View source for Industrial relations

{{Short description|Study of the relationship between employers, employees and others}}
{{For|the journal|Industrial Relations (journal)}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Labour|sp=Oxford|expanded=academic}}
'''Industrial relations''' or '''employment relations''' is the multidisciplinary academic field that studies the employment relationship;{{sfnm |1a1=Ackers |1y=2002 |2a1=Kaufman |2y=2004 |2p=94}} that is, the complex interrelations between [[employer]]s and [[employee]]s, [[labor union|labor/trade 
unions]], [[employer organizations]], and [[the state]].

The newer name, "Employment Relations" is increasingly taking precedence because "industrial relations" is often seen to have relatively narrow connotations.{{sfn|Lewis|Thornhill|Saunders|2003|p=3}} Nevertheless, industrial relations has frequently been concerned with employment relationships in the broadest sense, including "non-industrial" employment relationships. This is sometimes seen as paralleling a trend in the separate but related  discipline of [[human resource management]].{{sfn|Banfield|Kay|2008|p=114}}

While some scholars regard or treat industrial/employment relations as synonymous with '''employee relations''' and [[labour relations]], this is controversial, because of the narrower focus of employee/labour relations, i.e. on employees or labour, from the perspective of employers, managers and/or officials. In addition, employee relations is often perceived as dealing only with non-unionized workers, whereas labour relations is seen as dealing with [[organized labour]], i.e unionized workers.<ref name="OgilvieCooper2005">{{cite book |last=Ogilvie |first=John R. |year=2006 |title=CLEP Principles of Management |location=Piscataway, New Jersey |publisher=Research & Education Association |isbn=978-0-7386-0125-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/besttestpreparat00ogil/page/141 141] |url=https://archive.org/details/besttestpreparat00ogil/page/141 }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2018}} Some academics, universities and other institutions regard human resource management as synonymous with one or more of the above disciplines,{{sfn|Rose|2008}} although this too is controversial.

== Overview ==
Industrial relations examines various employment situations, not just ones with a unionized workforce. However, according to Bruce E. Kaufman, "To a large degree, most scholars regard [[trade union]]ism, [[collective bargaining]] and labour–[[management]] relations, and the national labour policy and [[labour law]] within which they are embedded, as the core subjects of the field."{{sfn|Kaufman|2008|p=31}}

Initiated in the United States at end of the 19th century, it took off as a field in conjunction with the [[New Deal]]. However, it is generally regarded as a separate field of study only in English-speaking countries, having no direct equivalent in continental Europe.{{sfn|Ackers|2002}} In recent times, industrial relations has been in decline as a field, in correlation with the decline in importance of trade unions{{sfn|Kaufman|2008|p=31}} and also with the increasing preference of [[business school]]s for the human resource [[management paradigm]].{{sfn|Taras|2008|p=124}}

[[File:Ir rally img 3870.jpg|thumb|Protest against industrial relations legislation in Melbourne in 2005]]

Industrial relations has three faces: science building, problem solving, and ethical.{{sfn|Kaufman|2004|p=94}} In the science building phase, industrial relations is part of the [[social science]]s, and it seeks to understand the [[employment]] relationship and its institutions through high-quality, rigorous research. In this vein, industrial relations scholarship intersects with scholarship in [[labour economics]], [[industrial sociology]], [[labour history (discipline)|labour]] and [[social history]], [[human resource management]], [[political science]], [[law]], and other areas.

Industrial relations scholarship assumes that labour markets are not perfectly competitive and thus, in contrast to mainstream [[economic theory]], employers typically have greater bargaining power than employees. Industrial relations scholarship also assumes that there are at least some inherent conflicts of interest between employers and employees (for example, higher wages versus higher profits) and thus, in contrast to scholarship in human resource management and [[organizational behaviour]], conflict is seen as a natural part of the employment relationship. Industrial relations scholars therefore frequently study the diverse institutional arrangements that characterize and shape the employment relationship—from norms and power structures on the shop floor, to employee voice mechanisms in the workplace, to [[collective bargaining]] arrangements at company, regional, or national level, to various levels of public policy and [[labour law]] regimes,{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} to varieties of [[capitalism]]{{sfn|Hamann|Kelly|2008|p=129}} (such as [[corporatism]], [[social democracy]], and [[neoliberalism]]).

