View source for Indus River

{{Short description| River in Asia}}
{{For|other rivers named Indus|Indus (disambiguation)#Rivers}}
{{Redirect-multi|3|Indus Valley|Indus|Sindhu|the Bronze Age civilisation|Indus Valley Civilisation||Indus (disambiguation)|and|Sindhu (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Indus
| name_other = Mehran, Sênggê Zangbo, Shiquan He, Sindhu<ref name=britannica-11-24-Indus-name-lead>{{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Lodrick| first1 = Deryck| last2 =Ahmad|first2 = Nafis| author-link = | title = Indus River | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River | access-date = November 25, 2024| date = November 12, 2024|  publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>
| image = Nanga Parbat Indus Gorge.jpg
| image_size = 240px
| image_caption = The [[Indus Gorge]] is formed as the Indus River bends around the [[Nanga Parbat]] massif, shown towering behind, defining the western anchor of the [[Himalaya]]n mountain range.
| map = Course and major tributaries of the Indus.jpg
| map_caption = Course and major tributaries of the Indus
| subdivision_type1 = Countries or regions
| subdivision_name1 = [[China]], [[Kashmir]] (disputed region),<!-- Please don't edit anything here in countries or regions parameter as this is well established per WP:CONSENSUS, consider starting discussion at the talkpage  --><ref name=indus-britannica-quote>{{cite web|title=Indus River|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=8 March 2025 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|quote=For about 200 miles (320 km) it flows northwest, crossing the southeastern boundary of the disputed Kashmir region at about 15,000 feet (4,600 meters). A short way beyond Leh, in the Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh, it is joined on its left by its first major tributary, the Zanskar River. Continuing for 150 miles (240 km) in the same direction into the Pakistani-administered areas of the Kashmir region, the Indus is joined by its notable tributary the Shyok River on the right bank. Below its confluence with the Shyok, as far as the Kohistan region of Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, it is fed by mighty glaciers}}</ref><ref name=tertiary-kashmir>
(a) {{citation|title=Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|accessdate=15 August 2019|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a territory called the Northern Areas.  Administered by India are the southern and southeastern portions, which constitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir but are slated to be split into two union territories.";<br/> (b) {{citation|last1=Pletcher|first1=Kenneth|title=Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin|accessdate=16 August 2019|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402090308/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin|url-status=live}} (subscription required) Quote: "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, at the northernmost extent of the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia. It constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir state."; <br/> (c) {{citation|chapter=Kashmir|title=Encyclopedia Americana|publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6|page=328|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117135716/https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|url-status=live}} C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947"; <br/> (d) {{citation|last1=Osmańczyk|first1=Edmund Jan|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5|pages=1191–|access-date=12 June 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|url-status=live}} Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China." <br/>(e) {{citation|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNg_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28|year=2016|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19694-8|pages=28–29}} Quote: "We move from a disputed international border to a dotted line on the map that represents a military border not recognized in international law. The line of control separates the Indian and Pakistani administered areas of the former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir.";  <br/> (f) {{citation|last=Skutsch|first=Carl|editor-last=Ciment|editor-first=James|title=Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II|edition=2nd|year=2015|orig-year=2007|isbn=978-0-7656-8005-1|chapter=China: Border War with India, 1962|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|page=573|quote=The situation between the two nations was complicated by the 1957–1959 uprising by Tibetans against Chinese rule.  Refugees poured across the Indian border, and the Indian public was outraged.  Any compromise with China on the border issue became impossible.  Similarly, China was offended that India had given political asylum to the Dalai Lama when he fled across the border in March 1959.  In late 1959, there were shots fired between border patrols operating along both the ill-defined McMahon Line and in the Aksai Chin.}}<br/> (g) {{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA166|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2|page=166}} Quote: "Kashmir's identity remains hotly disputed with a UN-supervised "Line of Control" still separating Pakistani-held Azad ("Free") Kashmir from Indian-held Kashmir.";</ref> [[Pakistan]]
| subdivision_type2 = States, provinces or administered regions
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], Indian-administered [[Ladakh]], Pakistani-administered [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], and [[Sindh]]<ref name=indus-britannica-quote/><ref name=tertiary-kashmir/>
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = [[Leh]], [[Kargil]], [[Skardu]], [[Dasu]], [[Besham]], [[Thakot]], [[Swabi]], [[Mianwali]], [[Dera Ismail Khan]], [[Bhakkar]], [[Sukkur]], [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]], [[Karachi]]
| length = {{cvt|3,180|km|mi}}<ref name="International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development">{{cite book |veditors=Shrestha AB, Agrawal NK, Alfthan B, Bajracharya SR, Maréchal J, van Oort B |title=The Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in Five of Asia's Major River Basins |publisher=International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development |isbn=978-92-9115-357-2 |url=https://lib.icimod.org/record/31180 |page=58 |access-date=21 September 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817085543/https://lib.icimod.org/record/31180 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| discharge1_location = [[Indus Delta]]
| discharge1_min = {{cvt|1,200|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| discharge1_avg = {{cvt|5,533|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312752687 |title=Critical Evaluation and Assessment of Average Annual Precipitation in The Indus, The Ganges and The Brahmaputra Basins, Northern India – Himalayan Cryospheric Observations and Modelling (HiCOM) |last1=Amir |first1=Khan |last2=Naresh |first2=Pant |last3=Anuj |first3=Goswami |last4=Ravish |first4=Lal |last5=Rajesh |first5=Joshi |date=Dec 2015 }}</ref>
| discharge1_max = {{cvt|58,000|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| discharge2_location = [[Sukkur]]
| source1 = Upper [[Gê'gyai County|Gê'gyai]]
| source1_location = [[Ngari Prefecture]]
| source1_coordinates = {{Coord|31|12|03|N|81|45|16|E|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|5,555|m|ft}}
| source2 = [[Lake Manasarovar]]<ref>{{cite journal |date=15 November 2018 |title=Spatiotemporal analysis of precipitation variability in annual, seasonal and extreme values over upper Indus River basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169809517312796 |journal=Atmospheric Research |volume=213 |pages=346–60 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.06.019 |issn=0169-8095 |last1=Ahmad |first1=Ijaz |last2=Zhang |first2=Fan |last3=Tayyab |first3=Muhammad |last4=Anjum |first4=Muhammad Naveed |last5=Zaman |first5=Muhammad |last6=Liu |first6=Junguo |last7=Farid |first7=Hafiz Umar |last8=Saddique |first8=Qaisar |bibcode=2018AtmRe.213..346A |s2cid=125980503|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
| source2_location = Ngari Prefecture
| source2_coordinates = {{Coord|30|35|35|N|81|25|25|E|display=inline}}
| source2_elevation = {{cvt|4,600|m|ft}}
| source_confluence_location = [[Shiquanhe]] (confluence), Tibet Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China
| source_confluence_coordinates = {{Coord|32|29|54|N|79|41|28|E|display=inline}}
| source_confluence_elevation = {{cvt|4,255|m|ft}}
| mouth = [[Arabian Sea]]<ref name=britannica-11-24-Indus-delta-lead>{{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Lodrick| first1 = Deryck| last2 =Ahmad|first2 = Nafis| author-link = | title = Indus River | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River | access-date = November 25, 2024| date = November 12, 2024| publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica| quote =Near Tatta the Indus branches into distributaries that form a delta and join the sea at various points south-southeast of Karachi. The delta covers an area of 3,000 square miles (7,800 square km) or more (and extends along the coast for about 130 miles (210 km). The uneven surface of the delta contains a network of existing and abandoned channels. The coastal strip, from about 5 to 20 miles (8 to 32 km) inland, is flooded by high tides. The Indus delta has elongated protruding distributaries and low sandy beaches.}}</ref>
| mouth_location = {{ubl
 | [[Indus River Delta]], Pakistan<ref name=britannica-11-24-Indus-delta-lead/>
}}
| mouth_coordinates = {{Coord|23|59|42|N|67|26|06|E|type:_river|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{cvt|0|m|ft}}
| progression = [[Arabian Sea]]
| river_system = [[Indus River]]
| basin_size = {{cvt|1,120,000|km2|mi2}}<ref name="International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development"/>
| tributaries_left = [[Zanskar River|Zanskar]], [[Suru River (Indus)|Suru]], [[Soan River|Soan]], [[Panjnad River|Panjnad]], [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar]]
| tributaries_right = [[Shyok River|Shyok]], [[Hunza River|Hunza]], [[Gilgit River|Gilgit]], [[Swat River|Swat]], [[Kunar River|Kunar]], [[Kabul River|Kabul]], [[Kurram River|Kurram]], [[Gomal River|Gomal]], [[Zhob River|Zhob]]
| mapframe          = yes
| mapframe-zoom     = 4
| mapframe-wikidata = yes
| mapframe-point    = none
| discharge3_location = [[Mithankot]]
| discharge3_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|5,812.3|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Indus">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=58&catid=220&Itemid=179|title=Indus}}</ref>
| discharge4_location = [[Tarbela Dam]]
| discharge4_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|2,469|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Indus">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=58&catid=220&Itemid=179|title=Indus}}</ref>
| discharge2_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|5,673.5|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Indus">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=58&catid=220&Itemid=179|title=Indus}}</ref>
| native_name = 
}}

