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{{Short description|Hindu epithet}}
{{Other uses|Shiva|Eeshwar (disambiguation){{!}}Eeshwar}}
[[File:Vishnu and Lakshmi on an elephant meeting Shiva, Parvati and Wellcome V0045027.jpg|thumb|[[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]], the primary bearers of the epithet ''Ishvara'', seated on mounts with consorts [[Lakshmi]] and [[Parvati]], accompanied by [[Ganesha|Vinayaka]]]]
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{{EngvarB|date=November 2017}}
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{{Hinduism}}
'''''Ishvara''''' ({{Langx|sa|ईश्वर|Īśvara|translit-std=IAST}}) is a concept in [[Hinduism]], with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.<ref name="mmwizvara">[[Monier Monier Williams]], Sanskrit-English dictionary, [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/mwquery/ Search for Izvara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804120637/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/mwquery/ |date=4 August 2019 }}, University of Cologne, Germany</ref><ref name=riepe/> In ancient texts of [[Hindu philosophy]], depending on the context, ''Ishvara'' can mean lord, ruler, king, husband, queen, soul or the Supreme Self ([[Paramatman]]).<ref name=mmwizvara/> In medieval-era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, ''Ishvara'' means [[God]], Supreme Being, [[personal God]], or special [[Atman (Hinduism)|Self]].<ref name=riepe/><ref name=ianw/><ref name=mirceaelaide73/>
In [[Shaivism]], ''Ishvara'' is an epithet of [[Shiva]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=171|url-status=live|website=IITS Koeln|page=171|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309015920/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=171}}</ref><ref name=":1">James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 306</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Lord Śiva's Song: the Īśvara Gītā|translator=Andrew J. Nicholson |editor=Laurie Searl|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4384-5102-2|oclc=880450730}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=235, 379–380}}</ref> In [[Vaishnavism]], it is synonymous with [[Vishnu]], like in his epithet of [[Venkateswara Temple|Venkateswara]].<ref name="olilea" /> In traditional [[Bhakti]] movements, ''Ishvara'' is one or more deities of an individual's preference ([[Iṣṭa-devatā (Hinduism)|Iṣṭa-devatā]]) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements like [[Arya Samaj]] and [[Brahmoism]], ''Ishvara'' takes the form of a monotheistic God.<ref name=rkpr>RK Pruthi (2004), Arya Samaj and Indian Civilization, {{ISBN|978-81-7141-780-3}}, pages 5–6, 48–49</ref> In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".<ref name=lpfl/> In [[Advaita Vedanta]], Ishvara is the manifested form of [[Brahman]] ([[Saguna brahman]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahm |first=Archie J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Su-SQNfNqgC&dq=ishvara+saguna+brahman&pg=PA140 |title=The World's Living Religions |date=1992 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87573-000-4 |language=en}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The root of the word Ishvara comes from {{Transliteration|sa|hunterian|Ish}} ({{lang|sa|ईश्|}} {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|īś-}}) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".<ref>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-2000-5}}, page 47</ref> The second part of the word ''Ishvara'' is {{Transliteration|sa|hunterian|vara}} ({{lang|sa|वर|}} {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|vara}}), which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".<ref>Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-2000-5}}, page 270</ref> The composite word, ''Ishvara'' literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".

As a concept, ''Ishvara'' in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means a ruler or king, a husband, God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Shiva, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number '[[11 (number)|eleven]]'.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Apte Sanskrit-English dictionary, [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/AP90Scan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php Search for Izvara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106133053/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/AP90Scan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php |date=6 November 2022 }}, University of Cologne, Germany</ref>

