]) were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands, with thousands dying during the [[Trail of Tears]].<ref name="Thornton, Russell 1991. 75–93">{{Cite book |last=Thornton, Russell (1991). |title=Cherokee Removal: Before and After |editor-last=William L. Anderson |pages=75–93 |chapter=The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses}}</ref><ref name="Prucha 241 note 58">{{Cite book |last=Prucha |first=Francis Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC |title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians |year=1995 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=0803287348 |pages=241 note 58 |access-date=November 20, 2015 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173833/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ehle 390–392">{{Cite book |last=Ehle |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2lR-lpmfwC |title=Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation |year=2011 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=9780307793836 |pages=390–392}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of the Trail of Tears |url=http://www.cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018070255/http://www.cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears |archive-date=October 18, 2017 |access-date=October 17, 2017 |publisher=www.cherokee.org }}</ref>

Indian removal, a popular policy among incoming settlers, was a consequence of actions first by the [[Territorial evolution of the United States|European colonists and then later on by the American settlers in the nation]] during [[Thirteen Colonies|the thirteen colonies]] and then after the [[American Revolution|revolution]], in the [[United States|United States of America]] also until the mid-20th century.<ref name="Kanth2009" /><ref name="FinkelmanKennon2008" />

The origins of the policy date back to the [[Presidency of James Monroe|administration of James Monroe]], but it addressed conflicts which had occurred between the [[American pioneer|American settlers]] and Indigenous tribes since the 17th century and were escalating into the early 19th century (as settlers pushed westward in accordance with the cultural belief of [[manifest destiny#Native Americans|manifest destiny]]). Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary acceptance of the policy, due in part to the popular embrace of the concept of [[manifest destiny]], has given way to a more somber perspective. Historians have often described the removal of American Indians as [[paternalism]],<ref name="Wilentz" /><ref name="B&C" /> [[ethnic cleansing]],<ref name="Zinn2012" /> or [[genocide]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Indian Removal Act: The Genocide of Native Americans – UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog|url=https://sites.uab.edu/humanrights/2017/04/17/indian-removal-act-genocide-native-americans/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=sites.uab.edu|archive-date=October 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016202914/https://sites.uab.edu/humanrights/2017/04/17/indian-removal-act-genocide-native-americans/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Stannard|first=David|title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0195085570|page=256}}</ref>

=={{anchor|The Revolutionary background}}Background==

American leaders in the Revolutionary and early US eras debated about whether Native Americans should be treated as individuals or as nations.<ref name="Obie" />

===Declaration of Independence===
{{Main|United States Declaration of Independence}}

In the indictment section of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the Indigenous inhabitants of the United States are referred to as "merciless Indian Savages", reflecting a commonly held view at the time by the colonists in the United States.

===Benjamin Franklin===
In a draft "Proposed Articles of Confederation" presented to the [[Continental Congress]] on May 10, 1775, [[Benjamin Franklin]] called for a "perpetual Alliance" with the Indians in the nation about to be born, particularly with the six nations of the [[Iroquois]] Confederacy:<ref name="Franklin" /><ref name="Pommersheim2009" />

{{Blockquote|Article XI. A perpetual alliance offensive and defensive is to be entered into as soon as may be with the Six Nations; their Limits to be ascertained and secured to them; their Land not to be encroached on, nor any private or Colony Purchases made of them hereafter to be held good, nor any Contract for Lands to be made but between the Great Council of the Indians at Onondaga and the General Congress. The Boundaries and Lands of all the other Indians shall also be ascertained and secured to them in the same manner; and Persons appointed to reside among them in proper Districts, who shall take care to prevent Injustice in the Trade with them, and be enabled at our general Expense by occasional small Supplies, to relieve their personal Wants and Distresses. And all Purchases from them shall be by the Congress for the General Advantage and Benefit of the United Colonies.}}

==={{anchor|Early Congressional acts}}Early congressional acts===
The [[Congress of the Confederation|Confederation Congress]] passed the [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787 (a precedent for US territorial expansion would occur for years to come), calling for the protection of Native American "property, rights, and liberty";<ref name="LawHist" /> the US Constitution of 1787 (Article I, Section 8) made Congress responsible for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes. In 1790, the new US Congress passed the Indian [[Nonintercourse Act]] (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes.<ref name="Clair&Lee" />

===George Washington===
President [[George Washington]], in his 1790 address to the [[Seneca Nation]] which called the pre-Constitutional Indian land-sale difficulties "evils", said that the case was now altered and pledged to uphold Native American "just rights".<ref name="NY-State" /><ref name="Region" /> In March and April 1792, Washington met with 50 tribal chiefs in Philadelphia—including the Iroquois—to discuss strengthening the friendship between them and the United States.<ref name="MalinowskiAbrams1995" /> Later that year, in his fourth annual message to Congress, Washington stressed the need to build peace, trust, and commerce with Native Americans:<ref name="Manweller2012" />

{{Blockquote|I cannot dismiss the subject of Indian affairs without again recommending to your consideration the expediency of more adequate provision for giving energy to the laws throughout our interior frontier, and for restraining the commission of outrages upon the Indians; without which all pacific plans must prove nugatory. To enable, by competent rewards, the employment of qualified and trusty persons to reside among them, as agents, would also contribute to the preservation of peace and good neighbourhood. If, in addition to these expedients, an eligible plan could be devised for promoting civilization among the friendly tribes, and for carrying on trade with them, upon a scale equal to their wants, and under regulations calculated to protect them from imposition and extortion, its influence in cementing their interests with our's [sic] could not but be considerable.<ref name="MillerCenter2016" />}}

In his seventh annual message to Congress in 1795, Washington intimated that if the US government wanted peace with the Indians it must behave peacefully; if the US wanted raids by Indians to stop, raids by American "frontier inhabitants" must also stop.<ref name="MillerCenter20167" /><ref name="MoquinDoren1973" />

===Thomas Jefferson===
In his ''[[Notes on the State of Virginia]]'' (1785), [[Thomas Jefferson]] defended Native American culture and marveled at how the tribes of Virginia "never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive power, any shadow of government" due to their "moral sense of right and wrong".<ref name="Beyond" /><ref name="Onuf2000" /> He wrote to the Marquis de Chastellux later that year, "I believe the Indian then to be in body and mind equal to the whiteman".<ref name="Jordan1974" /> Jefferson's desire, as interpreted by [[Francis Paul Prucha]], was for Native Americans to intermix with European Americans and become one people.<ref name="Prucha1985" /><ref name="Prucha1997" /> To achieve that end as president, Jefferson offered US citizenship to some Indian nations and proposed offering them credit to facilitate trade.<ref name="Fraser2016" /><ref name="Letter" />

On 27 February 1803, Jefferson wrote in a letter to [[William Henry Harrison]]:<blockquote>In this way our settlements will gradually circumbscribe & approach the Indians, & they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the US. or remove beyond the Missisipi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves. But in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength & their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, & that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Founders Online: From Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, 27 February 1 ...|url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-39-02-0500|access-date=2021-10-27|website=founders.archives.gov|language=en|archive-date=July 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726062145/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-39-02-0500|url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

==Jeffersonian policy==
{{Main|Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans}}

As president, [[Thomas Jefferson]] developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals. He wanted to assure that the Native nations (not foreign nations) were tightly bound to the new United States, as he considered the security of the nation to be paramount.<ref name="Pres" /> He also wanted to "civilize" them into adopting an agricultural, rather than a [[hunter-gatherer]], lifestyle.<ref name="Prucha1985" /> These goals would be achieved through treaties and the development of trade.<ref name="Calloway1998" />

Jefferson initially promoted an American policy which encouraged Native Americans to become [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]], or "[[civilization|civilized]]".<ref name="TuckerHendrickson1992" /> He made sustained efforts to win the friendship and cooperation of many Native American tribes as president, repeatedly articulating his desire for a united nation of whites and Indians<ref name="GrossbergTomlins2008" /> as in his November 3, 1802, letter to Seneca spiritual leader [[Handsome Lake]]:{{blockquote|Go on then, brother, in the great reformation you have undertaken&nbsp;... In all your enterprises for the good of your people, you may count with confidence on the aid and protection of the United States, and on the sincerity and zeal with which I am myself animated in the furthering of this humane work. You are our brethren of the same land; we wish your prosperity as brethren should do. Farewell.<ref name="Oberg2011" />}}

When a delegation from the Cherokee Nation's Upper Towns lobbied Jefferson for the full and equal citizenship promised to Indians living in American territory by George Washington, his response indicated that he was willing to grant citizenship to those Indian nations who sought it.<ref name="McLoughlin1992" /> In his eighth annual message to Congress on November 8, 1808, he presented a vision of white and Indian unity:

{{Blockquote|With our Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained ... And, generally, from a conviction that we consider them as part of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and interests, the attachment of the Indian tribes is gaining strength daily... and will amply requite us for the justice and friendship practiced towards them ... [O]ne of the two great divisions of the Cherokee nation have now under consideration to solicit the citizenship of the United States, and to be identified with us in-laws and government, in such progressive manner as we shall think best.<ref name="MillerCenter20168" />}}

As some of Jefferson's other writings illustrate, however, he was ambivalent about Indian assimilation and used the words "exterminate" and "extirpate" about tribes who resisted American expansion and were willing to fight for their lands.<ref name="Miller2006" /> Jefferson intended to change Indian lifestyles from hunting and gathering to farming, largely through "the decrease of game rendering their subsistence by hunting insufficient".<ref name="Black2015" /> He expected the change to agriculture to make them dependent on white Americans for goods, and more likely to surrender their land or allow themselves to be moved west of the [[Mississippi River]].<ref name="Buckley2008" /><ref name="BartropJacobs2014" /> In an 1803 letter to [[William Henry Harrison]], Jefferson wrote:<ref name="Prucha2000" />

{{Blockquote|Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.<ref name="JeffersonHarrison1803" />}}

In that letter, Jefferson spoke about protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated by settlers:

{{Blockquote|Our system is to live in perpetual peace with the Indians, to cultivate an affectionate attachment from them, by everything just and liberal which we can do for them within ... reason, and by giving them effectual protection against wrongs from our own people.<ref name="ADL2005" />}}

According to the treaty of February 27, 1819, the US government would offer citizenship and {{convert|640|acre|ha}} of land per family to Cherokees who lived east of the Mississippi.<ref name="McLoughlin1992256" /><ref name="Kappler1903" /><ref name="McLoughlin1981" /> Native American land was sometimes purchased, by treaty or under [[duress]]. The idea of land exchange, that Native Americans would give up their land east of the Mississippi in exchange for a similar amount of territory west of the river, was first proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and first incorporated into treaties in 1817 (years after the Jefferson presidency). The [[Indian Removal Act]] of 1830 included this concept.<ref name="BartropJacobs2014" />

=={{anchor|Calhoun's plan}}John C. Calhoun's plan==
Under President [[James Monroe]], Secretary of War [[John C. Calhoun]] devised the first plans for Indian removal. Monroe approved Calhoun's plans by late 1824 and, in a special message to the Senate on January 27, 1825, requested the creation of the [[Arkansas Territory|Arkansaw]] and [[Indian Territory|Indian Territories]]; the Indians east of the Mississippi would voluntarily exchange their lands for lands west of the river. The Senate accepted Monroe's request, and asked Calhoun to draft a bill which was killed in the House of Representatives by the Georgia delegation. President [[John Quincy Adams]] assumed the Calhoun–Monroe policy, and was determined to remove the Indians by non-forceful means;<ref name="Mahon1991" /><ref name="Teed2006" /> Georgia refused to consent to Adams' request, forcing the president to forge a treaty with the Cherokees granting Georgia the Cherokee lands.<ref name="Warnes2016" /> On July 26, 1827, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution (modeled on that of the United States) which declared that they were an independent nation with jurisdiction over their own lands. Georgia contended that it would not countenance a sovereign state within its own territory, and asserted its authority over Cherokee territory.<ref name="Prucha1995" /> When [[Andrew Jackson]] became president as the candidate of the newly-organized [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], he agreed that the Indians should be forced to exchange their eastern lands for western lands (including relocation) and vigorously enforced Indian removal.<ref name="Mahon199172" /><ref name="Warnes2016" />

=={{anchor|Opposition to removal from US citizens}}Opposition to removal from US citizens==
Although Indian removal was a popular policy, it was also opposed on legal and moral grounds; it also ran counter to the formal, customary diplomatic interaction between the federal government and the Native nations.<ref name="Sturgis" /> Author and critic [[John Neal]] wrote fiction in opposition to Indian removal policy.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Watts | first1 = Edward | last2 = Carlson | first2 = David J. | chapter = Introduction | page = xxi | title = John Neal and Nineteenth Century American Literature and Culture | year = 2012 | publisher = Bucknell University Press | location = Lewisburg, Pennsylvania | editor1-last = Watts | editor1-first = Edward | editor2-last = Carlson | editor2-first = David J.}}</ref> The short stories "Otter-Bag, the Oneida Chief" (1829) and "David Whicher" (1832) was his response to Jacksonian policy, as well as prevailing themes in American literature depicting white and Native Americans as irreconcilable enemies.<ref>{{cite book | last = Watts | first = Edward | chapter = He Could Not Believe that Butchering Red Men Was Serving Our Maker: 'David Whicher' and the Indian Hater Tradition | page = 209 | title = John Neal and Nineteenth Century American Literature and Culture | year = 2012 | publisher = Bucknell University Press | location = Lewisburg, Pennsylvania | editor1-last = Watts | editor1-first = Edward | editor2-last = Carlson | editor2-first = David J.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Halfmann | first = Ulrich | date = September 1990 | title = In Search of the 'Real North American Story': John Neal's Short Stories 'Otter-Bag' and 'David Whicher' | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/366371 | journal = [[The New England Quarterly]] | volume = 63 | number = 3 | doi = 10.2307/366371 | jstor = 366371 | page = 444| url-access = subscription }}</ref> [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] wrote the widely-published letter "A Protest Against the Removal of the Cherokee Indians from the State of Georgia" in 1838, shortly before the Cherokee removal. Emerson criticizes the government and its removal policy, saying that the removal treaty was illegitimate; it was a "sham treaty", which the US government should not uphold.<ref name="Sturgis">{{cite book |last1=Sturgis |first1=Amy |title=The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal |date=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=978-0313336584 |page=135}}</ref> He describes removal as <blockquote>such a dereliction of all faith and virtues, such a denial of justice{{nbsp}}... in the dealing of a nation with its own allies and wards since the earth was made{{nbsp}}... a general expression of despondency, of disbelief, that any goodwill accrues from a remonstrance on an act of fraud and robbery, appeared in those men to whom we naturally turn for aid and counsel.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sturgis |first1=Amy |title=The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal |date=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=978-0313336584 |pages=136–137}}</ref></blockquote> Emerson concludes his letter by saying that it should not be a political issue, urging President Martin Van Buren to prevent the enforcement of Cherokee removal. Other individual settlers and settler social organizations throughout the United States also opposed removal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Satz |first1=Ronald N. |title=American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era |date=1975 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-3432-1 |page=42}}</ref>

=={{anchor|Native Americans' response to removal}}Native American response to removal==
Native groups reshaped their governments, made constitutions and legal codes, and sent delegates to Washington to negotiate policies and treaties to uphold their autonomy and ensure federally-promised protection from the encroachment of states.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Perdue |first1=Theda |title=The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents |date=2016 |publisher=Bedford/St.Martin's |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-319-04902-7 |page=12|edition=3rd}}</ref> They thought that acclimating, as the US wanted them to, would stem removal policy and create a better relationship with the federal government and surrounding states.

Native American nations had differing views about removal. Although most wanted to remain on their native lands and do anything possible to ensure that, others believed that removal to a nonwhite area was their only option to maintain their autonomy and culture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faiman-Silva |first1=Sandra |title=Choctaws at the Crossroads |date=1997 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=0-8032-2001-4 |page=18}}</ref> The US used this division to forge removal treaties with (often) minority groups who became convinced that removal was the best option for their people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Perdue |first1=Theda |title=The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents |date=2016 |publisher=Bedford/St.Martin's |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-319-04902-7 |page=150 |edition=3rd}}</ref> These treaties were often not acknowledged by most of a nation's people. When Congress ratified the removal treaty, the federal government could use military force to remove Native nations if they had not moved (or had begun moving) by the date stipulated in the treaty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/indian-treaties |access-date=2024-02-22 |website=Office of the Historian |archive-date=February 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219014902/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/indian-treaties |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Indian Removal Act==
{{Main|Indian Removal Act}}
{{See also|Presidency of Andrew Jackson#Indian removal}}
[[File:Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes: ''(clockwise from upper left)'' [[Sequoyah]], [[Pushmataha]], Selecta, [[Osceola]], and a typical [[Chickasaw Nation|Chickasaw]]]]

When Andrew Jackson became president of the United States in 1829, his government took a hard line on Indian removal;<ref name="SatzApfelbeck1996" /> Jackson abandoned his predecessors' policy of treating Indian tribes as separate nations, aggressively pursuing all Indians east of the Mississippi who claimed constitutional sovereignty and independence from state laws. They were to be removed to reservations in Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi (present-day [[Oklahoma]]), where they could exist without state interference. At Jackson's request, Congress began a debate on an Indian-removal bill. After fierce disagreement, the Senate passed the bill by a 28–19 vote; the House had narrowly passed it, 102–97. Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law on May 30, 1830.<ref name="KaneSharynKeeton1994" />