The '''Indus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|n|d|ə|s}} {{respell|IN|dəs}}) is a [[transboundary river]] of Asia and a trans-[[Himalayas|Himalayan]] river of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Richardson |first1=Hugh E. |last2=Wylie |first2=Turrell V. |last3=Falkenheim |first3=Victor C. |last4=Shakabpa |first4=Tsepon W. D. |title=Tibet |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |date=3 March 2020 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tibet |access-date=9 August 2021 |quote=historic region and autonomous region of China that is often called "the roof of the world." It occupies a vast area of plateaus and mountains in Central Asia |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814152626/https://www.britannica.com/place/Tibet |url-status=live }}</ref> The {{cvt|3,180|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development"/> river rises in western [[China]], flows northwest through the disputed<ref name=indus-britannica-quote/> [[Kashmir]] region,<ref name=tertiary-kashmir/> first through the Indian-administered [[Ladakh]], and then the Pakistani-administered [[Gilgit-Baltistan]],{{efn|For about 200 miles (320 km) it flows northwest, crossing the southeastern boundary of the disputed Kashmir region at about 15,000 feet (4,600 meters). A short way beyond Leh, in the Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh, it is joined on its left by its first major tributary, the Zanskar River. Continuing for 150 miles (240 km) in the same direction into the Pakistani-administered areas of the Kashmir region, the Indus is joined by its notable tributary the Shyok River on the right bank.<ref name=indus-britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Indus River|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=8 March 2025 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River}}</ref>}}<ref name="Kashmir">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=16 July 2016 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |archive-date=13 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |url-status=live }} Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."</ref> bends sharply to the left after the [[Nanga Parbat]] [[massif]], and flows south-by-southwest through [[Pakistan]], before [[river bifurcation|bifurcating]] and emptying into the [[Arabian Sea]], its [[main stem]] located near the port city of [[Karachi]].<ref name="Ahmad-2019">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ahmad |first1=Nafis |last2=Lodrick |first2=Deryck |title=Indus River |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |date=6 February 2019 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507163743/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= |last= |title=Natural Wonders of the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |year=2017 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]]/[[DK (publisher)|DK]] & [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]] |isbn=978-1-4654-9492-4 |pages=240 |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817085743/https://books.google.com/books?id=abqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Indus River has a total [[drainage area]] of circa {{cvt|1,120,000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development"/> Its estimated annual flow is around {{cvt|175|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}, making it one of the 50 largest rivers in the world [[List of rivers by discharge|in terms of average annual flow]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.wapda.gov.pk/index.php/river-flow-in-pakistan |title=Indus water flow data in to reservoirs of Pakistan |access-date=15 August 2017 |archive-date=6 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806005852/http://www.wapda.gov.pk/index.php/river-flow-in-pakistan }}</ref> Its left-bank [[tributary]] in Ladakh is the [[Zanskar River]], and its left-bank tributary in the [[Punjab Plain|plains]] is the [[Panjnad River]] which is formed by the successive confluences of the five Punjab rivers, namely the [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]] rivers. Its principal right-bank tributaries are the [[Shyok River|Shyok]], [[Gilgit River|Gilgit]], [[Kabul River|Kabul]], [[Kurram River|Kurram]], and [[Gomal River|Gomal]] rivers. Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with [[glacier]]s and rivers in the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]], [[Karakoram]], and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges, the river supports the [[ecosystem]]s of [[temperate forest]]s, plains, and [[arid]] countryside.

Geologically, the [[headwaters]] of the Indus and to their east those of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo]] (later in its course, the [[Brahmaputra]]) flow along the [[Indus-Yarlung suture zone]], which defines the boundary along which the [[Indian plate]] collided with the [[Eurasian plate]] in the [[Ypresian|Early Eocene]] (approximately 50 [[Million years ago]]).{{sfn|Frisch|Meschede|Blakey|2011|p=172}} These two Eurasian rivers, whose courses were continually diverted by the rising Himalayas, define the western and eastern limits, respectively, of the mountain range.{{sfn|Frisch|Meschede|Blakey|2011|p=172}}   After the Indus [[debouche]]s from its narrow Himalayan valley, it forms, along with its tributaries, the [[Punjab]] region of South Asia. The lower course of the river ends in [[Indus River Delta|a large delta]] in the [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan.  

Historically, the Indus was important to many cultures. The 3rd millennium BC saw the rise of [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], a major urban civilization of the Bronze Age. During the 2nd millennium BC, the Punjab region was mentioned in the [[Rigveda]] hymns as ''Sapta Sindhu'' and in the [[Avesta]] religious texts as ''Hapta Həndu'' (both terms meaning "[[Rigvedic rivers|seven rivers]]"). Early historical kingdoms that arose in the Indus Valley include [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]] and [[Sindhu-Sauvīra]]. The Indus River came into the knowledge of the Western world early in the [[classical antiquity|classical period]], when [[Darius the Great|King Darius]] of [[Persia]] sent his Greek subject [[Scylax of Caryanda]] to explore the river, {{Circa|515&nbsp;BC}}.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Allchin | first1=F.R. | last2=Erdosy | first2=G. | title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-521-37695-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA292 | page=292}}</ref>