When labour markets are seen as imperfect, and when the employment relationship includes conflicts of interest, then one cannot rely on markets or [[manager]]s to always serve workers' interests, and in extreme cases to prevent worker exploitation. Industrial relations scholars and practitioners, therefore, support institutional interventions to improve the workings of the employment relationship and to protect workers' rights. The nature of these institutional interventions, however, differ between two camps within industrial relations.{{sfn|Budd|Bhave|2008}} The pluralist camp sees the employment relationship as a mixture of shared interests and conflicts of interests{{sfn|Budd|Bhave|2008|p=104}} that are largely limited to the employment relationship. In the workplace, pluralists, therefore, champion [[grievance (labour)|grievance]] procedures, employee voice mechanisms such as [[works council]]s and [[trade union]]s, collective bargaining, and labour–management partnerships. In the policy arena, pluralists advocate for [[minimum wage]] laws, [[occupational health and safety]] standards, [[international labour standards]], and other employment and labour laws and public policies.{{sfn|Befort|Budd|2009}} These institutional interventions are all seen as methods for balancing the employment relationship to generate not only economic efficiency but also employee equity and  voice.{{sfn|Budd|2004}} In contrast, the [[Marxism|Marxist]]-inspired critical camp sees employer–employee conflicts of interest as sharply antagonistic and deeply embedded in the socio-political-economic system. From this perspective, the pursuit of a balanced employment relationship gives too much weight to employers' interests, and instead deep-seated structural reforms are needed to change the sharply antagonistic employment relationship that is inherent within capitalism. Militant trade unions are thus frequently supported.

== History ==
Industrial relations has its roots in the [[Industrial Revolution]] which created the modern employment relationship by spawning free labour markets and large-scale industrial organizations with thousands of wage workers.{{sfn|Kaufman|2004|pp=15–16}} As society wrestled with these massive economic and social changes, labour problems arose. Low wages, long working hours, monotonous and dangerous work, and abusive supervisory practices led to high employee turnover, violent [[strike action|strikes]], and the threat of social instability. Intellectually, industrial relations was formed at the end of the 19th century as a middle ground between classical economics and [[Marxian economics|Marxism]],{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} with [[Sidney Webb]] and [[Beatrice Webb]]'s ''[[Industrial Democracy]]'' (1897) being a key intellectual work.{{sfn|Farnham|2008}} Industrial relations thus rejected the classical econ.

Institutionally, industrial relations was founded by [[John R. Commons]] when he created the first academic industrial relations program at the [[University of Wisconsin]] in 1920.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kaufman |first=Bruce E. |date=2003 |title=John R. Commons and the Wisconsin School on Industrial Relations Strategy and Policy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3590979 |journal=Industrial and Labor Relations Review |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=3–30 |doi=10.2307/3590979 |jstor=3590979 |issn=0019-7939|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Another scholarly pioneer in industrial relations and labour research was [[Robert F. Hoxie]].{{sfn|Kuhn|Lewin|McNulty|1983|p=157}} Early financial support for the field came from [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] who supported progressive labour–management relations in the aftermath of the [[Ludlow Massacre|bloody strike at a Rockefeller-owned coal mine in Colorado]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} In Britain, another progressive industrialist, [[Montague Burton]], endowed chairs in industrial relations at the universities of [[University of Leeds|Leeds]], [[Cardiff University|Cardiff]], and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] in 1929–1930.{{sfn|Sigsworth|1990|p=124}}