That year, most of the [[Five Civilized Tribes]]—the [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Seminole]], and [[Cherokee Nation (19th century)|Cherokee]]—lived east of the Mississippi. The Indian Removal Act implemented federal-government policy towards its Indian populations, moving Native American tribes east of the Mississippi to lands west of the river. Although the act did not authorize the forced removal of indigenous tribes, it enabled the president to negotiate land-exchange treaties.<ref name="Magoc2015" />

===Choctaw===
On September 27, 1830, the [[Choctaw]] signed the [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] and became the first Native American tribe to be removed. The agreement was one of the largest transfers of land between the US government and Native Americans which was not the result of war. The Choctaw signed away their remaining traditional homelands, opening them up for European–American settlement in [[Mississippi Territory]]. When the tribe reached [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]], a chief called its trek a "trail of tears and death".<ref name="crossroads" />

In 1831, French historian and political scientist [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] witnessed an exhausted group of Choctaw men, women and children emerging from the forest during an exceptionally cold winter near [[Memphis, Tennessee]],<ref name="Smith2007" /> on their way to the Mississippi to be loaded onto a steamboat. He wrote,
{{blockquote|In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We&nbsp;... watch the expulsion&nbsp;... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.<ref name="Pierson1938" />}}

===Cherokee===
{{Main|Cherokee removal}}

While the Indian Removal Act made the move of the tribes voluntary, it was often abused by government officials. The best-known example is the [[Treaty of New Echota]], which was signed by a small faction of twenty [[Cherokee]] tribal members (not the tribal leadership) on December 29, 1835.<ref name="French2007" /> Most of the Cherokee later blamed the faction and the treaty for the tribe's forced relocation in 1838.<ref name="Sturgis2007" /> An estimated 4,000 Cherokee died in the march, which is known as the [[Trail of Tears]].<ref name="Thornton1992" /> Missionary organizer [[Jeremiah Evarts]] urged the Cherokee Nation to take its case to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]].<ref name="III2007" />

The [[John Marshall|Marshall court]] heard the case in ''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]'' (1831), but declined to rule on its merits; the court declaring that the Native American tribes were not sovereign nations, and could not "maintain an action" in US courts.<ref name="Hoxie1984" /><ref name="Hobson2012" /> In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall in ''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'' (1832), individual states had no authority in American Indian affairs.<ref name="Malone2010" /><ref name="Remini2013" />

The state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] defied the Supreme Court ruling,<ref name="Malone2010" /> and the desire of settlers and land speculators for Indian lands continued unabated;<ref name="Civics2012" /> some whites claimed that Indians threatened peace and security. The Georgia legislature passed a law forbidding settlers from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831, without a license from the state; this excluded missionaries who opposed Indian removal.<ref name="Satz1974" /><ref name="BlackLybecker2008" />

===Seminole===
The [[Seminole]] refused to leave their [[Florida]] lands in 1835, leading to the [[Second Seminole War]]. Osceola was a Seminole leader of the people's fight against removal. Based in the [[Everglades]], Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the US Army in a number of battles. In 1837, Osceola was duplicitously captured by order of US General [[Thomas Jesup]] when Osceola came under a flag of truce to negotiate peace near [[Fort Peyton]].<ref name="Wickman2006" /> Osceola died in prison of illness; the war resulted in over 1,500 US deaths, and cost the government $20 million.<ref name="TuckerArnold2011" /> Some Seminole traveled deeper into the Everglades, and others moved west. The removal continued, and a number of wars broke out over land.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rockwell |first=Stephen J. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Indian_Affairs_and_the_Administrative_St/BklTaUBSUF4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Seminole+removal+wars+land&pg=PA135&printsec=frontcover |title=Indian Affairs and the Administrative State in the Nineteenth Century |date=2010-06-07 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-19363-4 |language=en}}</ref> In 1823, the Seminole signed the [[Treaty of Moultrie Creek]], which reduced their 34 million to 4 million acres.

===Muskogee (Creek)===
In the aftermath of the Treaties of [[Treaty of Fort Jackson|Fort Jackson]], and the [[Treaty of Washington (1826)|Washington]], the Muscogee were confined to a small strip of land in present-day east central [[Alabama]]. The Creek national council signed the [[Treaty of Cusseta]] in 1832, ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the US and accepting relocation to the Indian Territory. Most Muscogee were removed to the territory during the [[Trail of Tears]] in 1834, although some remained behind. Although the [[Creek War of 1836]] ended government attempts to convince the Creek population to leave voluntarily, Creeks who had not participated in the war were not forced west (as others were). The Creek population was placed into camps and told that they would be relocated soon. Many Creek leaders were surprised by the quick departure but could do little to challenge it. The 16,000 Creeks were organized into five detachments who were to be sent to Fort Gibson. The Creek leaders did their best to negotiate better conditions, and succeeded in obtaining wagons and medicine. To prepare for the relocation, Creeks began to deconstruct their spiritual lives; they burned piles of [[Fatwood|lightwood]] over their ancestors' graves to honor their memories, and polished the sacred plates which would travel at the front of each group. They also prepared financially, selling what they could not bring. Many were swindled by local merchants out of valuable possessions (including land), and the military had to intervene. The detachments began moving west in September 1836, facing harsh conditions. Despite their preparations, the detachments faced bad roads, worse weather, and a lack of drinkable water. When all five detachments reached their destination, they recorded their death toll. The first detachment, with 2,318 Creeks, had 78 deaths; the second had 3,095 Creeks, with 37 deaths. The third had 2,818 Creeks, and 12 deaths; the fourth, 2,330 Creeks and 36 deaths. The fifth detachment, with 2,087 Creeks, had 25 deaths.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haveman|first1=Christopher D.|title=Rivers of Sand : Creek Indian emigration, relocation, and ethnic cleansing in the American South|year=2016|publisher=University of Nebraska|isbn=978-0-8032-7392-4|location=Removal of the Creek Indians from the Southeast|pages=200–233}}</ref> In 1837 outside of [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]] over 300 Creeks being forcibly removed to Western prairies drowned in the Mississippi River.<ref>Meares, Cecil. "Western Lore: When the steamboat Monmouth sank in the Mississippi, Creek Indian passengers paid the price." ''Wild West'', 11, no. 3, Oct. 1998, p. 10.</ref><ref>Bethencourt, Daniel. [https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/article_6b281ca6-4308-5292-a5e8-c7ee560c197f.html BR researcher explores Monmouth steamboat disaster] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825183548/https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/article_6b281ca6-4308-5292-a5e8-c7ee560c197f.html |date=August 25, 2022 }}''The Advocate''. November 17, 2004</ref>

{{Blockquote|Friends and Brothers – By permission of the Great Spirit above, and the voice of the people, I have been made President of the United States, and now speak to you as your Father and friend, and request you to listen. Your warriors have known me long. You know I love my white and red children, and always speak with a straight, and not with a forked tongue; that I have always told you the truth ... Where you now are, you and my white children are too near to each other to live in harmony and peace. Your game is destroyed, and many of your people will not work and till the earth. Beyond the great River Mississippi, where a part of your nation has gone, your Father has provided a country large enough for all of you, and he advises you to remove to it. There your white brothers will not trouble you; they will have no claim to the land, and you can live upon it you and all your children, as long as the grass grows or the water runs, in peace and plenty. It will be yours forever. For the improvements in the country where you now live, and for all the stock which you cannot take with you, your Father will pay you a fair price&nbsp;...|President Andrew Jackson addressing the Creek Nation, 1829<ref name="KaneSharynKeeton1994" />}}

===Chickasaw===
Unlike other tribes, who exchanged lands, the Chickasaw were to receive financial compensation of $3&nbsp;million from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River.<ref name="BurtFerguson1973" /><ref name="Clark1996" /> They reached an agreement to purchase of land from the previously-removed Choctaw in 1836 after a bitter five-year debate, paying the Chocktaw $530,000 for the westernmost Choctaw land.<ref name="Pate2009" /><ref name="Gibson2012" /> Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 and 1838.<ref name="Clark2012" /> The $3&nbsp;million owed to the Chickasaw by the US went unpaid for nearly 30 years.<ref name="Minahan2013" />

===Aftermath===
The Five Civilized Tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory.<ref name="Gibson1984" /> The Cherokee occupied the northeast corner of the territory and a {{convert|70|mi|km|adj=mid|-wide}} strip of land in Kansas on its border with the territory.<ref name="Williams2016" /> Some indigenous nations resisted the forced migration more strongly.<ref name="Oakley2005" /><ref name="Anderson2014161" /> The few who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups,<ref name="Adams2016" /> including the Eastern Band of Cherokee (based in North Carolina),<ref name="Finger1984" /><ref name="Christie2009" /><ref name="SarmientoHitchner2017" /> the [[Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians]],<ref name="WellsTubby2010" /><ref name="LittlefieldParins2011" /> the Seminole Tribe of Florida,<ref name="Weisman1989" /><ref name="HeidlerHeidler2003" /><ref name="Sturtevant2008" /> and the Creeks in Alabama<ref name="Barnett2012" /> (including the [[Poarch Band of Creek Indians|Poarch Band]]).<ref name="Sturtevant2008123" /><ref name="Parins20118" /><ref name="Hébert2017" />