== Etymology and names ==
Etymologically, [[English language]] word "Indus" comes from [[Late Latin]] Indus (1598), specifically a use of classical Latin ''Indus'' (inhabitant of India, Indian) from [[ancient Greek]] Ἰνδός "inhabitant of India, Indian, the River Indus" from [[Achaemenian]] [[Old Persian]] "hindu," denoting an eastern province of the [[Achaemenid empire]] ([[Persian language]] ''hind'' India), and [[Avestan]] ''hiṇdu'', ''həṇdu'' "river," (natural) frontier; with same [[Proto Indo-Iranian language]]-root as [[Sanskrit]] sindhu (river), specifically the River Indus; hence also the region of the Indus, the province Sindh (which also developed into [[Hellenistic Greek]] Σίνθος ("the River Indus").<ref name=oed-indus-1598>{{cite OED|Indus|7247270110}}</ref><ref name=oed-India>{{cite OED|India|3183874375}}</ref> This river's traditional name in [[Sanskrit]] and Tibetan is "sindhu". In Sanskrit, its range of meanings includes: stream, river; Indus; flood; sea or ocean; region or country in the vicinity of the Indus, Sindh, people of Sindh."<ref name=macdonell-sindhu>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Macdonell|first= Arthur Anthony|author-link= |encyclopedia= A practical Sanskrit dictionary|title=  सिन्धु sindhu |url= https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/sanskrit_query.py?qs=sindhu&matchtype=default|access-date=November 24, 2024 |year=2020|orig-year=1929 |publisher= Oxford University Press |quote= m. f. [moving to a goal: √2. sidh] stream, river; Indus; m. flood (V.); ocean; region of the Indus, Sindh, people of Sindh }}</ref><ref name=apte-sindu>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Apte|first= Vaman Shivaram|author-link= |encyclopedia= A practical Sanskrit dictionary|title=  सिन्धुः sindhuḥ |url= https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/sanskrit_query.py?qs=sindhu&matchtype=default|access-date=November 24, 2024|year=2023|orig-year=1959 |publisher= Prasad Prakashan|location=Poona |quote=1 The sea, ocean; 2 The Indus. 3 The country around the Indus.}}</ref>

The modern name in [[Urdu]] is ''Sindh'' ({{Langx|ur|{{unq|سندھ}}}}) or ''Daryā-i-Sindh'' ({{Langx|ur|{{unq|دریائے سندھ}}|4=The River Sindh}}), contrasting to the [[Province of Sindh]] ({{langx|ur|{{unq|صوبہِ سندھ}}|translit=Sūba-i-sindh}}). The [[Ladakhis]] and [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] call the river ''Senge Tsangpo'' (སེང་གེ་གཙང་པོ།), [[Balti people|Baltis]] call it ''Gemtsuh'' and ''Tsuh-Fo'', [[Pashtuns]] call it ''Nilab'', ''Sher Darya'' and ''Abbasin'', while [[Sindhis]] call it ''Sindhu'', ''Mehran'', ''Purali'' and ''Samundar''.<ref name="Ahmad-2019"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Albinia |first1=Alice |author-link=Alice Albinia |title=The guardian first book award longlist: Empires of the Indus by Alice Albinia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/aug/28/guardianfirstbookaward.awardsandprizes1 |access-date=19 May 2022 |work=the Guardian |date=28 August 2008 |language=en }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:The Indus river in the Kashmir region.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The course of the Indus in the disputed [[Kashmir|Kashmir region]]; the river flows through [[Ladakh]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], administered respectively by India and Pakistan]]

The Indus River provides key water resources for [[economy of Pakistan|Pakistan's economy]] – especially the ''breadbasket'' of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab province]], which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "land of five rivers" and the five rivers are [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]] and [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]], all of which finally flow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of [[potable water]] in Pakistan.

The total length of the river varies in different sources. The length used in this article is {{cvt|3,180|km|mi|abbr=on}}, taken from the ''Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas'' (2015).<ref name="International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development"/> Historically, the 1909 ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]'' gave it as "just over 1,800 miles".<ref>{{cite book |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1909 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=357 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=13&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V13_363.gif |volume=13 |access-date=21 September 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817085545/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=13&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V13_363.gif |url-status=live }}</ref> A shorter figure of {{cvt|2,880|km|mi}} has been widely used in modern sources, as has the one of {{cvt|3,180|km|mi}}. The modern ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' was originally published in 1999 with the shorter measurement, but was updated in 2015 to use the longer measurement.<ref name="Ahmad-2019"/> Both lengths are commonly found in modern publications; in some cases, both measurements can be found within the same work.<ref>For example, {{cite book |title=The Indus River: biodiversity, resources, humankind |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Karachi |isbn=0195779053}} Papers in this edited collection generally use the shorter measurement, but at least two use the longer one.</ref> An extended figure of circa {{cvt|3,600|km|mi}} was announced by a Chinese research group in 2011, based on a comprehensive remeasurement from satellite imagery, and a ground expedition to identify an alternative source point, but detailed analysis has not yet been published.<ref name="Dawn-2011">{{cite news |title=Earthly matters: Origins of the Indus |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/656472/earthly-matters-origins-of-the-indus |work=Dawn |date=4 September 2011 |language=en |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817085747/https://www.dawn.com/news/656472/earthly-matters-origins-of-the-indus |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ultimate source of the Indus is in [[Tibet]], but there is some debate about the exact source. The traditional source of the river is the ''Sênggê Kanbab'' ([[Sênggê Zangbo]]) or "Lion's Mouth", a perennial spring not far from the sacred [[Mount Kailash]], marked by a long low line of Tibetan [[chortens]]. There are several other tributaries nearby, which may form a longer stream than Sênggê Kanbab, but unlike the Sênggê Kanbab, are all dependent on [[snowmelt]]. The [[Zanskar River]], which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.<ref>Albinia (2008), p. 307.</ref> An alternative reckoning begins the river around 300&nbsp;km further upstream, at the [[confluence]] of the ''Sênggê'' Zangbo and [[Gar Tsangpo]] rivers, which drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailash) mountain ranges. The 2011 remeasurement suggested the source was a small lake northeast of Mount Kailash, rather than either of the two points previously used.<ref name="Dawn-2011"/>

The Indus then flows northwest through [[Ladakh]] (Indian-administered Kashmir) and [[Baltistan]] and [[Gilgit]] (Pakistan-administered Kashmir), just south of the [[Karakoram]] range. The [[Shyok River|Shyok]], [[Shigar]] and [[Gilgit River|Gilgit]] rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south and descends into the Punjab plains at [[Kalabagh]], Pakistan. The Indus passes gigantic gorges {{convert|4500|-|5200|m|ft|sigfig=2}} deep near the [[Nanga Parbat]] [[massif]]. It flows swiftly across [[Hazara region|Hazara]] and is dammed at the [[Tarbela Dam|Tarbela Reservoir]]. The [[Kabul River]] joins it near [[Attock]]. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Indus |volume=14 |pages=507–508 |first=Thomas Hungerford |last=Holdich }}</ref> and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by the [[Panjnad River|Panjnad]] at [[Mithankot]]. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the ''Satnad River'' (''sat'' = "seven", ''nadī'' = "river"), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. When the river passes [[Jamshoro]], it ends in a large delta to the South of [[Thatta]] in the [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan.