The word ''Īśvara'' does not appear in [[Rigveda]].<ref name=madhav/> However, the verb ''īś-'' does appear in Rigveda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".<ref name=madhav>Madhav Deshpande (1991), Sense and Syntax in Vedic (Editors: Joel Brereton and Stephenie Jamison), Volumes 4–5, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-09356-0}}, pages 23–27</ref> It is absent in [[Samaveda]], is rare in [[Atharvaveda]], but it appears in [[Samhita]]s of [[Yajurveda]]. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian [[Pāṇini]] explains, is neither god nor supreme being.<ref name=madhav/>

The word ''Ishvara'' appears in numerous ancient [[Dharmaśāstra#Principal Root Texts|Dharmasutra]]s. However, there ''Ishvara'' does not mean God, but means [[Veda]]s.<ref name=patrick/> ''Ishvara'' in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as ''Ishvara'' (the king) on matters of public importance".<ref name=patrick>Patrick Olivelle (2006), Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-530532-6}}, page 176</ref>

The term is used as part of the compounds [[Maheshvara]] ("The Great Lord") and [[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshvara]] ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. In [[Mahayana Buddhism]] it is used as part of the compound "[[Avalokiteśvara]]" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see [[Avalokiteśvara#Etymology|etymology section]] there), the name of a [[bodhisattva]] revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in [[Shaktism]], the feminine [[Ishvari]] is sometimes used.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=376}}</ref>

In [[Advaita Vedanta]] school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.<ref name=lance>Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref><ref name=jkoller/>

==Schools of thought==

Among the six systems of [[Hindu philosophy]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Mimamsa]] do not consider the concept of ''Ishvara'' (i.e., a supreme being) relevant. [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Vedanta]] and [[Nyaya]] schools of Hinduism discuss ''Ishvara'', but assign different meanings.

''Ishvara'' is a metaphysical concept in the ''[[Yogasutras]]''.<ref name=mmd>Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity in Patanjali's Yoga-Sutra, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-3336-4}}, page 131</ref> The book does not mention a specific deity or describe any devotional practices (''[[Bhakti]]''), nor does it provide characteristics of ''Ishvara'' typically associated with a deity.<ref name=mmd/> In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga school of Hinduism]], states Ian Whicher, a professor of religion at the [[University of Manitoba]], ''Ishvara'' is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name=ianw/> Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedantic philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term ''Ishvara'' as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".<ref name=ianw>Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3815-2}}, pages 82–86</ref><ref name="knut"/> Angelika Malinar, a professor of [[Indology|Indian studies]] at the [[University of Zurich]], too, writes that, among the Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism, ''Ishvara'' is neither a creator God nor a salvific God.<ref>A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1-4725-1151-5}}, page 79</ref>

Bhakti sub-schools refer to ''Ishvara'' as a divine lord or the specified deity of the Bhakti sub-school.<ref>Zimmer (1951), Philosophies of India, Reprinted by Routledge in 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-415-46232-7}}, pages 242–243, 309–311</ref> Some contemporary sectarian movements have emphasized ''Ishvara'' as a supreme lord—for example, the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]]{{'s}} theology is monotheistic, with [[Krishna]] being the universe's supreme divinity.<ref>[[Karel Werner]] (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1049-2}}, page 54</ref> In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as the [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanuja]] and [[Dvaita]] of Madhva, ''Ishvara'' is identified as [[Vishnu]] and/or [[Narayana]], who is distinct from the ''[[prakṛti]]'' (material world) and ''[[purusha]]'' (Self).

The diversity in interpretations of ''Ishvara'' aligns with theistic Hinduism's notion of a personal God.<ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-01958-1}}, pages 37–39, 401–403, 498–503</ref> Thus, Hinduisms also allow practicing individuals choice in their conceptualizations of ''Ishvara'', whether that be in the form of a specific deity or the formless ''[[Brahman]]'' of ultimate reality.<ref name=mirceaelaide73>[[Mircea Eliade]] (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-14203-6}}, pages 73–76</ref><ref name=riepe>Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1293-2}}, pages 177–184, 208–215</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1975), Our savage god: The perverse use of eastern thought, {{ISBN|978-0-8362-0611-1}}, pages 69–72</ref><ref>R.C. Zaehner (1966), Hinduism, Oxford University Press, 1980 edition: pages 126–129, Reprinted in 1983 as {{ISBN|978-0-19-888012-7}}</ref>