=={{anchor|Details on removals}}Removals==

==={{anchor|The North}}North===
Tribes in the [[Old Northwest]] were smaller and more fragmented than the Five Civilized Tribes, so the treaty and emigration process was more piecemeal.<ref name="Parker1996" />  Following the [[Northwest Indian War]], most of the modern state of [[Ohio]] was taken from native nations in the 1795 [[Treaty of Greenville]]. Tribes such as the already-displaced [[Lenape]] (Delaware tribe), [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]] and [[Shawnee]], were [[Indian removals in Indiana|removed from Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio]] during the 1820s.<ref name="Kinney1975" /> The [[Potawatomi#American removal period (1830–1840)|Potawatomi]] were [[Potawatomi Trail of Death|forced out]] of Wisconsin and Michigan in late 1838, and were resettled in [[Kansas Territory]]. Communities remaining in present-day Ohio were forced to move to Louisiana, which was then controlled by Spain.<ref name="BeyondRem" />

Bands of [[Shawnee]],<ref name="Vol19" /> [[Odawa|Ottawa]], [[Potawatomi#American removal period (1830–1840)|Potawatomi]],<ref name="Edmunds1978" /> [[Sauk people|Sauk]], and [[Meskwaki]] (Fox) signed treaties and relocated to the Indian Territory.<ref name="Green2008" /> In 1832, the Sauk leader [[Black Hawk (Sauk leader)|Black Hawk]] led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois; the US Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his warriors in the [[Black Hawk War]], and the Sauk and Fox were relocated to present-day [[Iowa]].<ref name="lewis2d" />  The [[Miami people|Miami]] were split, with many of the tribe resettled west of the [[Mississippi River]] during the 1840s.<ref name="Tigerman2006" />

In the [[Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek]] (1838), the [[Senecas]] transferred all their land in New York (except for one small reservation) in exchange for {{convert|200000|acre|km2}} of land in Indian Territory. The federal government would be responsible for the removal of the Senecas who opted to go west, and the [[Holland Land Company|Ogden Land Company]] would acquire their New York lands. The lands were sold by government officials, however, and the proceeds were deposited in the US Treasury. [[Maris Bryant Pierce]], a "young chief" served as a lawyer representing four territories of the Seneca tribe, starting in 1838.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johansen |first1=Bruce Elliott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zibNDBchPkMC |title=Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) |last2=Mann |first2=Barbara Alice |date=2000 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-30880-2 |page=249 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Littlefield | first1=Daniel F. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7OlZPtIMy4C |title=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal [2 volumes] |last2=Parins |first2=James W. |date=2011-01-19 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-36042-8 |pages=173 |language=en}}</ref> The Senecas asserted that they had been defrauded, and sued for redress in the [[United States Court of Claims|Court of Claims]]. The case was not resolved until 1898, when the United States awarded $1,998,714.46 (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=1998714.46|start_year=1898}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) in compensation to "the New York Indians".<ref name="Hauptman2014" /> The US signed treaties with the Senecas and the [[Tonawanda Band of Seneca|Tonawanda Senecas]] in 1842 and 1857, respectively. Under the treaty of 1857, the Tonawandas renounced all claim to lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for the right to buy back the [[Tonawanda Reservation]] from the Ogden Land Company.<ref name="LittlefieldParins2011158" /> Over a century later, the Senecas purchased a {{convert|9|acre|ha|adj=on}} plot (part of their original reservation) in downtown [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] to build the [[Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino]].<ref name="Wooster2009" />

==={{anchor|The South}}South===
<!--"The north" MOVED UP ONLY BECAUSE THIS SECTION HAS NO PROSE, AND IS INCOMPLETELY SOURCED. PROSE PLUS TABLE IS PREFERRED.-->
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Southern removals
! Nation
! Population before removal
! Treaty and year
! Major emigration
! Total removed
! Number remaining
! Deaths during removal
! Deaths from warfare
|-
|Choctaw
|19,554<ref name="Foreman1972" /> + White citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves
|[[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek|Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)]]
|1831–1836
|15,000<ref name="peterson2">{{cite book|last=Satz|first=Ronald|title=After Removal, The Choctaw in Mississippi|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|year=1986|editor=Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tubby|location=Jackson and London|page=7|chapter=The Mississippi Choctaw: From the Removal Treaty to the Federal Agency}}</ref>
|5,000–6,000<ref name="NOTE1" /><ref name="david_baird">{{cite book|last=Baird|first=David|title=The Choctaw People|publisher=Indian Tribal Series|year=1973|location=United States|page=36|chapter=The Choctaws Meet the Americans, 1783 to 1843|lccn=73-80708}}</ref><ref name="peterson">{{cite book|last=Walter|first=Williams|title=Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=1979|location=Athens, Georgia|chapter=Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi}}</ref>
|2,000–4,000+ ([[cholera]])
|none
|-
|Creek (Muscogee)
|22,700 + 900 Black slaves<ref name="fn_(c)" />
|[[Treaty of Cusseta|Cusseta (1832)]]
|1834–1837
|19,600<ref name="Rem272" />
|Several hundred
|3,500 (disease after removal)<ref name="Thornton199285" />
|Unknown ([[Creek War of 1836]])
|-
|Chickasaw
| 4,914 + 1,156 Black slaves<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Chickasaw|url=https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH033|access-date=May 4, 2021|website=The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture|archive-date=May 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504192936/https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH033|url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Treaty of Pontotoc Creek|Pontotoc Creek (1832)]]
|1837–1847
|over 4,000<ref name=":0" />
|Several hundred
|500–800
|none
|-
|Cherokee
|16,542 + 201 married White + 1,592 Black slaves<ref>{{cite web|date=2005|title=Eastern Cherokee Census Rolls, 1835–1884|url=https://www.archives.gov/files/research/microfilm/m1773.pdf|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=May 4, 2021|archive-date=May 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509095305/https://www.archives.gov/files/research/microfilm/m1773.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Treaty of New Echota|New Echota (1835)]]
|1836–1838
|16,000<ref name="Prucha 241 note 582">{{cite book|last=Prucha|first=Francis Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC|title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians|year=1995|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=0803287348|pages=241 note 58|access-date=November 20, 2015|archive-date=March 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173833/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC|url-status=live}}</ref>
|1,500
|2,000–4,000<ref name="Ehle 390–3922">{{Cite book|last=Ehle|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2lR-lpmfwC|title=Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation|year=2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=9780307793836|pages=390–392}}</ref><ref name="Thornton, Russell 1991. 75–932">{{Cite book|last=Thornton, Russell (1991).|title=Cherokee Removal: Before and After|editor-last=William L. Anderson|pages=75–93|chapter=The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses}}</ref>
|none
|-
|Seminole
|3,700–5,000<ref>{{cite book|last=Swanton|first=John Reed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEYSAAAAYAAJ&q=seminoles+florida+1844+3,136&pg=PA443|title=Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors, Issue 73|date=1922|publisher=US Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|page=443}}</ref> + fugitive slaves
|[[Treaty of Payne's Landing|Payne's Landing (1832)]]
|1832–1842
|2,833<ref name="Prucha1995233" />–4,000<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wallace|first1=Anthony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idFiNsZghKkC&pg=PA100|title=The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians|last2=Foner|first2=Eric|date=1993|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-8090-1552-8|pages=101|language=en}}</ref>
|250<ref name="Prucha1995233" />–500<ref name="WallaceFoner1993" />
|
|700 ([[Second Seminole War]])
|}

=={{anchor|Changing perspective on the policy}}Changed perspective==
Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary acceptance of the policy, due in part to the popular embrace of the concept of [[manifest destiny]], has given way to a more somber perspective. Historians have often described the removal of Native Americans as [[paternalism]],<ref name="Wilentz" /><ref name="B&C" /> [[ethnic cleansing]],<ref name="Zinn2012" /><ref name="White 2002">{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard |title=How Andrew Jackson Saved the Cherokees |journal=Green Bag |date=2002 |pages=443–444 |url=http://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf |access-date=14 April 2023 |archive-date=October 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008161415/http://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crepelle |first1=Adam |title=LIES, DAMN LIES, AND FEDERAL INDIAN LAW: THE ETHICS OF CITING RACIST PRECEDENT IN CONTEMPORARY FEDERAL INDIAN LAW |journal=N.Y.U. Review of Law & Social Change |date=2021 |volume=44 |page=565 |url=https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf |access-date=14 April 2023 |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414013841/https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> or [[genocide]]. Historian [[David Stannard]] has called it genocide.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />{{Page needed|date=August 2022}}