The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit a [[tidal bore]]. The Indus system is largely fed by the snow and glaciers of the [[Himalayas]], Karakoram and the [[Hindu Kush]] ranges. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons – it diminishes greatly in the winter while flooding its banks in the [[monsoon]] months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times – it deviated westwards from flowing into the [[Rann of Kutch]] and adjoining [[Banni grasslands]] after the 1816 earthquake.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/70-of-cattle-breeders-desert-Banni/articleshow/904446.cms 70% of cattle-breeders desert Banni] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403141239/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/70-of-cattle-breeders-desert-Banni/articleshow/904446.cms |date=3 April 2019 }}; by Narandas Thacker, TNN, 14 February 2002; ''The Times of India''</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.india-seminar.com/2006/564/564_c_bharwada_%26_v_mahajan.htm |title=564 Charul Bharwada & Vinay Mahajan, Lost and forgotten: grasslands and pastoralists of Gujarat |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101171959/https://www.india-seminar.com/2006/564/564_c_bharwada_%26_v_mahajan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> {{as of|2011}}, Indus water flows in to the Rann of Kutch during its floods breaching [[flood bank]]s.<ref name="Indus re">{{cite web |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/indus-river-re-enters-india/1/158976.html |title=Indus re-enters India after two centuries, feeds Little Rann, Nal Sarovar |date=7 November 2011 |access-date=22 December 2017 |archive-date=9 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109090722/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/indus-river-re-enters-india/1/158976.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==History==
[[File:IVC-major-sites-2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization {{Circa|2600}}–1900 BC in Pakistan, India and Afghanistan]]
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation|History of Sindh}}
The major cities of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], such as [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], date back to around 3300&nbsp;BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan to [[Northwest India (pre-1947)|Pakistan and northwest India]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Daily Life in the Indus Valley Civilization |page=6 |first=Brian |last=Williams |publisher=Raintree |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArReCgAAQBAJ |year=2016 |isbn=978-1406298574 }}</ref> with an upward reach from east of the [[Jhelum River]] to [[Ropar]] on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from [[Sutkagan Dor]] at the Pakistan-[[Iran]] border to [[Kutch]] in modern [[Gujarat]], India. There is an Indus site on the [[Amu Darya]] at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site [[Alamgirpur]] at the [[Hindon River]] is located only {{cvt|28|km|0}} from Delhi. As of now, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]] and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as [[Lothal]], [[Dholavira]], [[Ganeriwala]], and [[Rakhigarhi]]. Only 40 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malik |first=Dr Malti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMg-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |title=History of India |date=1943 |publisher=New Saraswati House India Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-81-7335-498-4 |page=12 |language=en |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703061640/https://books.google.com/books?id=bMg-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, it is notable that majority of the [[Indus script|Indus script seals and inscribed objects]] discovered were found at sites along the Indus river.{{efn|Number of Indus script inscribed objects and seals obtained from various Harappan sites: 1540 from Mohanjodaro, 985 from Harappa, 66 from Chanhudaro, 165 from Lothal, 99 from Kalibangan, 7 from Banawali, 6 from Ur in Iraq, 5 from Surkotada, 4 from Chandigarh}}<ref>[[Iravatham Mahadevan]], 1977, [https://archive.org/details/masi77indusscripttextsconcordancestablesiravathammahadevanalt_443_h ''The Indus Script: Text, Concordance and Tables''], pp. 6–7</ref><ref>[[Upinder Singh]], 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA169 ''A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142938/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&lpg=PA211&pg=PA169 |date=29 November 2022 }}, p. 169</ref>

Most scholars believe that settlements of [[Gandhara grave culture]] of the early [[Indo-Aryans]] flourished in [[Gandhara]] from 1700&nbsp;BC to 600&nbsp;BC, when [[Mohenjo-daro]] and Harappa had already been abandoned.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

The [[Rigveda]] describes [[Rigvedic rivers|several rivers]], including one named "Sindhu". The Rigvedic "Sindhu" is thought to be the present-day Indus River. It is attested 176 times in its text, 94 times in the plural, and most often used in the generic sense of "river". In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus River in particular; for example, in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn of ''[[Nadistuti sukta]]''. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, except for the [[Brahmaputra]].

The word [[Etymology of India|"India"]] is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, where are [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] now but by 300&nbsp;BC, Greek writers including [[Herodotus]] and [[Megasthenes]] were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.<ref>[[Henry Yule]]: [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:191.hobson ''India, Indies''] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20120628235414/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:191.hobson |date=28 June 2012 }}. In ''[[Hobson-Jobson]]: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive.'' New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://scroll.in/article/723351/was-the-ramayana-actually-set-in-and-around-todays-afghanistan |title=Was the Ramayana actually set in and around today's Afghanistan? |date=26 April 2015 |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106083141/https://scroll.in/article/723351/was-the-ramayana-actually-set-in-and-around-todays-afghanistan |url-status=live }}</ref>

The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary between the [[Iranian Plateau]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]]; this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] and the countries Afghanistan and India. The first West Eurasian empire to annex the Indus Valley was the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], during the reign of [[Darius the Great]]. During his reign, the Greek explorer [[Scylax of Caryanda]] was commissioned to explore the course of the Indus. It was crossed by the invading armies of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. Still, after his [[Macedon]]ians conquered the west bank—joining it to the [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] world, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the river, ending Alexander's Asian campaign. Alexander's admiral [[Nearchus]] set out from the Indus Delta to explore the [[Persian Gulf]], until reaching the [[Tigris]]. The Indus Valley was later dominated by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] and [[Kushan Empire]]s, [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]s, [[Indo-Scythians]] and [[Huna people|Hepthalites]]. Over several centuries [[Muslim]] armies of [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]], [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], [[Muhammad of Ghor]], [[Timur]] and [[Babur]] crossed the river to invade Sindh and [[Punjab]], providing a gateway to the Indian subcontinent.

==Geology==
[[File:Indus Nanga Parbat Himalayas from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.webm|right|thumb|280px|The Indus River in the foreground and the [[Nanga Parbat]] peak, the western [[Syntaxis (geology)|syntaxis]] of the Himalayas, far in the background, a little faint but towering well above the cloud layer{{efn|as seen from a plane approximately above the historic [[Sawal Dher]] village, in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], Pakistan}}]]
[[File:Indus river near Leh.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|Indus River near [[Leh]], [[Ladakh]]]]
The Indus River is an [[Antecedent drainage stream|antecedent river]], meaning that it existed before the Himalayas and [[Entrenched river|entrenched itself]] while they were rising.

The Indus River feeds the Indus [[submarine fan]], which is the second largest sediment body on Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Clift P, Gaedicke C, Edwards R, Lee JI, Hildebrand P, Amjad S, White RS, Schlüter HU |title=The stratigraphic evolution of the Indus Fan and the history of sedimentation in the Arabian Sea |year=2002 |journal=Marine Geophysical Researches |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=223–245 |doi=10.1023/A:1023627123093 |bibcode=2002MarGR..23..223C |s2cid=129735252 }}</ref> It consists of around 5 million cubic kilometers of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the [[Karakoram|Karakoram Mountains]] in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that before five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these [[Punjab region|Punjab]] rivers which instead flowed east into the [[Ganges|Ganga]] and were captured after that time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clift |first=Peter D. |author2=Blusztajn, Jerzy |date=15 December 2005 |title=Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after five million years ago |journal=Nature |volume=438 |pages=1001–1003 |doi=10.1038/nature04379 |pmid=16355221 |issue=7070 |bibcode=2005Natur.438.1001C |s2cid=4427250 }}</ref> Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clift |first=Peter D. |author2=Shimizu, N. |author3=Layne, G.D. |author4=Blusztajn, J.S. |author5=Gaedicke, C. |author6=Schlüter, H.-U. |author7=Clark, M.K. |author8=Amjad, S. |author7-link=Marin Clark |date=August 2001 |title=Development of the Indus Fan and its significance for the erosional history of the Western Himalaya and Karakoram |journal=GSA Bulletin |volume=113 |issue=8 |pages=1039–1051 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1039:DOTIFA>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=2001GSAB..113.1039C }}</ref> The delta of this proto-Indus River has subsequently been found in the [[Katawaz Basin]], on the [[Durand Line|Afghan-Pakistan border]].