Beginning in the early 1930s there was a rapid increase in membership of [[labor unions in the United States|trade unions in the United States]], and with that came frequent and sometimes violent labour–management conflict.{{sfn|Kaufman|1993|pp=61–62}} During the [[Second World War]] these were suppressed by the arbitration powers of the [[National War Labor Board (1942–1945)|National War Labor Board]].{{sfn|Kaufman|1993|p=62}}
[[File:Cornell ILR School - East Ives.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations]]]]
However, as the Second World War drew to a close and in anticipation of a renewal of labour–management conflict after the war, there was a wave of creations of new academic institutes and degree programs that sought to analyse such conflicts and the role of collective bargaining.{{sfn|Kaufman|1993|pp=61–67, 80–81}} The most known of these was the [[Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations]], founded in 1945.{{sfn|Kaufman|1993|p=63}}<ref name="nyt-1947"/>  But counting various forms, there were over seventy-five others.<ref name="nyt-1947">{{cite news |last=Fine |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Fine |date=9 February 1947 |title=Growth and Variety of University Programs in Labor Studies Shown in a Survey |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1947/02/09/archives/growth-and-variety-of-university-programs-in-labor-studies-shown-in.html |url-access=subscription |newspaper=The New York Times |page=E9 |access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref> These included the [[Yale Labor and Management Center]], directed by [[E. Wight Bakke]], which began in 1945.<ref name="nyt-1946">{{cite news |last=Porter |first=Russell |date=15 July 1946 |title=Behavior Studied for Labor Peace |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1946/07/15/archives/behavior-studied-for-labor-peace-research-by-new-unit-at-yale-seeks.html |url-access=subscription |newspaper=The New York Times |page=23 |access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref> An influential industrial relations scholar in the 1940s and 1950s was [[Neil W. Chamberlain]] at [[Yale University|Yale]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia]] universities.{{sfn|Kuhn|Lewin|McNulty|1983}}

In the 1950s, industrial relations was formalized as a distinct academic discipline with the emergence in the UK of the so-called "Oxford school", including [[Allan Flanders]], [[Hugh Clegg (industrial relations)|Hugh Clegg]],{{sfn|Ackers|Wilkinson|2005|p=446}} and [[Alan Fox (sociologist)|Alan Fox]], Lord [[William McCarthy, Baron McCarthy|William McCarthy]], Sir [[George Bain (academic)|George Bain]] (all of whom taught at [[Nuffield College, Oxford]]), as well as [[Otto Kahn-Freund]] ([[Brasenose College, Oxford]]).

Industrial relations was formed with a strong problem-solving orientation{{sfn|Kaufman|1993|p=187}} that rejected both the classical economists' ''[[laissez-faire]]'' solutions to labour problems and the Marxist solution of [[class revolution]]. It is this approach that underlies the [[New Deal]] legislation in the United States, such as the [[National Labor Relations Act]] and the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]].

By the early 21st century, the academic field of industrial relations was often described as being in crisis.{{sfnm |1a1=Ackers |1y=2002 |2a1=Kaufman |2y=2004 |3a1=Whalen |3y=2008}} In academia, its traditional positions are threatened on one side by the dominance of mainstream economics and organizational behaviour, and on the other by [[postmodernism]].

In policy-making circles, the industrial relations emphasis on institutional intervention is trumped by a neoliberal emphasis on the ''laissez-faire'' promotion of [[free market]]s. In practice, trade unions are declining and fewer companies have industrial relations functions.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} The number of academic programs in industrial relations is therefore shrinking, while fields such as human resource management and organizational behaviour grow.{{sfn|Kaufman|1993|pp=189, 192}} The importance of this work, however, is stronger than ever, and the lessons of industrial relations remain vital. The challenge for industrial relations is to re-establish these connections with the broader academic, policy, and business worlds.