===Andrew Jackson's reputation===
[[File:Images from DOI 10.5479 sil.131145.39088002742823 02.jpg|thumb|[[Seth Eastman]]'s 1852 map of Indian tribes in the west showing reservations in the Indian Territory]]
Andrew Jackson's Indian policy stirred a lot of public controversy before his enactment, but virtually none among historians and biographers of the 19th and early 20th century.<ref name="Wilentz" /> However, his recent reputation has been negatively affected by his treatment of the Indians. Historians who admire Jackson's strong presidential leadership, such as [[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.]], would gloss over the Indian Removal in a footnote. In 1969, [[Francis Paul Prucha]] defended Jackson's Indian policy and wrote that Jackson's removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from the hostile political environment of the [[Old South]] to [[Oklahoma]] probably saved them.<ref name="FPPrucha" /> Jackson was sharply attacked by political scientist [[Michael Rogin]] and historian [[Howard Zinn]] during the 1970s, primarily on this issue; Zinn called him an "exterminator of Indians".<ref name="Zinn2015" /><ref name="Mann2009" /> According to historians [[Paul R. Bartrop]] and [[Steven L. Jacobs]], however, Jackson's policies do not meet the criteria for physical or [[cultural genocide]].<ref name="B&C" /> Historian [[Sean Wilentz]] describes the view of Jacksonian "infantilization" and "genocide" of the Indians, as a historical caricature, which "turns tragedy into melodrama, exaggerates parts at the expense of the whole, and sacrifices nuance for sharpness".<ref name="Wilentz" />

==See also==
{{category see also|Opponents of Indian removal in the United States}}
* [[Curtis Act of 1898|Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory (Curtis Act), 1898]]
* [[Burke Act|Forced Fee Patenting Act (Burke Act), 1906]]
* [[Indian Reorganization Act|Wheeler–Howard Act]]
* [[Nelson Act of 1889]], Minnesota's version of the Dawes Act
* [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans]]
* [[Aboriginal title in the United States]]
* [[Competency Commission]]
* [[Land run]]
* [[Diminishment]]
* [[Great Māhele]]
* [[Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations]]
* [[Checkerboarding (land)]]
* [[Dawes Act]]
* [[Quilmes people]], an indigenous people in Argentina that suffered a similar fate
* [[Indian removals in Minnesota]]