In the [[Nanga Parbat]] region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus River following the capture and rerouting through that area are thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zeitler |first=Peter K. |author2=Koons, Peter O. |author3=Bishop, Michael P. |author4=Chamberlain, C. Page |author5=Craw, David |author6=Edwards, Michael A. |author7=Hamidullah, Syed |author8=Jam, Qasim M. |author9=Kahn, M. Asif|author10= Khattak, M. Umar Khan |author11=Kidd, William S. F. |author12=Mackie, Randall L. |author13=Meltzer, Anne S. |author14=Park, Stephen K. |author15=Pecher, Arnaud |author16=Poage, Michael A. |author17=Sarker, Golam |author18=Schneider, David A. |author19=Seeber, Leonardo|author20= Shroder, John F. |date=October 2001 |title=Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion |journal=Tectonics |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=712–728 |doi=10.1029/2000TC001243 |bibcode=2001Tecto..20..712Z |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In November 2011, satellite images showed that the Indus River had re-entered India and was feeding the [[Great Rann of Kutch]], [[Little Rann of Kutch]] and a lake near [[Ahmedabad]] known as [[Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary|Nal Sarovar]].<ref name="Indus re"/> Heavy rains had left the river basin along with the [[Lake Manchar]], Lake Hemal and [[Keenjhar Lake|Kalri Lake]] (all in modern-day Pakistan) inundated. This happened two centuries after the Indus River shifted its course westwards following the [[1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake]].

The [[Induan]] Age at the start of the [[Triassic]] Period of geological time is named for the Indus region.

===Tributaries===
{{Div col|colwidth=10em}}
* [[Gar Tsangpo|Gar River]]
* [[Gilgit River]]
* [[Gomal River]]
* [[Haro River]]
* [[Hunza River]]
* [[Kabul River]]
* [[Kunar River]]
* [[Kurram River]]
* [[Panjnad River]]
** [[Chenab River]]
*** [[Jhelum River]]
*** [[Ravi River]]
** [[Satluj River]]
*** [[Beas River]]
* [[Shyok River]]
* [[Soan River]]
* [[Dras River]] (or [[Shingo River]])
* [[Swat River]]
* [[Zanskar River]]
* [[Luni River]]
* [[Zhob River]]
{{div end}}

{{wide image|Indus river basin without boundaries of disputed regions.png|400px|Indus River basin}}
==Wildlife==
[[File:Fishermen on the Indus.jpeg|upright=1.25|thumb|Fishermen on the Indus River, c. 1905]]
Accounts of the Indus Valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region. The Mughal Emperor [[Babur]] writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the [[Baburnama]]). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the [[Shivalik Hills]] has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus Valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to [[irrigation]] works. The Indus River and its watershed have a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species.<ref name="World' top 10 rivers at risk">{{cite web |title=Indus River |url=http://www.unwater.org/downloads/worldstop10riversatriskfinalmarch13_1.pdf |work=World' top 10 rivers at risk |publisher=WWF |access-date=11 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004084045/http://www.unwater.org/downloads/worldstop10riversatriskfinalmarch13_1.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2012 }}</ref>

===Mammals===
The [[Indus River dolphin]] (''Platanista indicus minor'') is found only in the Indus River. It is a subspecies of the [[South Asian river dolphin]]. The Indus River dolphin formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus River. According to the [[World Wildlife Fund]] it is one of the most threatened [[cetacea]]ns with only about 1,816 still existing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indus River Dolphin {{!}} Species {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/indus-river-dolphin |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=World Wildlife Fund |language=en }}</ref> It is threatened by habitat degradation from the construction of dams and canals, entanglement in fishing gear, and industrial water pollution.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fisheries |first=NOAA |date=15 September 2022 |title=Indus River Dolphin {{!}} NOAA Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/indus-river-dolphin |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=NOAA |language=en |archive-date=26 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626085750/https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/indus-river-dolphin |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are two otter species in the Indus River basin: the [[Eurasian otter]] in the northeastern highland sections and the [[smooth-coated otter]] elsewhere in the river basin. The smooth-coated otters in the Indus River represent a subspecies found nowhere else, the Sindh otter (''Lutrogale perspicillata sindica'').<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Khan, W.A. |author2=Bhagat, H.B. |year=2010 |title=Otter Conservation in Pakistan |journal=IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull. |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=89–92 }}</ref>

===Fish===
The Indus River basin has high diversity, being the home of more than 180 freshwater fish species,<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014">{{cite journal |author1=Mirza, M.R. |author2=Mirza, Z.S. |year=2014 |title=Longitudinal Zonation in the Fish Fauna of the Indus River in Pakistan |journal=Biologia (Pakistan) |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=149–152 }}</ref> including 22 which are found nowhere else.<ref name="World' top 10 rivers at risk"/> Fish also played a major role in earlier cultures of the region, including the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation where depictions of fish were frequent. The [[Indus script]] has a commonly used fish sign, which in its various forms may simply have meant "fish", or referred to stars or gods.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sparavigna, A. |year=2008 |title=Icons and signs from the ancient Harappa |publisher=Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Torino }}</ref>

In the uppermost, highest part of the Indus River basin there are relatively few genera and species: ''[[Diptychus]]'', ''[[Ptychobarbus]]'', ''[[Schizopyge]]'', ''[[Schizopygopsis]]'' and ''[[Schizothorax]]'' snowtrout, ''[[Triplophysa]]'' loaches, and the catfish ''[[Glyptosternon]] reticulatum''.<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014"/> Going downstream these are soon joined by the golden mahseer ''[[Tor putitora]]'' (alternatively ''T. macrolepis'', although it often is regarded as a synonym of ''T. putitora'') and ''[[Schistura]]'' loaches. Downriver from around [[Thakot]], [[Tarbela]], the [[Kabul River|Kabul]]–Indus river confluence, [[Attock Khurd]] and [[Peshawar]] the diversity rises strongly, including many cyprinids (''[[Amblypharyngodon]]'', ''[[Aspidoparia]]'', ''[[Barilius]]'', ''[[Chela (fish)|Chela]]'', ''[[Cirrhinus]]'', ''[[Crossocheilus]]'', ''[[Cyprinion]]'', ''[[Danio]]'', ''[[Devario]]'', ''[[Esomus]]'', ''[[Garra]]'', ''[[Labeo]]'', ''[[Naziritor]]'', ''[[Osteobrama]]'', ''[[Pethia]]'', ''[[Puntius]]'', ''[[Rasbora]]'', ''[[Salmophasia]]'', ''[[Securicula]]'' and ''[[Systomus]]''), true loaches (''[[Botia]]'' and ''[[Lepidocephalus]]''), stone loaches (''[[Acanthocobitis]]'' and ''[[Nemacheilus]]''), ailiid catfish (''[[Clupisoma]]''), bagridae catfish (''[[Batasio]]'', ''[[Mystus]]'', ''[[Rita (fish)|Rita]]'' and ''[[Sperata]]''), airsac catfish (''[[Heteropneustes]]''), schilbid catfish (''[[Eutropiichthys]]''), silurid catfish (''[[Ompok]]'' and ''[[Wallago]]''), sisorid catfish (''[[Bagarius]]'', ''[[Gagata]]'', ''[[Glyptothorax]]'' and ''[[Sisor]]''), gouramis (''[[Trichogaster]]''), nandid leaffish (''[[Nandus]]''), snakeheads (''[[Channa]]''), spiny eel (''[[Macrognathus]]'' and ''[[Mastacembelus]]''), knifefish (''[[Notopterus]]''), glassfish (''[[Elongate glassy perchlet|Chanda]]'' and ''[[Parambassis]]''), clupeids (''[[Gudusia]]''), needlefish (''[[Xenentodon]]'') and gobies (''[[Glossogobius]]''), as well as a few [[introduced species]].<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014"/> As the altitude further declines the Indus basin becomes overall quite slow-flowing as it passes through the [[Punjab Plain]]. Major [[carp]] become common, and chameleonfish (''[[Badis (fish)|Badis]]''), mullet (''[[Sicamugil]]'') and swamp eel (''[[Monopterus]]'') appear.<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014"/> In some upland lakes and tributaries of the Punjab region snow trout and [[mahseer]] are still common, but once the Indus basin reaches its lower plain the former group is absent and the latter are rare.<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014"/> Many of the species of the middle sections of the Indus basin are also present in the lower. Notable examples of genera that are present in the lower plain but generally not elsewhere in the Indus River basin are the ''[[Aphanius]]'' pupfish, ''[[Aplocheilus]]'' killifish, [[Tenualosa ilisha|palla fish]] (''Tenualosa ilisha''), [[catla]] (''Labeo catla''), [[rohu]] (''Labeo rohita'') and ''[[Cirrhinus mrigala]]''.<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014"/> The lowermost part of the river and its delta are home to freshwater fish, but also several [[brackish]] and marine species.<ref name="Mirza, Z.S.-2014"/> This includes [[pomfret]] and [[prawn]]s. The large delta has been recognized by conservationists as an important ecological region. Here, the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels.

