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{{Short description|Pakistani politician and military general (1899–1969)}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date = September 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Iskander Mirza
| native_name         = {{nobold|ইস্কান্দার আলী মির্জা}}<br />{{No bold|{{Script/Nastaliq|اسکندر مرزا}}}}
| honorific-suffix    = {{post-nominals|post-noms=[[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]], [[OBE]]|size=100%}}
| honorific-prefix    = [[Sahibzada]]<br />[[Major General]]
| image               = Iskander Mirza.jpg
| caption             = Official portrait, {{circa|1956}}
| order               = 1st
| office              = President of Pakistan
| term_start          = 23 March 1956
| term_end            = 27 October 1958
| predecessor         = ''Position established''
| successor           = [[General Ayub Khan]]
| prior_term          = 
| order2              = 4th [[Governor-General of Pakistan]]
| term_start2         = 7 August 1955
| term_end2           = 23 March 1956
| monarch2            = [[Elizabeth II]]
| primeminister2      = [[Mohammad Ali Bogra]] {{small|(1955)}}<br />[[Chaudhry Muhammad Ali]] {{small|(1955–56)}}
| predecessor2        = [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad]]
| successor2          = ''Position abolished''
| order3              = 4th [[Interior Minister of Pakistan|Minister of Interior of Pakistan]]
| term_start3         = 24 October 1954
| term_end3           = 7 August 1955
| primeminister3      = [[Mohammad Ali Bogra]]
| predecessor3        = [[Mushtaq Ahmed Gurmani]]
| successor3          = [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]]
| order4              = [[Ministry of States and Frontier Regions (Pakistan)|Minister of States and Frontier Regions]]
| term_start4         = 24 October 1954
| term_end4           = 7 August 1955
| primeminister4      = Mohammad Ali Bogra
| order5              = Governor of East-Bengal
| term_start5         = 29 May 1954
| term_end5           = 23 October 1954
| 1blankname5         = {{nowrap|Chief Minister}}
| 1namedata5          = [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]]
| governor_general5   = [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad]]
| predecessor5        = [[Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman]]
| successor5          = [[Muhammad Shahabuddin]] <small>(Acting)</small>
| order6              = [[Defence Secretary of Pakistan|Secretary of Defence]]
| term_start6         = 23 October 1947
| term_end6           = 6 May 1954
| primeminister6      = [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] {{small|(1947–51)}}<br />[[Khawaja Nazimuddin]] {{small|(1951–53)}}<br />[[Mohammad Ali Bogra]] {{small|(1953–54)}}
| 1blankname6         = {{nowrap|Minister}}
| 1namedata6          = Liaquat Ali Khan
| predecessor6        = [[Independence of Pakistan|''State established'']]
| successor6          = [[Akhter Husain]]
| order7              = Vice-President of the [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|Republican Party]]
| term_start7         = 1956
| term_end7           = 1958
| president7          = [[Feroz Khan Noon]]
| order8              = [[Defence Minister of Pakistan|Minister of Defence]]<br /><small>Acting</small>
| term_start8         = 16 October 1951
| term_end8           = 17 October 1951
| predecessor8        = [[L. A. Khan]]
| successor8          = [[Khawaja Nazimuddin]]
| birth_name          = Iskandar Ali Mirza
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1899|11|13|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Murshidabad]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[British India]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1969|11|13|1899|11|13|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[London]], England
| resting_place       = [[Imamzadeh Abdullah, Rey|Imamzadeh Abdullah]], [[Tehran]], Iran
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| citizenship         = [[British India]] {{small|(1899–1947)}}<br />[[United Kingdom]] {{small|(1958–1969)}}<br />[[Pakistani]] {{small|(1947–1958)}}<ref name="Scarecrow Press, Rahman">{{cite book |last1=Rahman |first1=Syedur |year=2010|title=Historical Dictionary of Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJfcCPUr0OoC&pg=PR51 |location=Plymouth, UK |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=li |isbn=978-0-8108-7453-4 |access-date=30 March 2017 |language=en}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=July 2020}}
| party               = [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|Republican Party]] {{small|(1956–1958)}}
| otherparty          = [[Muslim League (Pakistan)|Muslim League]] {{small|(1955–1956)}}
| height              = <!-- "X cm", "X m"  or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) -->
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Rifaat Begum|1922|1953}}
* {{marriage|[[Nahid Mirza]]|1954|1969}}
}}
| children            = 6
| relatives           = [[Nawabs of Murshidabad]] (paternal)<br />[[Tyabji family]] (maternal)
| residence           = [[Dhaka]], [[East Pakistan|East Bengal]] <br /> [[London]], [[England]]
| education           = 
| alma_mater          = [[Royal Military College, Sandhurst]]<br />[[Bombay University]]
| occupation          = 
| profession          = 
| known_for           = 
| awards              = [[File:Order of the Sun (Afghanistan) - ribbon bar.gif|30px]]{{small|[[Order of the Supreme Sun|Nishan-i-Lmar]]}}<br />[[File:Order of Pahlavi (Iran).gif|30px]]{{small|[[Order of Pahlavi|Nishan-e-Pahlavi]]}}<br />[[File:Order of the Indian Empire Ribbon.svg|30px]]{{small|[[Order of the Indian Empire]]}}
| blank1              = 
| data1               = 
| signature           = 
| signature_alt       = 
| branch              = {{army|British Raj}}<br />{{army|PAK}}
| serviceyears        = 1920–1954
| rank                = [[File:OF-7 Pakistan Army.svg|10px]] [[File:US-O8 insignia.svg|24px]] [[Major general|Major-General]]
| unit                = [[Pakistan Army Corps of Military Police|Corps of Military Police]]
| commands            = [[Pakistan Army Corps of Military Police|Corps of Military Police]]<br />[[East Pakistan Rifles]]
| battles             = [[Waziristan campaign (1936–1939)]]<br />[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]]
| mawards             = [[File:Order of the British Empire (Military) Ribbon.png|30px]]{{small|[[Order of the British Empire]]}}<br />[[File:India General Service Medal 1909 BAR.svg|30px]]{{small|[[India General Service Medal (1909)|General Service Medal]]}}
| module              = 
| footnotes           = 
}}
'''Iskander Ali Mirza'''{{Efn|{{langx|bn|ইস্কান্দার আলী মির্জা}}<br />{{langx|ur|{{nastaliq|اسکندر علی مرزا}}}}}} (13 November 1899{{Snd}}13 November 1969) was a Pakistani politician and military general who served as the fourth and last [[Governor-General of Pakistan|governor-general of Pakistan]] from 1955 to 1956, and then as the first [[president of Pakistan]] from the [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|promulgation of the first constitution]] in 1956 until his [[1958 Pakistani military coup|overthrow in a coup d'état]] in 1958, following his declaration of [[martial law]] and unilateral [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956#Demise|abrogation of the constitution]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-24 |title=Memoirs Claim MA Jinnah Ordered Iskander Mirza To Prepare For Communal Violence |url=https://thefridaytimes.com/24-May-2024/memoirs-claim-ma-jinnah-ordered-iskander-mirza-to-prepare-for-communal-violence |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=The Friday Times |language=en}}</ref>