==Citations and notes==
<references>
<ref name="Anderson2014">{{cite book|author=Gary Clayton Anderson|title=Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uh4KAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|year=2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-4508-2|page=7|quote= Even though the term "ethnic cleansing" has been applied mainly to the history of nations other than the United States, no term better fits the policy of United States "Indian Removal".}}</ref>
<ref name="AmericanIndianSmithsonian">{{cite AV media | date = March 3, 2015 | title = The "Indian Problem" | medium = Video | language = en | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if-BOZgWZPE | access-date = April 18, 2018 | time = 12:21 | location = 10:51–11:17 | publisher = [[National Museum of the American Indian]] | quote = When you move a people from one place to another, when you displace people, when you wrench people from their homelands... wasn't that genocide? We don't make the case that there was genocide. We know there was. Yet here we are. | archive-date = December 22, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191222173043/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if-BOZgWZPE&list=PLWHs6h7U8FyK6TMjEDgPViBmkXirno7sf&index=377 | url-status = live }}</ref>
<ref name="Kanth2009">{{cite book|author=Rajiv Molhotra|editor=Rajani Kannepalli Kanth|title=The Challenge of Eurocentrism: Global Perspectives, Policy, and Prospects|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6avFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|year= 2009|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-0-230-61227-3|pages=180, 184, 189, 199|chapter=The Challenge of Eurocentrism}}</ref>
<ref name="FinkelmanKennon2008">{{cite book|author1=Paul Finkelman|author2=William W. Freehling|author3=Tim Alan Garrison|editor1=Paul Finkelman |editor2=Donald R. Kennon|title=Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism: From the Missouri Compromise to the Age of Jackson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-khufPrnlyIC&pg=PA15|year=2008|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-1783-6|pages=15, 141, 254}}</ref>
<ref name="Franklin">{{cite book | author = Franklin, Benjamin | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1775 | chapter = Journals of the Continental Congress – Franklin's Articles of Confederation; July 21, 1775 | title = The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy | location = New Haven, CT | publisher = Yale University, Lillian Goldman Law Library | chapter-url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong_07-21-75.asp | access-date = March 7, 2017 | archive-date = March 9, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170309070326/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong_07-21-75.asp | url-status = live }} Cited is a digital version of the [https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjclink.html ''Journals of the Continental Congress 1774–1779,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212180100/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjclink.html |date=February 12, 2017 }} Vol. II, pp. 195–199, as edited from original records in the Library of Congress by [[Worthington Chauncey Ford]]. Primary source.</ref>
<ref name="Pommersheim2009">{{cite book|author=Frank Pommersheim|title=Broken Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxTo3ysKsggC&pg=PT39|year= 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-988828-3|page=39}}</ref>
<ref name="Onuf2000">{{cite book|author=Peter S. Onuf|title=Jefferson's Empire: The Language of American Nationhood|url=https://archive.org/details/jeffersonsempire00onuf_0|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-2204-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/jeffersonsempire00onuf_0/page/24 24]}}</ref>
<ref name="Jordan1974">{{cite book|author=Winthrop D. Jordan|title=The White Man's Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/whitemansburdenh00jord|url-access=registration|year=1974|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-501743-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/whitemansburdenh00jord/page/178 178]}}</ref>
<ref name="Prucha1985">{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=The Indians in American Society: From the Revolutionary War to the Present|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansinamerica00fran|url-access=registration|year= 1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90884-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiansinamerica00fran/page/6 6]}}</ref>
<ref name="Prucha1997">{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH07ZMdSl0kC&pg=PA136|year= 1997|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91916-7|page=136}}</ref>
<ref name="Fraser2016">{{cite book|author=James W. Fraser|title=Between Church and State: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chfUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|year= 2016|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-1-4214-2059-2|page=89}}</ref>
<ref name="MalinowskiAbrams1995">{{cite book|author1=Sharon Malinowski|author2=George H. J. Abrams|title=Notable Native Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlgYAAAAIAAJ&q=%22tribal%20chiefs%22|year=1995|publisher=Gale Research|isbn=978-0-8103-9638-8|page=356}}</ref>
<ref name="Manweller2012">{{cite book|author=Mathew Manweller|title=Chronology of the U.S. Presidency|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqB3ehA7M0oC&pg=PA14|year=2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-645-4|page=14}}</ref>
<ref name="MillerCenter2016">{{cite web|title=Fourth Annual Message to Congress (November 6, 1792)|url=http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3938|website=millercenter.org|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=July 15, 2017|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160213105807/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3938|archive-date=February 13, 2016|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="MillerCenter20167">{{cite web|title=Seventh Annual Message to Congress (December 8, 1795)|url=http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3939|website=millercenter.org|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=July 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228111523/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3939|archive-date=December 28, 2016|location=Charlottesville, VA|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="MoquinDoren1973">{{cite book|author1=Wayne Moquin|author2=Charles Lincoln Van Doren|title=Great Documents in American Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpV0AAAAMAAJ&q=%22are%20insufficient%22|year=1973|publisher=Praeger|page=105}}</ref>
<ref name="Calloway1998">{{cite book|author=Colin G. Calloway|title=New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edYbAZ7ECEoC&pg=PA179|date= 1998|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5959-5|page=179}}</ref>
<ref name="TuckerHendrickson1992">{{cite book|author1=Robert W. Tucker|author2=David C. Hendrickson|title=Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0EFEU0BEe8C&pg=PA305|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-802276-3|pages=305–306}}</ref>
<ref name="GrossbergTomlins2008">{{cite book|author=Katherine A. Hermes|editor1=Michael Grossberg |editor2=Christopher Tomlins|title=The Cambridge History of Law in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KeEi14czrnoC&pg=PA56|volume=I, Early America (1580–1815)|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-80305-2|page=56}}</ref>
<ref name="Oberg2011">{{cite web|author1=Thomas Jefferson|title=From Thomas Jefferson to Handsome Lake, 3 November 1802|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-38-02-0563|website=Founders Online|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=July 16, 2017|language=en|date=June 29, 2017|quote=[Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 38, 1 July–12 November 1802, ed. Barbara B. Oberg. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011, pp. 628–631.]|archive-date=November 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116054652/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-38-02-0563|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="McLoughlin1992">{{cite book|author=William Gerald McLoughlin|title=Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ii4mn9T9-LQC&pg=PR15|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00627-7|pages=xv, 132}}</ref>
<ref name="MillerCenter20168">{{cite web|title=Eighth Annual Message (November 8, 1808) Thomas Jefferson|url=http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3501|website=millercenter.org|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=July 16, 2017|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160213102328/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3501|archive-date=February 13, 2016|date=December 28, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Miller2006">{{cite book|author=Robert J. Miller|title=Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccnP7tWU7hwC&pg=PA92|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-99011-4|pages=92–93}}</ref>
<ref name="Black2015">{{cite book|author=Jason Edward Black|title=American Indians and the Rhetoric of Removal and Allotment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQobBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|date= 2015|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-62674-485-1|page=50}}</ref>
<ref name="Buckley2008">{{cite book|author=Jay H. Buckley|title=William Clark: Indian Diplomat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Wd7_5HpIxYC&pg=PA193|year=2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3911-1|page=193|quote=There is no doubt that Jefferson wanted to get Indians into debt so that he could lop off their holdings through land cessions.}}</ref>
<ref name="BartropJacobs2014">{{cite book|author1=Paul R. Bartrop|author2=Steven Leonard Jacobs|title=Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2070|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-364-6|pages=2070}}</ref>
<ref name="Prucha2000">{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=Documents of United States Indian Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COTvocv68koC&pg=PA22|year=2000|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8762-4|page=22}}</ref>
<ref name="JeffersonHarrison1803">{{cite web | last=Jefferson | first=Thomas | year=1803 | title=President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory | url=http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm | access-date=March 12, 2009 | quote=When they withdraw themselves to the culture of a small piece of land, they will perceive how useless to them are their extensive forests, and will be willing to pare them off from time to time in exchange for necessaries for their farms and families. To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands. At our trading houses, too, we mean to sell so low as merely to repay us cost and charges, so as neither to lessen or enlarge our capital. This is what private traders cannot do, for they must gain; they will consequently retire from the competition, and we shall thus get clear of this pest without giving offence or umbrage to the Indians. In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation. | archive-date=January 20, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120091110/http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm | url-status=dead }} Primary source.</ref>
<ref name="ADL2005">{{cite web|author1=Texts by or to Thomas Jefferson|title=Excerpt from President Jefferson's Private Letter to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory February 27, 1803|url=http://archive.adl.org/education/curriculum_connections/excerpt_jefferson1803.html|website=adl.org|publisher=Anti-Defamation League|access-date=July 16, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601024017/http://archive.adl.org/education/curriculum_connections/excerpt_jefferson1803.html|archive-date=June 1, 2016|format=Modern English Collection, Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library|date=2005}}</ref>
<ref name="McLoughlin1992256">{{cite book|author=William Gerald McLoughlin|title=Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ii4mn9T9-LQC&pg=PA256|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00627-7|page=256}}</ref>
<ref name="Kappler1903">{{cite book|editor=Charles Joseph Kappler|title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GdEUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124|volume=2|year=1903|publisher=United States Government Printing Office|page=124}}</ref>
<ref name="McLoughlin1981">{{cite journal|author1=William G. McLoughlin|title=Experiment in Cherokee Citizenship, 1817–1829|journal=American Quarterly|date=Spring 1981|volume=33|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.2307/2712531|jstor=2712531}}</ref>
<ref name="Mahon1991">{{cite book|author=John K. Mahon|title=History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5n16GwAACAAJ|year=1991|publisher=University Presses of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1097-7|page=57}}</ref>
<ref name="Teed2006">{{cite book|author=Paul E. Teed|title=John Quincy Adams: Yankee Nationalist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XY8tqSoQiIoC&pg=PA104|year=2006|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59454-797-3|page=104}}</ref>
<ref name="Warnes2016">{{cite book|author=Kathy Warnes|editor1=Steven Chermak |editor2=Frankie Y. Bailey|title=Crimes of the Centuries: Notorious Crimes, Criminals, and Criminal Trials in American History [3 volumes] Notorious Crimes, Criminals, and Criminal Trials in American History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=li1ZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155|date= 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-594-7|page=155|chapter=''Cherokee Nation vs, Georgia,'' Forced Removal of Indian Tribes (1831)}}</ref>
<ref name="Prucha1995">{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC&pg=PA189|year=1995|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1|page=189}}</ref>
<ref name="Mahon199172">{{cite book|author=John K. Mahon|title=History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5n16GwAACAAJ|year=1991|publisher=University Presses of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1097-7|page=72}}</ref>
<ref name="SatzApfelbeck1996">{{cite book|author1=Ronald N. Satz|author2=Laura Apfelbeck|title=Chippewa Treaty Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin's Chippewa Indians in Historical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5abHh1mPsMC&pg=PA10|date=1996|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-93022-6|page=10}}</ref>
<ref name="KaneSharynKeeton1994">{{Cite book |author1=Kane, Sharyn |author2=Keeton, Richard |year=1994 |chapter=As Long as Grass Grows [Ch. 11] |title=Fort Benning: The Land and the People |pages=95–104 |location=Fort Benning, GA and Tallahassee, FL |publisher=United States Army Infantry Center, Directorate of Public Works, Environmental Management Division, and National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center |isbn=978-0-8061-1172-8 |oclc=39804148 |chapter-url=http://www.nps.gov/history/seac/benning-book/benning-index.htm |access-date=March 7, 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817050817/http://www.nps.gov/history/seac/benning-book/benning-index.htm |archive-date=August 17, 2007 }} The work is also available from the US Army, as a [http://www.benning.army.mil/Library/content/Virtual/Fort Benning History/Fort Benning the Land and the People.pdf PDF]{{dead link|date=April 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.</ref>
<ref name="Magoc2015">{{cite book|author=Chris J. Magoc|title=Imperialism and Expansionism in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection &#91;4 volumes&#93;: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CMEnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA400|date= 2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-430-8|page=400}}</ref>
<ref name="crossroads">{{cite book|author=Faiman-Silva, Sandra |year=1997|title=Choctaws at the Crossroads | page=[https://archive.org/details/choctawsatcrossr0000faim/page/19 19] | location = Lincoln, NE | publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-6902-6|url=https://archive.org/details/choctawsatcrossr0000faim|url-access=registration | access-date = March 8, 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Smith2007">{{cite book|author=Thomas Ruys Smith|title=River of Dreams: Imagining the Mississippi Before Mark Twain|url=https://archive.org/details/riverofdreamsima0000smit|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|isbn=978-0-8071-4307-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/riverofdreamsima0000smit/page/77 77]}}</ref>
<ref name="Pierson1938">{{cite book|author=George Wilson Pierson|title=Tocqueville in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LJbwV4WznGkC&pg=PA598|year=1938|publisher=Johns Hopkins Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5506-1|page=598}}</ref>
<ref name="French2007">{{cite book|author=Laurence French|title=Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism|url=https://archive.org/details/legislatingindia0000fren|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-8844-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/legislatingindia0000fren/page/50 50]}}</ref>
<ref name="Sturgis2007">{{cite book|author=Amy H. Sturgis|title=The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyS9GtYci7IC&pg=PA119|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33658-4|pages=119–}}</ref>
<ref name="Thornton1992">{{cite book|author=Russell Thornton|title=The Cherokees: A Population History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Cgr4fPfAZQC&pg=PA74|year=1992|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-9410-3|page=74}}</ref>
<ref name="III2007">{{cite book|author=John A. Andrew, III|title=From Revivals to Removal: Jeremiah Evarts, the Cherokee Nation, and the Search for the Soul of America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRR5wbNvaHkC&pg=PA234|date=2007|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-3121-8|page=234}}</ref>
<ref name="Hoxie1984">{{cite book|author=Frederick E. Hoxie|title=A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5m-6V4dPvgQC&pg=PA214|year=1984|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-7327-6|page=214|quote=The court has bestowed its best attention on this question, and, after mature deliberation, the majority is of the opinion that an Indian tribe or nation within the United States is not a foreign state in the sense of the constitution, and cannot maintain an action in the courts of the United States.}}</ref>