Palla fish (''Tenualosa ilisha'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with [[Sukkur]], [[Thatta]], and [[Kotri]] being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course. As a result, damming and irrigation have made fish farming an important economic activity.

==Economy==
[[File:Sukkur Skyline along the shores of the River Indus.jpg|thumb|400px|Skyline of [[Sukkur]] along the shores of the Indus River]]
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the [[Punjab]] and Sindh plains – it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. [[Canal|Irrigation canals]] were first built by the people of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], and later by the engineers of the [[Kushan Empire]] and the [[Mughal Empire]]. Modern irrigation was introduced by the [[British East India Company]] in 1850 – the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The [[Guddu Barrage]] is {{cvt|1350|m}} long – irrigating [[Sukkur]], [[Jacobabad]], [[Larkana]] and [[Kalat District|Kalat]]. The [[Sukkur Barrage]] serves over {{cvt|20000|km2}}.

After Pakistan came into existence, a [[Indus Waters Treaty|water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960]] guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two tributaries the [[Jhelum River]] and the [[Chenab River]] independently of upstream control by India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0003769 |title=Tarabela Dam |publisher=structurae.the cat in the hat |access-date=9 July 2007 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629115912/http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?id=s0003769 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Indus Basin Project]] consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the [[Mangla Dam]] built on the Jhelum River and the [[Tarbela Dam]] constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-286834/Indus-Basin-project |title=Indus Basin Project |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=9 July 2007 }}</ref> The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal – linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers – extending water supplies to the regions of [[Bahawalpur]] and [[Multan]]. Pakistan constructed the [[Tarbela Dam]] near [[Rawalpindi]] – standing {{convert|2743|m|sigfig=3}} long and {{convert|143|m|sigfig=2}} high, with an {{convert|80|km|adj=on|sigfig=2}} long reservoir. It supports the [[Chashma Barrage]] near Dera Ismail Khan for irrigation use and flood control and the [[Taunsa Barrage]] near [[Dera Ghazi Khan]] which also produces 100,000&nbsp;kilowatts of electricity. The [[Kotri Barrage]] near [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]] is {{convert|915|m|ft|sigfig=2}} long and provides additional water supplies for Karachi. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of [[Peshawar]], in the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton, [[sugarcane]] and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.

==People==
[[File:Mohana Community of indus river.jpg|thumb|Houseboat of a [[Mohana (community)|Mohana]] family near [[Kot Addu]]; people of the Mohana tribe live on the Indus River and related waterbodies in Sindh and southern Punjab.<ref>{{cite web |last=Caron |first=Sarah |url=https://www.visapourlimage.com/en/festival/exhibitions/les-derniers-des-mohana |work=Le Figaro Magazine |title=The Last Mohana People |access-date=19 April 2023 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419014108/https://www.visapourlimage.com/en/festival/exhibitions/les-derniers-des-mohana |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The Indus River is sacred to Hindus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kapoor |first=Subodh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__uUoaurFisC&pg=PA2945 |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Hinayana-India (Central India) |date=2002 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-81-7755-267-6 |language=en |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817090252/https://books.google.com/books?id=__uUoaurFisC&pg=PA2945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Basu |first=Baman Das |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fok0UPbkZsC&pg=PA9 |title=The Sacred books of the Hindus |date=2007 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-81-307-0533-0 |language=en |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817090125/https://books.google.com/books?id=1fok0UPbkZsC&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Sindhu Darshan Festival]] is held on every [[Guru Purnima]] on the banks of the Indus.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Corona effect: Only Sindhis allowed for Sindhu Darshan Fest |language=en |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/indore/corona-effect-only-sindhis-allowed-for-sindhu-darshan-fest |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024093711/https://www.freepressjournal.in/indore/corona-effect-only-sindhis-allowed-for-sindhu-darshan-fest |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ethnicities of the Indus Valley (Pakistan and Northwest India) have a greater amount of ANI (or West Eurasian) admixture than other South Asians, including inputs from [[Western Steppe Herders]], with evidence of more sustained and multi-layered migrations from the west.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Ajai K. |last2=Kadian |first2=Anurag |last3=Kushniarevich |first3=Alena |last4=Montinaro |first4=Francesco |last5=Mondal |first5=Mayukh |last6=Ongaro |first6=Linda |last7=Singh |first7=Manvendra |last8=Kumar |first8=Pramod |last9=Rai |first9=Niraj|last10=Parik|first10=Jüri |last11=Metspalu |first11=Ene |date=6 December 2018 |title=The Genetic Ancestry of Modern Indus Valley Populations from Northwest India |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=918–929 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.10.022 |pmid=30526867 |issn=0002-9297 |doi-access=free |pmc=6288199 }}</ref>

==Modern issues==
===Indus delta===
{{Main|Indus River Delta}}
Originally, the delta used to receive almost all of the water from the Indus River, which has an annual flow of approximately {{convert|180|e9m3|e9yd3}}, and is accompanied by {{convert|400|e6tonnes|e6LT}} of silt.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indus Delta, Pakistan: economic costs of reduction in freshwater flow |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy05indus.pdf |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] |date=May 2003 |access-date=9 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116084702/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy05indus.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2011 }}</ref> Since the 1940s, dams, barrages and irrigation works have been constructed on the river. The Indus Basin Irrigation System is the "largest contiguous irrigation system developed over the past 140 years" anywhere in the world.<ref>{{cite web |author=Sarfraz Khan Quresh |title=Water, Growth and Poverty in Pakistan |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2010/02/01/000333037_20100201014523/Rendered/PDF/529140WP0Box341University0Press2006.pdf |publisher=[[World Bank]] |date=March 2005 |access-date=9 July 2018 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224449/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2010/02/01/000333037_20100201014523/Rendered/PDF/529140WP0Box341University0Press2006.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> This has reduced the flow of water and by 2018, the average annual flow of water below the [[Kotri barrage]] was {{convert|33|e9m3|e9yd3}},<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan's water economy: getting the balance right |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1767800/6-pakistans-water-economy-getting-balance-right/ |date=July 2018 |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=28 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728190855/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1767800/6-pakistans-water-economy-getting-balance-right/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and annual amount of silt discharged was estimated at {{convert|100|e6tonnes|e6LT}}.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} As a result, the [[2010 Pakistan floods]] were considered "good news" for the ecosystem and population of the river delta as they brought much-needed fresh water.<ref>{{cite news |first=Declan |last=Walsh |title=Pakistan floods: The Indus delta |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2010/oct/11/pakistan-floods-indus-river-delta-video |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 October 2010 |access-date=9 July 2018 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817090053/https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2010/oct/11/pakistan-floods-indus-river-delta-video |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Declan |last=Walsh |title=Pakistan's floodwaters welcomed along Indus delta |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/05/pakistan-flood-waters-indus-delta |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=5 October 2010 |access-date=9 July 2018 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817091105/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/05/pakistan-flood-waters-indus-delta |url-status=live }}</ref> Any further utilization of the river basin water is not economically feasible.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237403006 |title=River basin development phases and implications of closure |last1=Keller |first1=Jack |last2=Keller |first2=Andrew |last3=Davids |first3=Grant |date=January 1998 |access-date=25 September 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF |title=Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233639/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

Vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta are threatened by the reduced inflow of fresh water, along with extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and [[global warming]]. Damming has also isolated the delta population of Indus River dolphins from those further upstream.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indus River Delta |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/indus_river_delta.cfm |publisher=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123192924/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/indus_river_delta.cfm |archive-date=23 January 2012 }}</ref>

Large-scale diversion of the river's water for irrigation has raised far-reaching issues. Sediment clogging from poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation on numerous occasions. Irrigation itself is increasing soil salinization, reducing crop yields and in some cases rendering farmland useless for cultivation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://transformativetechnologies.org/insights/water-security/technology-breakthroughs-for-global-water-security-a-deep-dive-into-south-asia/ |title=Technology Breakthroughs for Global Water Security: A Deep Dive into South Asia |access-date=24 December 2018 |date=12 September 2018 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817092238/https://transformativetechnologies.org/insights/water-security/technology-breakthroughs-for-global-water-security-a-deep-dive-into-south-asia/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Effects of climate change on the river===
The [[Tibetan Plateau]] contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:

<blockquote>Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows... In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines of the Indus River. Once they vanish, water supplies in Pakistan will be in peril.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ |title=Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official. Reported 18 August 2009 |work=Google News |date=17 August 2009 |access-date=4 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123192540/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ |archive-date=23 January 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref></blockquote>

"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus," says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of [[climate change]]," and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 per cent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert [where], without the river, there would be no life? I don't know the answer to that question," he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned."

U.S. diplomat [[Richard Holbrooke]] said, shortly before he died in 2010, that he believed that falling water levels in the Indus River "could very well precipitate World War III."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Farrow |first1=Ronan |title=War on Peace: The End of Diplomacy and the Decline of American Influence |date=2018 |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0393652109 }}</ref>

===Pollution===
Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus River dolphin. The [[Sindh Environmental Protection Agency]] has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997.<ref>{{cite news |title=SEPA orders polluting factory to stop production |url=http://archives.dawn.com/2008/12/03/local8.htm |access-date=28 June 2012 |newspaper=Dawn |date=3 December 2008 |archive-date=1 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101112712/http://archives.dawn.com/2008/12/03/local8.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Death of the [[Indus river dolphin]] has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fishing poison killing Indus dolphins, PA told |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/701129/fishing-poison-killing-indus-dolphins-pa-told |access-date=27 April 2016 |newspaper=Dawn |date=8 March 2012 |archive-date=9 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509170544/http://www.dawn.com/news/701129/fishing-poison-killing-indus-dolphins-pa-told |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=18 dolphins died from poisoning in Jan |url=http://dawn.com/2012/05/01/18-dolphins-died-from-poisoning-in-jan/ |access-date=28 June 2012 |newspaper=Dawn |date=1 May 2012 |archive-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707164235/http://dawn.com/2012/05/01/18-dolphins-died-from-poisoning-in-jan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, the government banned fishing from [[Guddu Barrage]] to [[Sukkur]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Threat to dolphin: Govt bans fishing between Guddu and Sukkur |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/347500/threat-to-dolphin-govt-bans-fishing-between-guddu-and-sukkur/ |access-date=28 June 2012 |newspaper=The Express Tribune |date=9 March 2012 |archive-date=21 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521005236/http://tribune.com.pk/story/347500/threat-to-dolphin-govt-bans-fishing-between-guddu-and-sukkur/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Indus is second among a group of ten rivers responsible for about 90% of all the [[plastic pollution|plastic]] that reaches the oceans. The [[Yangtze]] is the only river contributing more plastic.<ref>{{cite web |title=Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers – 30.11.2017 |website=DW.COM |url=https://www.dw.com/en/almost-all-plastic-in-the-ocean-comes-from-just-10-rivers/a-41581484 |ref={{sfnref | DW.COM}} |access-date=22 August 2018 |quote=about 90 per cent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order). |archive-date=22 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822181401/https://www.dw.com/en/almost-all-plastic-in-the-ocean-comes-from-just-10-rivers/a-41581484 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Christian |last2=Krauth |first2=Tobias |last3=Wagner |first3=Stephan |title=Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |publisher=American Chemical Society (ACS) |volume=51 |issue=21 |date=11 October 2017 |issn=0013-936X |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b02368 |pmid=29019247 |pages=12246–12253 |bibcode=2017EnST...5112246S |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/43169/4/es7b02368_si_001.pdf |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=14 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200914225406/http://oceanrep.geomar.de/43169/4/es7b02368_si_001.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2010 floods===
[[File:Indus flooding 2010 en.svg|upright=1.25|thumb|right|Affected areas as of 26 August 2010]]
{{Main|2010 Pakistan floods}}
Frequently, Indus River is prone to moderate to severe flooding.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30431/indus-basin-floods.pdf |title=Indus Basin Floods |publisher=Asian Development Bank |date=2013 |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817092132/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30431/indus-basin-floods.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2010, following abnormally heavy [[monsoon]] rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In [[Sindh]], the Indus burst its banks near [[Sukkur]] on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bodeen |first=Christopher |title=Asia flooding plunges millions into misery |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jLQ5AssQ1MzPfWcFQRV8ZeJhjctQD9HFBA400 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20100904101109/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jLQ5AssQ1MzPfWcFQRV8ZeJhjctQD9HFBA400 |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2010 |access-date=8 August 2010 |agency=Associated Press |date=8 August 2010 }}</ref> In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], where at least {{cvt|1400000|acres|ha}} of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh.<ref>{{cite news |last=Guerin |first=Orla |title=Pakistan issues flooding 'red alert' for Sindh province |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10900947 |access-date=7 August 2010 |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |date=7 August 2010 |archive-date=7 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807205010/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10900947 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|September 2010}}, over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10994989 |title=BBC News – Pakistan floods: World Bank to lend $900m for recovery |work=bbc.co.uk |date=17 August 2010 |access-date=24 August 2010 |archive-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825043604/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10994989 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10984477 |title=BBC News – Millions of Pakistan children at risk of flood diseases |work=bbc.co.uk |date=16 August 2010 |access-date=24 August 2010 |archive-date=16 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816190021/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10984477 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2011 floods===
{{Main|2011 Sindh floods}}
The 2011 [[Sindh]] floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14923154 |title=Pakistan floods: Oxfam launches emergency aid response |access-date=15 September 2011 |newspaper=BBC World News South Asia |date=14 September 2011 |archive-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915182610/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14923154 |url-status=live }}</ref> The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3&nbsp;million people and 1,524,773 homes affected.<ref name="The Express Tribune-2011">{{cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/251425/floods-worsen-270-killed-officials/ |title=Floods worsen, 270 killed: officials |work=The Express Tribune |date=13 September 2011 |access-date=13 September 2011 |archive-date=15 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515045633/https://tribune.com.pk/story/251425/floods-worsen-270-killed-officials |url-status=live }}</ref> Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least {{convert|1.7|e6acre|ha sqmi|sigfig=2}} of arable land were inundated. The flooding followed the previous year's floods, which devastated a large part of the country.<ref name="The Express Tribune-2011"/> Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh.<ref>[http://www.pakmet.com.pk/Latest-News/Latest-News.html Government of Pakistan Pakmet.com.pk Retrieved on 19 September 2011] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424194621/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/Latest-News/Latest-News.html |date=24 April 2012 }}</ref>