== Theoretical perspectives ==
Industrial relations scholars such as Alan Fox have described three major theoretical perspectives or frameworks, that contrast in their understanding and analysis of workplace relations. The three views are generally known as unitarism, pluralism, and the radical or critical school. Each offers a particular perception of workplace relations and will, therefore, interpret such events as workplace conflict, the role of unions and job regulation differently. The perspective of the critical school is sometimes referred to as the ''[[conflict theories|conflict]] model'', although this is somewhat ambiguous, as pluralism also tends to see conflict as inherent in workplaces. Radical theories are strongly identified with [[Marxist theory|Marxist theories]], although they are not limited to these.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

=== Pluralist perspective ===
In pluralism, the organization is perceived as being made up of {{citation needed span |date=July 2018 |text=powerful and}} divergent sub-groups, each with its own legitimate interests{{sfn|Calveley|Allsop|Rocha Lawton|Huesmann|2017|p=290}} and loyalties and with their own set of objectives and leaders. In particular, the two predominant sub-groups in the pluralist perspective are the management and trade unions. The pluralist perspective also supports that conflict is inherent in dealing with industrial relations since different sub-groups have different opinions in the day-to-day operations.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} Consequently, the role of management would lean less towards enforcing and controlling and more toward persuasion and coordination.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} Trade unions are deemed legitimate representatives of employees,{{sfn|Calveley|Allsop|Rocha Lawton|Huesmann|2017|p=290}} conflict is resolved through collective bargaining and is viewed not necessarily as a bad thing and, if managed, could, in fact, be channeled towards evolution and positive change.

=== Unitarist perspective ===
In unitarism, the organization is perceived as an integrated and harmonious whole with the idea of "one happy family" in which management and other members of the staff all share a common purpose by emphasizing mutual co-operation.{{sfn|Zhang|2014|p=228}}<!-- NOTE: This sentence appears to have been lifted by Zhang from Wikipedia rather than the other way around. --> Furthermore, unitarism has a paternalistic approach: it demands loyalty of all employees{{sfn|Zhang|2014|p=228}} and is managerial in its emphasis and application.{{sfn|Barchiesi|2014|p=243}} Consequently, trade unions are deemed unnecessary{{sfn|Budd|Bhave|2008|pp=92–93, 103}} since the loyalty between employees and organizations are considered mutually exclusive, and there cannot be two sides of industry.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} Conflict is perceived as {{citation needed span |date=July 2018 |text=destructive and}} the result of poor management.{{sfn|Budd|Bhave|2008|p=103}}

=== Radical or critical perspective ===
This view of industrial relations looks at the nature of the capitalist society, where there is a fundamental division of interest between capital and labour, and sees workplace relations against this background. This perspective sees inequalities of power and economic wealth as having their roots in the nature of the capitalist economic system.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} Conflict is therefore seen as a natural outcome of capitalism, thus it is inevitable and trade unions are a natural response of workers{{sfn|Zhang|2014|p=228}} to their exploitation by capital. Whilst there may be periods of acquiescence, the Marxist view would be that institutions of joint regulation would enhance rather than limit management's position as they presume the continuation of capitalism rather than challenge it.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