<ref name="Hobson2012">{{cite book|author=Charles F. Hobson|title=The Papers of John Marshall: Vol XII: Correspondence, Papers, and Selected Judicial Opinions, January 1831 – July 1835, with Addendum, June 1783 – January 1829|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYsMCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|year=2012|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-3885-3|page=60}}</ref>
<ref name="Malone2010">{{cite book|author=Henry Thompson Malone|title=Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6PpsOPyM0aMC&pg=PA178|date= 2010|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-3542-1|page=178}}</ref>
<ref name="Remini2013">{{cite book|author=Robert V. Remini|title=Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbM-AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA276|date=2013|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-1-4214-1329-7|pages=276–277}}</ref>
<ref name="Civics2012">{{cite web|title=America's Indian Removal Policies: Tales & Trails of Betrayal Indian Policy During Andrew Jackson's Presidency (1829–1837)|page=15|url=http://civics.sites.unc.edu/files/2012/05/IndianRemovalPPT.pdf|website=civics.sites.unc.edu|publisher=University of North Carolina|access-date=July 14, 2017|date=May 2012|archive-date=September 19, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919044145/http://civics.sites.unc.edu/files/2012/05/IndianRemovalPPT.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Satz1974">{{cite book|author=Ronald N. Satz|title=American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x85rIvny-48C&pg=PA47|year=1974|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3432-1|page=47}}</ref>
<ref name="BlackLybecker2008">{{cite book|author1=Brian Black|author2=Donna L. Lybecker|title=Great Debates in American Environmental History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72ISAQAAIAAJ&q=%22March%2031,%201831%22|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-33931-8|page=56}}</ref>
<ref name="Wickman2006">{{cite book|author=Patricia Riles Wickman|title=Osceola's Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b5N_-gr9us8C&pg=PA85|date= 2006|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-5332-2|page=85}}</ref>
<ref name="TuckerArnold2011">{{cite book|author1=Spencer Tucker|author2=James R. Arnold|author3=Roberta Wiener|title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA719|date= 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-697-8|page=719}}</ref>
<ref name="BurtFerguson1973">{{cite book|author1=Jesse Clifton Burt|author2=Robert B. Ferguson|title=Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt|url-access=registration|date= 1973|publisher=Abingdon Press|isbn=978-0-687-18793-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt/page/170 170]–173}}</ref>
<ref name="Clark1996">{{cite book|author=Thomas Dionysius Clark|title=The Old Southwest, 1795-1830: Frontiers in Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9YHBMNfKrEC&pg=PA250|date=1996|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-2836-8|page=250}}</ref>
<ref name="Pate2009">{{cite web|author1=James P. Pate|title=Chickasaw The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture|url=http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryname=CHICKASAW|website=okhistory.org|publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society|access-date=July 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722003746/http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryname=CHICKASAW|archive-date=July 22, 2016|date=2009}}</ref>
<ref name="Gibson2012">{{cite book|author=Arrell M. Gibson|title=The Chickasaws|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Duaw5nldssQC&pg=PA217|year= 2012|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-8864-5|page=217}}</ref>
<ref name="Clark2012">{{cite book|author=Blue Clark|title=Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-REv0Se_aR8C&pg=PA99|date= 2012|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-8461-6|page=99}}</ref>
<ref name="Minahan2013">{{cite book|author=James Minahan|title=Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8jVig0ysnu8C&pg=PA95|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-163-5|page=95}}</ref>
<ref name="Gibson1984">{{cite book|author=Arrell Morgan Gibson|title=The History of Oklahoma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVt9vQ7QSqMC&pg=PA31|year=1984|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-1883-3|page=31}}</ref>
<ref name="Williams2016">{{cite book|author=Rusty Williams|title=The Red River Bridge War: A Texas-Oklahoma Border Battle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxQXDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT13|year=2016|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-1-62349-406-3|page=13}}</ref>
<ref name="Oakley2005">{{cite book|author=Christopher Arris Oakley|title=Keeping the Circle: American Indian Identity in Eastern North Carolina, 1885-2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7RjN4okpBEC&pg=PA9|year=2005|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-5069-7|page=9}}</ref>
<ref name="Anderson2014161">{{cite book|author=Gary Clayton Anderson|title=Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uh4KAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-4508-2|page=161}}</ref>
<ref name="Adams2016">{{cite book|author=Mikaela M. Adams|title=Who Belongs?: Race, Resources, and Tribal Citizenship in the Native South|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yw01DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-061947-3|page=4}}</ref>
<ref name="Finger1984">{{cite book|author=John R. Finger|title=The Eastern Band of Cherokees, 1819–1900|url=https://archive.org/details/easternbandofche0000fing|url-access=registration|year=1984|publisher=Univ. of Tennessee Press|isbn=978-0-87049-410-9|page=xii}}</ref>
<ref name="Christie2009">{{cite book|author=Jessica Joyce Christie|title=Landscapes of Origin in the Americas: Creation Narratives Linking Ancient Places and Present Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SS_aCCujQ3gC&pg=PA14|year= 2009|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-5560-9|page=14}}</ref>
<ref name="SarmientoHitchner2017">{{cite book|author=Benjamin A. Steere|editor1=Fausto Sarmiento |editor2=Sarah Hitchner|title=Indigeneity and the Sacred: Indigenous Revival and the Conservation of Sacred Natural Sites in the Americas|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ge6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|year= 2017|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78533-397-2|page=165|chapter=Collaborative Archaeology as a Tool For Preserving Sacred Sites in the Cherokee Heartland}}</ref>
<ref name="WellsTubby2010">{{cite book|author=Samuel J. Wells|editor1=Samuel J. Wells |editor2=Roseanna Tubby|title=After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B5H_xoAOUhsC&pg=PR9|date= 2010|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-61703-084-0|page=ix|chapter=Introduction}}</ref>
<ref name="LittlefieldParins2011">{{cite book|editor1=Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr. |editor2=James W. Parins|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx46lWJKphEC&pg=PA6|volume=1|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36041-1|page=7|chapter=Alabama and Indian Removal}}</ref>
<ref name="Weisman1989">{{cite book|author=Brent Richards Weisman|title=Like Beads on a String: A Culture History of the Seminole Indians in North Peninsular Florida|url=https://archive.org/details/likebeadsonstrin0000weis|url-access=registration|date= 1989|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-0411-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/likebeadsonstrin0000weis/page/38 38]}}</ref>
<ref name="HeidlerHeidler2003">{{cite book|author1=David Heidler|author2=Jeanne Heidler|title=Old Hickory's War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K5Xhnu1AAU8C&pg=PA33|year= 2003|publisher=LSU Press|isbn=978-0-8071-2867-1|page=33}}</ref>
<ref name="Sturtevant2008">{{cite book|author=William C. Sturtevant|title=Handbook of North American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA128|year=2008|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-080388-8|page=128}}</ref>
<ref name="Barnett2012">{{cite book|author=James F. Barnett|title=Mississippi's American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAG-0afCSpIC&pg=PA264|year=2012|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-61703-246-2|page=264}}</ref>
<ref name="Sturtevant2008123">{{cite book|author=William C. Sturtevant|title=Handbook of North American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA123|year=2008|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-080388-8|page=123}}</ref>
<ref name="Parins20118">{{cite book|author1=Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.|author2=James W. Parins|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx46lWJKphEC&pg=PA8|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36041-1|pages=8–9}}</ref>
<ref name="Hébert2017">{{cite web|author1=Keith S. Hébert|title=Poarch Band of Creek Indians|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3853|website=Encyclopedia of Alabama|publisher=Auburn University|access-date=July 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615182709/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3853|archive-date=June 15, 2017|language=en|date= 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Parker1996">{{cite book|author=Linda S. Parker|title=Native American Estate: The Struggle Over Indian and Hawaiian Lands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NH-QMdK9-F4C&pg=PA36|year=1996|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-1807-4|pages=36–37}}</ref>
<ref name="Edmunds1978">{{cite book|author=R. David Edmunds|title=The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire|url=https://archive.org/details/potawatomiskeepe00edmu|url-access=registration|date=1978|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-2069-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/potawatomiskeepe00edmu/page/270 270]}}</ref>
<ref name="Green2008">{{cite book|author=Michael D. Green|editor=Marvin Bergman|title=Iowa History Reader|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdVfmZvBO84C&pg=PA28|date=2008|publisher=University of Iowa Press|isbn=978-1-60938-011-3|page=28|chapter="We Dance in Opposite Directions": Mesquakie (Fox) Separatism from the Sac and Fox Tribe*}}</ref>
<ref name="lewis2d">{{cite web | author = Lewis, James | year = 2000 | title = The Black Hawk War of 1832 | page = 2D | location = DeKalb, IL | publisher = Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University | url = http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2d.html | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090619071514/http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2d.html | archive-date = June 19, 2009 | access-date = March 8, 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Kinney1975">{{cite book|author=Jay P. Kinney|title=A Continent Lost, a Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5krAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Kickapoo%22%20%22Shawnee%22|year=1975|publisher=Octagon Books|isbn=978-0-374-94576-3|page=73}}</ref>
<ref name="Tigerman2006">{{cite book|author=Kathleen Tigerman|title=Wisconsin Indian Literature: Anthology of Native Voices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BTnBMOERCOUC&pg=PA160|year=2006|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-22064-8|page=160}}</ref>
<ref name="Hauptman2014">{{cite book|author=Laurence M. Hauptman|title=In the Shadow of Kinzua: The Seneca Nation of Indians since World War II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYKiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA192|date=2014|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-5238-0|page=192}}</ref>
<ref name="LittlefieldParins2011158">{{cite book|author=John P. Bowes|editor=Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.|others=James W. Parins|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx46lWJKphEC&pg=PA158|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36041-1|page=158|chapter=Ogden Land Company}}</ref>
<ref name="Wooster2009">{{cite book|author=Margaret Wooster|title=Living Waters: Reading the Rivers of the Lower Great Lakes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HhoOBbyi9gC&pg=PA58|date= 2009|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7712-0|page=58}}</ref>
<ref name="Foreman1972">{{cite book|author=Grant Foreman|title=Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8ZOg03I0s0C&pg=PA47|year=1972|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-1172-8|pages=47, note 10 (1830 census)}}</ref>
<ref name="fn_(c)">Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census).</ref>
<ref name="Thornton199285">{{cite book|author=Russell Thornton|editor=William L. Anderson|title=Cherokee Removal: Before and After|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC&pg=PA85|date=1992|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-1482-2|page=85|chapter=The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses}}</ref>
<ref name="Prucha1995233">{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC&pg=PA233|year=1995|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1|page=233}}</ref>
<ref name="WallaceFoner1993">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Wallace|author2=Eric Foner|title=The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idFiNsZghKkC&pg=PA100|date=1993|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0-8090-1552-8|pages=100–101}}</ref>
<ref name="Wilentz">{{cite book | author=Wilentz, Sean | year = 2006 | title=The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln | location = New York| publisher=W.W. Norton | page = 324 | url = https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0-393-32921-6 | access-date = March 8, 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Zinn2012">{{cite book|author=Howard Zinn|title=Howard Zinn Speaks: Collected Speeches 1963–2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1jX8P9Uhzg0C&pg=PA178|date= 2012|publisher=Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-60846-228-5|page=178}}</ref>
<ref name="Zinn2015">{{cite book|author=Howard Zinn|title=A People's History of the United States: 1492–Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8JcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130|year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-32530-7|page=130}}</ref>
<ref name="Mann2009">{{cite book|author=Barbara Alice Mann|title=The Tainted Gift: The Disease Method of Frontier Expansion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJcJmx8R8XIC&pg=PA20|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35338-3|page=20}}</ref>
<ref name="B&C">{{cite book | author=Bartrop Paul R. & Jacobs, Steven Leonard | year=2014 | title=Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection | page=2070 | publisher = ABC-CLIO| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2070| isbn=978-1-61069-364-6}}</ref>
<ref name="NOTE2">It has been called [[ethnic cleansing]]. The [[National Museum of the American Indian]] refers to the policy as [[genocide]].</ref>
<ref name="Obie">Sharon O'Brien, "Tribes and Indians: With whom does the United States maintain a relationship." Notre Dame L. Rev. 66 (1990): 1461+</ref>
<ref name="Beyond">{{cite web | url=http://www.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/notes-on-the-state-of-virginia-by-thomas-jefferson-1781-1782-2.html | title=Notes on the State of Virginia | last1=Jefferson | first1=Thomas | date=1782 | website=Revolutionary War and Beyond | access-date=July 14, 2014 | archive-date=July 17, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717012721/http://www.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/notes-on-the-state-of-virginia-by-thomas-jefferson-1781-1782-2.html | url-status=live }} Primary source.</ref>
<ref name="Letter">{{cite book | last1=Jefferson | first1=Thomas | date=1782 | chapter=Letter to Governor William H. Harrison | title=The Writings of Thomas Jefferson | page=370 | publisher=The Pennsylvania State University Libraries | chapter-url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000003038727;view=1up;seq=898 | access-date=July 14, 2014 | archive-date=February 13, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213092446/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000003038727;view=1up;seq=898 | url-status=live }} Primary source.</ref>
<ref name="NY-State">{{cite book|title=New York Supplement, New York State Reporter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw1-GhpLydoC&pg=PA191|volume=146|year=1909|publisher=West Publishing Company|location=St. Paul|page=191}}</ref>
<ref name="Region">{{cite web|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/mjdennis/courses/hist469_senecas.htm|title=Washington's Address to the Senecas, 1790|work=uoregon.edu|access-date=March 8, 2017|archive-date=January 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106234045/http://pages.uoregon.edu/mjdennis/courses/hist469_senecas.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="LawHist">{{cite book|author1=Michael Grossberg|author2=Christopher Tomlins|title=The Cambridge History of Law in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KeEi14czrnoC&pg=PA56|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=56|isbn=978-0-521-80305-2}}</ref>
<ref name="Clair&Lee">James D. St. Clair and William F. Lee. "Defense of Nonintercourse Act Claims: The Requirement of Tribal Existence." Maine Law Review 31. no. 1 (1979): 91+</ref>
<ref name="Pres">{{Cite web|title=President Jefferson and the Indian Nations|url=https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/origins-of-the-expedition/jefferson-and-american-indians/president-jefferson-and-the-indian-nations/|access-date=July 13, 2020|website=Monticello|language=en|archive-date=September 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923051154/https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/origins-of-the-expedition/jefferson-and-american-indians/president-jefferson-and-the-indian-nations/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Vol19">{{cite book|author=Edward S. Curtis|title=The North American Indian. Volume 19 – The Indians of Oklahoma. The Wichita. The southern Cheyenne. The Oto. The Comanche. The Peyote cult.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bi2JjHOUFNkC&pg=PA21|year=1930|publisher=Edward S. Curtis|isbn=978-0-7426-9819-2|page=21}}</ref>
<ref name="BeyondRem">{{Cite journal|last=John P. Bowes|date=2014|title=American Indian Removal beyond the Removal Act|journal=Wíčazo Ša Review|volume=1|issue=1|pages=65|doi=10.5749/natiindistudj.1.1.0065|issn=0749-6427}}</ref>
<ref name="NOTE1">Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844 to 1849; Foreman, pp. 103–104.</ref>
<ref name="Rem272">Remini 2001, p. 272.</ref>
<ref name="FPPrucha">{{cite journal | author = Prucha, Francis Paul | year = 1969 | title = Andrew Jackson's Indian Policy: A Reassessment | journal = Journal of American History | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 527–539 | jstor = 1904204 | doi = 10.2307/1904204}}</ref>
</references>