===In Samkhya===

[[Samkhya]] isa commonly considered an atheistic school of Hindu philososphy.<ref name=lpfl>Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 38–39</ref><ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-64887-5}}, page 39</ref><ref>Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie Volume 11, {{ISBN|978-1-4840-3061-5}}, pages 25–27 (in German)</ref> However, some, such as Norwegian scholar [[Knut A. Jacobsen]], consider Samkhya to be more accurately described as a form of [[nontheism]].<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 15–16</ref> Still others, including [[State University of New York]] [[Indologist]] and professor [[Andrew J. Nicholson]], argue that Samkhya was originally theistic but transitioned to atheism during the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Andrew|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010|location=New York|pages=69–78}}</ref> ''Ishvara'' as a being is occasionally affirmed—but more often denied—in the Samkhya school.<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 76–77</ref> For example, arguments are advanced in the ''[[Samkhya Pravachana Sutra]]'' and its commentaries against the existence of ''Ishvara'', chiefly that a being that is both a creator and free cannot exist.<ref>Andrew J. Nicholson (2017), 'Refuting Vedantic Theism in the Samkhya-Sutra' in The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, ed. [[Jonardon Ganeri]], [[Oxford University Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-19-750381-2}}, pages 598–622</ref>

===In Yoga===

The ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'', the foundational text of the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, uses the term ''Ishvara'' in 11 verses: I.23–I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Since the ''Sutras'' were compiled, Hindu scholars have debated the identity and purpose of ''Ishvara'', with beliefs ranging from ''Ishvara''-as-"personal god" to it being "special Self", and to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".<ref name=lpfl/><ref>Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129</ref> Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or nontheistic, the compiler's concept of ''Ishvara'' in Yogic philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the ''yogin'' on the path to spiritual emancipation".<ref>Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3815-2}}, page 86</ref>

Patanjali defines ''Ishvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1 as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, ''[[puruṣa]]-viśeṣa'')",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Āgāśe |first1=K. S. |title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi |date=1904 |publisher=Ānandāśrama |location=Puṇe |page=25 |url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n33/mode/2up}}</ref>

<blockquote>{{langx|sa|क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष '''ईश्वरः''' ॥२४॥}}<br/>
– ''Yoga Sutras'' I.24</blockquote>

This sutra adds the characteristics of ''Ishvara'' as the special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, ''[[Kleshas (Hinduism)|klesha]]''), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).<ref name=se5>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=aparAmRSTa&script=&direction=SE&link=yes aparAmRSTa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129053310/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=aparAmRSTa&script=&direction=SE&link=yes |date=29 January 2015 }}, [http://spokensanskrit.de kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817204122/http://www.spokensanskrit.de/ |date=17 August 2017 }}; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref><ref>Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 31–45</ref>

Patanjali's concept of ''Ishvara'' is neither as a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name=ianw/><ref name=knut>[[:no:Knut A. Jacobsen|Knut Jacobsen]] (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, page 77</ref>

===In Vaisesika===
The [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BCE, neither required nor relied on ''Ishvara'' for its [[atomism|atomistic]] naturalist philosophy. To it, substances and ''paramāṇu'' (atoms) are eternal; they move and interact based on impersonal, eternal ''adrsta'' (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.<ref name=klausk/><ref>A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0-86590-278-7}}, pages 149–151</ref> The concept of ''Ishvara'', among others, entered into the Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium CE.<ref name=klausk/><ref>R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00187-9}}, page 836</ref> The evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. Later ancient Vaisheshika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added ''Ishvara'' as another 'eternal'—albeit one who is also omniscient and omnipresent (but not omnipotent). Vaisheshika scholars posited that ''Ishvara'' did not create the world; he created laws that operate the world before becoming passive and letting those universal laws affect reality without divine intervention .<ref name=klausk/> Thus, Vaisheshika's ''Ishvara'' mirrors the ''[[Deus otiosus]]'' of [[deism]]. [[Klaus Klostermaier]], in a 2007 survey of Hinduism, writes that ''Ishvara'' can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but only to the point that he "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".<ref name=klausk>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, page 337</ref>