Mirza was educated at the [[University of Bombay]] before attending the [[Royal Military College, Sandhurst]]. After [[military service]] in the [[British Indian Army]], he joined the [[Indian Political Service]] and spent the most of his career as a [[Political officer (British Empire)|political agent]] in the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–55)|Western region]] of [[British India]] until elevated as [[Joint Secretary to the Government of India]]<ref name="Head State"/><ref name="Head State2"/><ref name="Mirza">{{cite web |title=Iskandar Mirza - Rise and Fall of a President |url=https://sanipanhwar.com/uploads/books/2024-08-27_15-35-05_bf905997ddcdf1076610ff0b82158f86.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250726120502/https://sanipanhwar.com/uploads/books/2024-08-27_15-35-05_bf905997ddcdf1076610ff0b82158f86.pdf |access-date=26 July 2025 |archive-date=26 July 2025 }}</ref> at the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] in [[New Delhi]] in 1946.<ref name="Head State">{{cite book|title=Heads of States and Governments Since 1945|last=Lentz|first=Harris M. |publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2014|isbn=9781134264971}}</ref><ref name="Head State2">{{cite book|title=The City of Hope - The Faridabad Story|last=Jain|first=L. C.|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1998|isbn=9788170227489}}</ref> Following the [[independence of Pakistan]] in 1947 as a result of the [[Partition of British India]], Mirza was appointed as the first [[Defence Secretary of Pakistan|Defence Secretary]] by prime minister [[Liaquat Ali Khan]], only to oversee the military efforts in the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1947|first war with India]] in 1947, followed by the failed [[Balochistan conflict|secession]] in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] in 1948. In 1954, he was appointed as the [[Governor of East Pakistan|Governor]] of his home province of [[East Bengal]] by [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Mohammad Ali Bogra]] to control the law and order situation sparked by the popular [[Bengali Language Movement|language movement]] in 1952, but was later elevated as [[Interior Minister of Pakistan|Interior Minister]] in the [[Mohammad Ali Bogra|Bogra administration]] in 1955.