==Further reading==
* Black, Jason Edward (2006). [http://hdl.handle.net/1903/3784 ''US Governmental and Native Voices in the Nineteenth Century: Rhetoric in the Removal and Allotment of American Indians''.] (PhD dissertation), College Park, MD: University of Maryland. See, for instance, the bibliography on pp.&nbsp;571–615.
* [[John Ehle|Ehle, John]] (1988). ''Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation''. New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]. {{ISBN|038523953X}}.
* [[Gloria Jahoda|Jahoda, Gloria]] (1975). ''The Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removals 1813–1855''. New York: [[Holt, Rinehart and Winston]]. {{ISBN|0-03-014871-5}}.
* {{cite journal|title=The Indian's Cause|last=Joy|first=Natalie|journal=Journal of the Civil War Era|volume=8|number=2|year=2018|pages=215–242|doi=10.1353/cwe.2018.0026|jstor=26478057|s2cid=165404949|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2647805|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite book|edition=First|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-60985-1|last=Saunt|first=Claudio|author-link=Claudio Saunt|title=Unworthy republic: the dispossession of Native Americans and the road to Indian territory|location=New York|date=2020}}
* {{cite journal|last=Strickland|first=William M.|title=The Rhetoric of Removal and the Trail of Tears: Cherokee Speaking Against Jackson's Indian Removal Policy, 1828–1832|journal=Southern Speech Communication Journal|year=1982|volume=47|number=3|pages=292–309|doi=10.1080/10417948209372535|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10417948209372535|access-date=July 22, 2017|archive-date=July 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727201001/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10417948209372535|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal|last=Young|first=Maryland E.|title=Indian Removal and Land Allotment: The Civilized Tribes and Jacksonian Justice|journal=[[American Historical Review]]|volume=64|number=1|year=1958|pages=31–45|doi=10.2307/1844855|jstor=1844855|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844855|access-date=March 19, 2021|archive-date=July 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703040507/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844855|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

===Primary sources===
* Martinez, Donna, ed. ''Documents of American Indian Removal'' (2018) [https://www.amazon.com/Documents-American-Removal-Eyewitness-History/dp/144085419X/ excerpt]

==External links==
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html PBS article on Indian Removal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418182301/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html|date=April 18, 2010}}
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210083504/http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm|date=December 10, 2010}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120413104654/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=638 Indian Removal from ''Digital History'' by S. Mintz]

{{Indian Removal}}
{{Genocide topics}}
{{Indigenous rights footer}}
{{US history}}
{{Native American topics}}
{{Andrew Jackson}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Removal}}
[[Category:19th-century colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:Aboriginal title in the United States]]
[[Category:Trail of Tears]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in the United States]]
[[Category:Forced migrations of Native Americans in the United States]]
[[Category:Historical migrations]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
[[Category:Indian Territory]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:Native American genocide]]
[[Category:United States federal Indian policy]]
[[Category:Andrew Jackson administration controversies]]
[[Category:Martin Van Buren Administration controversies]]