==Barrages, bridges, levees and dams==
{{Main|List of barrages and headworks in Pakistan|List of dams and reservoirs in Pakistan}}
In Pakistan currently there are six [[barrage (dam)|barrages]] on the Indus: [[Guddu Barrage]], [[Sukkur Barrage]], [[Kotri Barrage]] (also called Ghulam Muhammad barrage), [[Taunsa Barrage]], [[Chashma Barrage]] and [[Jinnah Barrage]]. Another new barrage called "[[Sindh Barrage]]" is planned as a terminal barrage on the Indus River.<ref>{{cite news |title=PM okays Indus river barrage to mitigate water woes |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1498684/pm-okays-indus-river-barrage-to-mitigate-water-woes |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817092150/https://www.dawn.com/news/1498684/pm-okays-indus-river-barrage-to-mitigate-water-woes |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Center announces Rs125bn Sindh barrage project |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1501344 |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824040713/https://www.dawn.com/news/1501344 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are some bridges on River Indus, such as Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta-Sujawal bridge, [[Sir Aga Khan Bridge|Jhirk-Mula Katiar bridge]] and recently planned Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge.<ref>{{cite news |title=Government to launch Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge over River Indus next month: Sindh CM |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1133677/government-launch-kandhkot-ghotki-bridge-river-indus-next-month-cm/ |access-date=1 August 2016 |agency=[[The Express Tribune]] }}</ref>

The entire left bank of the Indus River in Sind province is protected from river flooding by constructing around 600&nbsp;km long [[levees]]. The right bank side is also leveed from [[Guddu barrage]] to [[Lake Manchar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2019/07/12/restore-pakistans-rivers-handle-floods-droughts-and-climate-change/ |title=Restore Pakistan's rivers, handle floods, droughts and climate change |date=23 August 2016 |access-date=29 July 2019 }}</ref> In response to the levees construction, the river has been [[Aggradation|aggrading]] rapidly over the last 20 years leading to breaches upstream of barrages and inundation of large areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/251191548275645649/pdf/133964-WP-PUBLIC-ADD-SERIES-22-1-2019-18-56-25-W.pdf |title=Pakistan: Getting More from Water (see Page 50) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=29 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330181855/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/251191548275645649/pdf/133964-WP-PUBLIC-ADD-SERIES-22-1-2019-18-56-25-W.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Tarbela Dam]] in Pakistan is constructed on the Indus River, while the controversial [[Kalabagh Dam|Kalabagh dam]] is also being constructed on Indus River. Pakistan is also building [[Munda Dam]].

===Gallery===
<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px&quot;">
File:River Indus at Kotri Barrage Jamshoro.webm|Video of River Indus at Kotri Barrage, Sindh, Pakistan.
File:Lansdowne, Sukkur.jpg|Lansdowne Bridge and Ayub Bridge connecting the cities of Rohri and Sukkur in Sindh, Pakistan.
File:Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma.jpg|Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma
File:Indus at Skardu (1).jpg|Indus at Skardu
File:Indus River Dera Ismail Khan.jpg|Indus near Dera Ismail Khan
File:Indus Valley near Leh.jpg|The Indus near Leh
</gallery>

== Tourism==

[[All Ladakh Gonpa Association#Indus|Many Buddhist monasteries]] in [[Tourism in Ladakh|Ladakh]], [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus-Sarasvati Valley Civilisation]] sites along the banks of Indus and [[Sarasvati River]] ([[Ghaggar-Hakra River]]) and in [[Indus Sagar Doab]], [[Indus River Delta]], various dams such as [[Baglihar Dam]], [[Sindhu Darshan Festival]] held every year at [[Leh]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ladakhs.com/ladakh-festival.php |title=The Summit Adventure ladakh |website=www.ladakhs.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405032344/http://ladakhs.com/ladakh-festival.php |archive-date=5 April 2010 }}</ref> Sindhu Pushkaram festival held every 12 years at confluence of Indus and [[Zanskar River]] at [[Nimoo]] once every 12 years for 12 days starting from when Jupiter enter into Kumbha rasi (Aquarius),<ref>[https://www.clickatrip.in/tours/sindhu-river-pushkara-holy-bath-100107 Sindhu Pushkaram festival] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728095010/https://www.clickatrip.in/tours/sindhu-river-pushkara-holy-bath-100107 |date=28 July 2023 }}, accessed 27 July 2023.</ref> etc. are tourism opportunities.

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Geology of the Himalayas]]
* [[HMS Indus|HMS ''Indus'']]
* [[Indus Waters Treaty]]
* [[List of most-polluted rivers]]
* [[List of rivers of Pakistan]]
* [[Rigvedic rivers]]
* [[Rivers of Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Sindhology]]
* [[Hindush]]
* [[Ganges]]
* [[Sutlej]]{{div col end}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
* Albinia, Alice. (2008) ''Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River''. First American Edition (20101) W. W. Norton & Company, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-393-33860-7}}.
* Alexander Burnes, ''A voyage on the Indus'', London, 1973
* [[:fr:Philippe Fabry|Philippe Fabry]], ''Wandering with the Indus'', with Yusuf Shahid (text) Lahore, 1995
* Jean Fairley, ''The Lion River: The Indus'', London, 1975
*{{cite book|last1=Frisch|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Meschede|first2=Martin|last3=Blakey|first3=Ronald|title=Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building|location=Heidelberg|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-76503-5|doi= 10.1007/978-3-540-76504-2|year=2011}}
* {{cite book |author=G.P. Malalasekera |title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names |volume=1 |date=1 September 2003 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-2061-823-7}}
* D. Murphy, ''[[Where the Indus is Young]]'', London, 1977
* {{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=15 July 2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-022693-0 |language=en}}
* Samina Quraeshi, ''Legacy of the Indus'', New York, 1974
* Schomberg, ''Between Oxus and Indus'', London, 1935
* Francine Tissot, ''Les Arts anciens du Pakistan et de l'Afghanistan'', Paris, 1987
* Sir M. Wheeler, ''Civilisations of the Indus Valley and Beyond'', London, 1966
* World Atlas, Millennium Edition, p.&nbsp;265.

==External links==
{{External links|section|date=April 2020}}
{{Sister project links}}
* The origins of Indus:
** {{OSM|r|1159539|Gar basin}}
** {{OSM|r|1159538|Sengge basin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511194625/http://www.northernareas.org.pk/ Northern Areas Development Gateway]
* {{URL|1=https://www.iucn.org/downloads/mountain_conservancy_1_.doc|2=The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project}} – covered parts of the Indus River
* [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_fullscale.cfm?mapID=355&theme=2 Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050413151625/http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_fullscale.cfm?mapID=355&theme=2 |date=13 April 2005 }}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007180042/http://worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/g200/g156.html |date=7 October 2006 |title=Indus Wildlife }}
* {{URL|1=https://pulitzercenter.org/projects/south-asias-troubled-waters|2=Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting's project on water issues in South Asia}}

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{{Waters of Pakistan}}
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[[Category:History of Sindh]]
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