== Labor relations ==
{{excerpt|Labor relations}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|22em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Ackers
|first=Peter
|year=2002
|title=Reframing Employment Relations: The Case for Neo-Pluralism
|journal=Industrial Relations Journal
|volume=33
|issue=1
|pages=2–19
|doi=10.1111/1468-2338.00216
|doi-access=free
|issn=1468-2338
}}
* {{cite journal
|last1=Ackers
|first1=Peter
|last2=Wilkinson
|first2=Adrian
|year=2005
|title=British Industrial Relations Paradigm: A Critical Outline History and Prognosis
|journal=Journal of Industrial Relations
|volume=47
|issue=4
|pages=443–456
|doi=10.1111/j.1472-9296.2005.00184.x
|hdl=10072/15401
|s2cid=44227768
|hdl-access=free
|issn=1472-9296
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Banfield
|first1=Paul
|last2=Kay
|first2=Rebecca
|year=2008
|title=Introduction to Human Resource Management
|edition=1st
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-929152-6
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Barchiesi
|first=Franco
|year=2014
|chapter=Conflict, Order, and Change
|editor1-last=Wilkinson
|editor1-first=Adrian
|editor2-last=Wood
|editor2-first=Geoffrey
|editor3-last=Deeg
|editor3-first=Richard
|title=The Oxford Handbook of Employment Relations: Comparative Employment Systems
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|pages=241–259
|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199695096.013.011
|isbn=978-0-19-969509-6
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Befort
|first1=Stephen F.
|last2=Budd
|first2=John W.
|year=2009
|title=Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus
|location=Stanford, California
|publisher=Stanford University Press
|isbn=978-0-8047-6153-6
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Budd
|first=John W.
|year=2004
|title=Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice
|location=Ithaca, New York
|publisher=ILR Press
|isbn=978-0-8014-4208-7
|url=https://archive.org/details/employmentwithhu0000budd
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Budd
|first1=John W.
|last2=Bhave
|first2=Devasheesh
|year=2008
|chapter=Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations
|editor1-last=Blyton
|editor1-first=Paul
|editor2-last=Bacon
|editor2-first=Nicolas
|editor3-last=Fiorito
|editor3-first=Jack
|editor4-last=Heery
|editor4-first=Edmund
|title=The SAGE Handbook of Industrial Relations
|location=London
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|pages=92–112
|doi=10.4135/9781849200431.n5
|isbn=978-1-84920-043-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Calveley
|first1=Moira
|last2=Allsop
|first2=David
|last3=Rocha Lawton
|first3=Natalia
|last4=Huesmann
|first4=Monika
|year=2017
|chapter=Managing the Employment Relationship
|editor1-last=Rees
|editor1-first=Gary
|editor2-last=Smith
|editor2-first=Paul E.
|title=Strategic Human Resource Management: An International Perspective
|edition=2nd
|location=London
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|pages=281–323
|isbn=978-1-4739-6931-5
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Farnham
|first=David
|year=2008
|title=Beatrice and Sidney Webb and the Intellectual Origins of British Industrial Relations
|journal=Employee Relations
|volume=30
|issue=5
|pages=534–552
|doi=10.1108/01425450810888295
|issn=0142-5455
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Hamann
|first1=Kerstin
|last2=Kelly
|first2=John
|year=2008
|chapter=Varieties of Capitalism and Industrial Relations
|editor1-last=Blyton
|editor1-first=Paul
|editor2-last=Bacon
|editor2-first=Nicolas
|editor3-last=Fiorito
|editor3-first=Jack
|editor4-last=Heery
|editor4-first=Edmund
|title=The SAGE Handbook of Industrial Relations
|location=London
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|pages=129–148
|doi=10.4135/9781849200431.n7
|isbn=978-1-84920-043-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kaufman
|first=Bruce E.
|year=1993
|title=The Origins & Evolution of the Field of Industrial Relations in the United States
|series=Cornell Studies in Industrial and Labor Relations
|volume=25
|location=Ithaca, New York
|publisher=ILR Press
|publication-date=1995
|isbn=978-0-87546-192-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kaufman
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|author-mask={{long dash}}
|year=2004
|title=The Global Evolution of Industrial Relations: Events, Ideas, and the IIRA
|url=https://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/2004/104B09_362_engl.pdf
|location=Geneva
|publisher=International Labour Office
|isbn=978-92-2-114153-2
|access-date=13 July 2018
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kaufman
|first=Bruce E.
|author-mask={{long dash}}
|year=2008
|chapter=The Original Industrial Relations Paradigm: Foundation for Revitalizing the Field
|editor-last=Whalen
|editor-first=Charles J.
|title=New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
|location=Cheltenham, England
|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing
|pages=31–47
|isbn=978-1-84844-520-8
}}
* {{cite journal
|last1=Kuhn
|first1=James W.
|last2=Lewin
|first2=David
|last3=McNulty