===In Nyaya===

Early [[Nyaya]] school scholars considered ''Ishvara'' a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons, and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.{{Contradictory inline|article=Ishvara|section=Schools of thought|reason=This sentence directly contradicts the sentences before and after it, respectively.|date=August 2025}}<ref>John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, page 150</ref><ref>G. Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der Indischen Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1-34</ref> Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.<ref name=fxc>Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-973872-4}}, pages 18–19, 35–39</ref>

Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1, examines what causes the production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in the universe. It considers many hypotheses, including ''Ishvara''. Verses 19–21 postulate that Ishvara exists and is the cause, state a consequence of the postulate, then present contrary evidence, and from the contradiction conclude that the postulate must be invalid.<ref name=fxc2/>

{{Blockquote|text=
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : '''ईश्वरः''' कारणम्, पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात्<br/>
पूर्वपक्षसूत्र : न, पुरुषकर्माभावे फ्लानिष्पत्तेः<br/>
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : तत्कारितत्वादहेतुः<br/>

Proposition sutra: '''Ishvara''' is the cause, since we see sometimes human action lacks fruits (results).<br/>
Prima facie objection sutra: This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no fruit is accomplished without human action.<br/>
Conclusion sutra: Not so, since it is influenced by him.
|Nyaya Sutra|IV.1.19 – IV.1.21<ref name=fxc2>Original Sanskrit: [https://archive.org/details/Anandashram_Samskrita_Granthavali_Anandashram_Sanskrit_Series Nyayasutra] Anand Ashram Sanskrit Granthvali, pages 290–292; [http://www.sanskritworld.in/public/mpdf/downloadpdf.php?filename=book_50f6f8075590b.txt Alternate Archive] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107181842/http://www.sanskritworld.in/public/mpdf/downloadpdf.php?filename=book_50f6f8075590b.txt |date=7 November 2016 }}<br/>English translation: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-973872-4}}, page 37</ref>}}

Centuries later, the 5th-century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by [[Udayana]], who in his text ''[[Nyayakusumanjali]]'', interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.<ref name=csharma>Sharma, C. (1997). ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy'', Delhi: [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|81-208-0365-5}}, pp. 209-10</ref> In developing his arguments, he inherently defined ''Ishvara'' as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes the [[karma]] doctrine work.<ref name=csharma/><ref>VR Rao (1987), Selected Doctrines from Indian Philosophy, {{ISBN|81-70990009}}, pages 11–12</ref>

===In Mimamsa===

[[Mīmāṃsā]] scholars of Hinduism questioned what ''Ishvara'' (God) is.<ref name=fxc3>FX Clooney (1997), What's a god? The quest for the right understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, August 1997, Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 337–385</ref> They used their ''[[pramana]]'' tools to cross-examine answers offered by other schools of Hinduism. For example, when Nyaya scholars stated that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and infallible, that the world is the result of God's creation, which is proved by the presence of creatures, just like human work proves human existence, Mimamsa scholars asked, Why does this God create the world, for what reason? Further, they added, it cannot be because of Ishvara's love for human beings, because this world, if Ishvara created it, is imperfect, and human souls suffer. Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism raised numerous objections to any definition of Ishvara and its premises. They deconstructed justifications for the concept of ''Ishvara'' and considered it unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (spiritual liberation).<ref name=fxc3/><ref name=bilimoria>P. Bilimoria (2001), Hindu doubts about God: Towards Mimamsa Deconstruction, in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Volume 4, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-3611-2}}, pages 87–106</ref>