Playing a crucial role in the ousting of Governor-General [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad]], Mirza assumed his position in 1955 and was [[Elections in Pakistan|elected]] as the first President of Pakistan when the [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|first Constitution]] was promulgated in 1956. His presidency, however, was marked with political instability which saw his [[Semi-presidential system|unconstitutional interferences]] in the [[Government of Pakistan|civilian administration]] that led to the dismissal of four prime ministers in a mere two years. Facing challenges in getting the political endorsements and reelection for the [[Pakistani presidency|presidency]], Mirza surprisingly suspended the [[Rule of law|writ]] of the Constitution by imposing [[1958 Pakistani coup d'état|martial law]] against his own [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|party]]'s administration governed by Prime Minister [[Feroz Khan Noon]] on 8 October 1958, enforcing it through his army commander [[General Ayub Khan]]. Three weeks later, General Ayub ousted President Mirza when the situation between them escalated and sent him into exile. Mirza lived in the United Kingdom for the remainder of his life and was buried in [[Imperial State of Iran|Iran]] in 1969.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Siddiqi |first=Muhammad Ali |date=2023-10-22 |title=NON-FICTION: ISKANDER MIRZA'S VERSION |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1782798 |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>

His legacy and image are viewed negatively by some [[:Category:Pakistani historians|Pakistani historians]] who believe that Mirza was responsible for weakening [[democracy]] and causing political instability in the country.

==Origins==

===Ancestral roots and family background===

{{Main|Mir Jafar|Nawab of Bengal}}

Sahibzada Iskandar Ali Mirza<ref>{{cite web | url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Sahibzada+Iskander+Ali+Mirza | title=Sahibzada Iskander Ali Mirza }}</ref> was born in [[Murshidabad]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], in [[British Indian Empire|India]] on 13 November 1899,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lentz |first1=Harris M. |title=Heads of States and Governments |year=2013 |orig-year=First published 1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-26497-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwfKAgAAQBAJ&q=iskandar+mirza+born+13+November+1899&pg=PA1896 |page=606 |access-date=20 January 2018 |language=en}}</ref> into an elite and wealthy aristocrat family who were titled as [[Nawab of Bengal]] and later after 1880, [[Nawab of Murshidabad]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Baxter |first=Craig |author-link=Craig Baxter |year=1997 |title=Bangladesh: From a Nation to a State |location=Boulder, CO |publisher=Westview Press |pages=23, 64 |isbn=978-0-8133-2854-6 |quote=Members and collaterals of the [Murshidabad] nawab family have been prominent in Pakistani politics, including Iskandar Mirza ... Mirza was a member of the Murshidabad family of Sirajuddaulah."}}</ref> Mirza was the eldest{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} child of Nawab Fateh Ali Mirza and Dilshad Begum (1875–1925).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Salīm |first1=Ahmad |year=1997 |title=Iskander Mirza: Rise and Fall of a President |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCNuAAAAMAAJ&q=Fateh+Ali+Mirza |location=Lahore, Pakistan |publisher=Gora Publishers |pages=15, 18 |oclc=254567097 |access-date=20 January 2018 |language=en}}</ref> From his grandfather's ancestral roots, he was of [[Sayyid|Syed]] [[Arabs in India|Iraqi Arab descent]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Streissguth |first1=Thomas |year=2008 |title=Bangladesh in Pictures |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-8577-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cwk281bnHa8C&q=mir+jafar+arab&pg=PA27 |page=27 |access-date=31 March 2017 |language=en}}</ref> The Nawab of Murshidabad family was an influential and wealthy feudal family in Bengal, with close ties to the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarchy]]. His father, Fateh Ali Mirza, belonged to the ruling house of Murshidabad, grandson of the first Nawab [[Mansur Ali Khan]].{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} He was the descendant of [[Mir Jafar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hasina |first1=Sheikh |title=Secret documents of intelligence branch on father of the nation, Bangladesh : Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 1948–1971 : declassified documents |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9780367467968}}</ref> Mirza's mother belonged to the [[Bombay]]-based [[Tyabji family]] of [[Cambay State|Cambay]] and was the niece of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] president [[Badruddin Tyabji]] of the [[Sulaymani Bohra]] community.<ref>{{citation|title=Tyabjis – early members of new Indian middle class|author=Khan, Danish|year=2014}}</ref>