|first3=Paul J.
|year=1983
|title=Neil W. Chamberlain: A Retrospective Analysis of His Scholarly Work and Influence
|journal=British Journal of Industrial Relations
|volume=21
|issue=2
|pages=143–160
|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8543.1983.tb00127.x
|issn=1467-8543
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Lewis
|first1=Philip
|last2=Thornhill
|first2=Adrian
|last3=Saunders
|first3=Mark
|year=2003
|title=Employee Relations: Understanding The Employment Relationship
|location=Harlow, England
|publisher=Prentice Hall
|isbn=978-0-273-64625-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Rose
|first=Ed
|year=2008
|title=Employment Relations
|location=Harlow, England
|publisher=Prentice Hall
|isbn=978-0-273-71008-0
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Sigsworth
|first=Eric M.
|year=1990
|title=Montague Burton: The Tailor of Taste
|location=Manchester
|publisher=Manchester University Press
|isbn=978-0-7190-2364-4
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Taras
|first=Daphne
|year=2008
|chapter=How Industrial Relations Is Marginalized in Business Schools: Using Institutional Theory to Examine Our Home Base
|editor-last=Whalen
|editor-first=Charles J.
|title=New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
|url=https://archive.org/details/newdirectionsstu00whal
|url-access=limited
|location=Cheltenham, England
|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing
|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newdirectionsstu00whal/page/n135 123]–141
|isbn=978-1-84844-520-8
}}
* {{cite book
|year=2008
|editor-last=Whalen
|editor-first=Charles J.
|title=New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
|location=Cheltenham, England
|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing
|isbn=978-1-84844-520-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Zhang
|first=Yan
|year=2014
|chapter=The Relationships between Employees and Organizations
|editor1-last=Zhang
|editor1-first=Zhi-Xue
|editor2-last=Zhang
|editor2-first=Jianjun
|title=Understanding Chinese Firms from Multiple Perspectives
|location=Heidelberg, Germany
|publisher=Springer
|pages=227–256
|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54417-0_9
|isbn=978-3-642-54417-0
}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book
|year=2003
|editor1-last=Ackers
|editor1-first=Peter
|editor2-last=Wilkinson
|editor2-first=Adrian
|title=Understanding Work and Employment: Industrial Relations in Transition
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-924066-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Commons
|first=John R.
|author-link=John R. Commons
|year=1919
|title=Industrial Goodwill
|url=https://archive.org/details/industrialgoodw00commgoog
|location=New York
|publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company
|oclc=429243
|access-date=14 July 2018
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hyman
|first=Richard
|year=1975
|title=Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction
|location=London
|publisher=Macmillan
}}
* {{cite book
|year=2004
|editor-last=Kaufman
|editor-first=Bruce E.
|title=Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship
|location=Champaign, Illinois
|publisher=Industrial Relations Research Association
|isbn=978-0-913447-88-8
|ref=none
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kelly
|first=John
|year=1998
|title=Rethinking Industrial Relations: Mobilization, Collectivism and Long Waves
|location=London
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-18672-8
}}
* Kjellberg, Anders (2022) [https://portal.research.lu.se/sv/publications/the-nordic-model-of-industrial-relations ''The Nordic Model of Industrial Relations'']. Lund: Department of Sociology.
* {{cite book
|last=Mullins
|first=Laurie J.
|year=2016
|title=Management and Organisational Behaviour
|edition=11th
|location=Harlow, England
|publisher=Pearson Education
|isbn=978-1-292-08848-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Nichols
|first=Theo
|year=1997
|title=The Sociology of Industrial Injury
|location=London
|publisher=Mansell Publishing
|isbn=978-0-7201-2255-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Richardson
|first=J. Henry
|author-link=John Henry Richardson
|year=1954
|title=An Introduction to the Study of Industrial Relations
|location=London
|publisher=Routledge
|publication-date=2003
|isbn=978-0-415-31384-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Salamon
|first=Michael
|year=2000
|title=Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice
|edition=4th
|location=Harlow, England
|publisher=Prentice Hall
|isbn=978-0-273-64646-4
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Webb
|first1=Sidney
|author1-link=Sidney Webb
|last2=Webb
|first2=Beatrice
|author2-link=Beatrice Webb
|year=1897
|title=Industrial Democracy
|location=London
|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.
|title-link=Industrial Democracy
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Industrial relations}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Industrial relations| ]]
[[Category:Business law]]
[[Category:Employee relations| ]]