===In Vedanta===

====Advaita Vedanta====

The [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level, Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ).  Ishvara is that which is "free from ''avidyā'' (ignorance), free from ''ahaṃkṛti'' (ego-sense), free from ''bandhana'' (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".<ref name=lance/><ref name=jkoller>John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pages 99–107</ref> 
Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the fundamental nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness, and bliss) is non-different from the fundamental nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal, and declare that there is oneness between the two, having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense.  This oneness is accepted only at the 'mukti' or ultimate realization level and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level, there is no otherness nor distinction between ''[[Jiva]]'' (living being) and ''Ishvara'', and any attempts to distinguish the two are a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.<ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99</ref>

{{Blockquote|
ईश्वरः अहम् <br/>
Ishvara, I am.
|[[Adi Shankara]]| Upadesasahasri 2.3.1, 2.10.8<ref name=lance/>}}

Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the [[monism|monist]] views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, delusions, and the root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, accurate to truth, liberated like Ishvara.<ref>William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1251-2}}, page 23-25</ref><ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1467-7}}, pages 547–551</ref>

When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualizing the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the universe's existence.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dalal |first=Neil |title=Śaṅkara |date=2021 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/shankara/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-04-16 |edition=Winter 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416190619/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/shankara/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
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[[Advaita Vedanta|Advaitism]] holds that when human beings think of [[Brahman]], the Supreme Cosmic Spirit is projected upon the limited, finite human mind and appears as ''Ishvara''.<ref name="{{ISBN|81-208-2144-0}}">See generally, Sinha, H.P. (1993), ''Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā'' (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-2144-0}}.</ref>{{pn|date=January 2015}} Therefore, the mind projects human attributes, such as personality, motherhood, and fatherhood, on the Supreme Being. An interesting metaphor is that when the "reflection" of the Cosmic Spirit falls upon the mirror of ''[[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]'' (''{{IAST|Māyā}}''; the principle of illusion, which binds the mind), it appears as the Supreme Lord.<ref name="{{ISBN|81-208-2144-0}}"/>{{pn|date=January 2015}} Brahman is not thought to have such attributes in the true sense.<ref name="{{ISBN|1-884852-02-5}}">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) {{ISBN|1-884852-02-5}}</ref>{{pn|date=January 2015}} However it may be helpful to project such attributes onto Brahman.
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====Vishishtadvaita Vedanta====

''Ishvara'', in [[Vishishtadvaita]] Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".<ref name=mcc>McCasland et al. (1969), Religions of the world, Random House, {{ISBN|978-0-394-30384-0}}, page 471</ref> Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th century [[Ramanuja]] state, is the supreme creator and synonymous with [[Brahman]].<ref name="Chari1988p212">{{cite book |author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Tattvamuktākalāpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un1i5icdpdoC |year=1988 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0266-7 |pages=212, 231–233}}</ref> Equated with Vishnu in Vishishtadvaita or one of his [[avatar]],<ref>{{cite book |author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Tattvamuktākalāpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un1i5icdpdoC |year=1988 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0266-7 |pages=18, 228, 340–341}}</ref> he is both the material and efficient cause, transcendent and immanent.<ref name=mcc/> Ishvara manifests in five forms, according to the Vishishtadvaitins: ''para'' (transcendent), ''vyuha'' (emanations), ''vibhava'' (incarnations), ''antaryamin'' (dwells inside), and ''arca'' (icons).<ref name=johngrimes/> According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities: ''jnana'' (knowledge), ''bala'' (strength), ''aisvarya'' (lordship), ''sakti'' (power), ''virya'' (virility) and ''tejas'' (splendor).<ref name=johngrimes>John Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3067-5}}, page 143</ref>

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by [[Sri Aurobindo]]<ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3-11-034255-0}}, page 151</ref> and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's [[Lingayatism]].<ref>Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8135-4068-9}}, pages 243–244</ref>

====Dvaita Vedanta====

The Dvaita ([[Dualistic cosmology#In Hinduism|dualism]]) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th 13th-century Madhva, defines ''Ishvara'' as the creator God that is distinct from ''Jiva'' (individual Selves in living beings).<ref name=rajpra>R. Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pages 345–347</ref> [[Narayana]] (Vishnu) is considered to be ''Ishvara'', and the [[Vaishnavism]] movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.<ref name=olilea>Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17358-2}}, page 251</ref>

''Ishvara'' (God) is a complete, perfect, and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously, the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta.<ref name=olilea/> In [[Dvaita]] sub-school, ''Jiva'' (individual Self) is different, yet dependent on ''Ishvara'' (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss, and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all-encompassing. The attributes of ''Jiva'' struggle to manifest, while God fully manifests them.<ref name=rajpra/>

Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between ''Jiva'' (individual Self) and ''Ishvara'' (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative.<ref name=tompad/> Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state of [[moksha]] in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.<ref name=tompad>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3-11-034255-0}}, pages 155–157</ref>

The world, called ''Maya'', is held as the divine will of Ishvara.<ref name=rajpra/> ''Jiva'' suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" (''ajnana''). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana.<ref name=rajpra/> It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance of ''sattva'' [[Guṇa|guna]] (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live a [[Dharma|dharmic]] life while constantly remembering, deeply loving ''Ishvara''.<ref name=rajpra/>

====Achintya-Bheda-Abheda====
{{IAST|Acintya bhedābheda}} is a sub-school of [[Vedanta]] representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara ([[Krishna]]).<ref name=Kaviraja>{{cite book | author = Kaviraja, K.G. | title =  Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | publisher = [[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] }}[http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/108-109/en1 ''Madhya'' 20.108-109] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511153501/http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/108-109/en1 |date=11 May 2008 }} "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire."</ref><ref>{{IAST|Kṛṣṇa Upaniṣad}} 1.25: ''{{IAST|...na bhinnam. nā bhinnamābhirbhinno na vai vibhuḥ}}''</ref>

In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates to 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: ''jiva'') is considered a part of God, and thus one with Him in quality, yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spiritual Dialectics |last=Mukundananda |first=Swami |publisher=Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog |year=2013 |page=96 |quote=Hence, he called his philosophy Achintya Bhedabhed vad, or Inconceivable Simultaneous Oneness and Difference.}}</ref>

Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva is understood to be part of a progression to devotional [[theism]]. [[Rāmānuja]] had agreed with [[Śaṅkara|{{IAST|Śaṅkara}}]] that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the ''[[jiva]]'': he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).<ref name = SDG>{{Cite book| first = dasa Goswami| last = Satsvarupa| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami| title =Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself| publisher = Assoc Publishing Group| year = 1976| pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9}}</ref>

===In Carvaka===

[[Cārvāka]], another atheist tradition in [[sramana]], was materialist and a school of [[philosophical scepticism]]. They rejected all concepts of ''Ishvara'' and all forms of supernaturalism.<ref>Robert Flint, {{Google books|7es0AQAAIAAJ|Anti-theistic theories|page=463}}, Appendix Note VII – Hindu Materialism: The Charvaka System; William Blackwood, London</ref><ref>V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the [[Samkhya]], there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x}}</ref><ref>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1607-7}}, page 67, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Caravaka system, is a Hindu system."</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism}}
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Absolute (philosophy)]]
* [[Bhagavan]]
* [[Conceptions of God]]
* Īśvarism
* [[Ishbara (disambiguation)|Ishbara]]
* [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)]]
* [[Para Brahman]]
* [[Parameshashakti]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Names of God}}
{{Burmese nats}}

[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Superlatives in religion]]
[[Category:Forms of Shiva]]

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