===Education, military and political service in British India (1920–47)===

[[File:Iskander Mirza, in British Indian Army.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Iskander Mirza as [[Second Lieutenant|2nd-Lt]] in the [[British Indian Army]], [[1920 in India|ca.1920]].]]

==== Education ====

Mirza grew up and completed his schooling in [[Bombay]], attending the [[Elphinstone College]] of the [[University of Mumbai|University of Bombay]], but left the university to attend the [[Royal Military College, Sandhurst|Royal Military College]] in Sandhurst when he was selected by the British [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] for the [[King's Commissioned Indian Officer|King's Commission]].<ref name="Gora Publishers, Salim">{{cite book |last1=Salīm|first1=Aḥmad |year=1997 |title=Iskander Mirza: Rise and Fall of a President |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCNuAAAAMAAJ&q=first+indian |location=Lahore, Pakistan |publisher=Gora Publishers |pages=17, 20 |access-date=31 March 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Routledge, Khan">{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Feisal |year=2015 |title=Islamic Banking in Pakistan: Shariah-Compliant Finance and the Quest to make Pakistan more Islamic |publisher=Routledge |page=26 |isbn=978-1-317-36652-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1pACwAAQBAJ&q=iskander+mirza+university+of+bombay&pg=PT58 |access-date=31 March 2017 |language=en |quote=Mirza ... attended Bombay University before joining the British Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, as its first Indian cadet.}}</ref><ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d">{{cite web |title=Teething Years: Iskander Mirza |url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/person.asp?perid=P015 |website=Story of Pakistan |date=June 2003 |access-date=1 February 2012 |archive-date=9 December 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209063751/http://storyofpakistan.com/iskander-mirza/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Military Service ====

Mirza was the first Indian graduate of the military college, and gained his [[Commissioned officer|commission]] in the [[British Indian Army]] as a [[Second Lieutenant|2nd Lt.]] on 16 July 1920.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mirza|first1=Humayun|title=From Plassey to Pakistan: The Family History of Iskander Mirza, the First President of Pakistan|date=2002|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780761823490|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8vAQAAIAAJ&q=iskander+mirza+graduated |page=132 |access-date=31 March 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /><ref>{{London Gazette|issue=32005 |supp=y|page=8141|date=3 August 1920}}</ref> As was customary for newly commissioned British Indian Army officers, he was initially attached for a year to the second battalion of the [[Cameronians (Scottish Rifles)]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /> On 16 July 1921, he was promoted to lieutenant and was assigned to command a platoon on 30 December 1921.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=32665|page=2819|date=7 April 1922}}</ref>

His military career was spent in the [[Indian Army Corps of Military Police|Military Police]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /> In spite of hailing from [[United Bengal|Bengal]], his military career was mostly spent in the violent [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] of India, participating in the [[Waziristan campaign (1919–1920)|Waziristan war]] in 1920.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /> After the campaign, he was transferred to the [[Poona Horse|17th Poona Horse]] (Queen Victoria's Own), as an army inspector but left active service to join the [[Indian Political Service]] (IPS) in August 1926.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /><ref name="record_list">{{cite book|pages=353|title=The India Office and Burma Office List: 1945|publisher=Harrison & Sons, Ltd.|year=1945}}</ref>

==== Indian Political Service ====

His first assignment was a posting in [[Aligarh]] in what is now [[Uttar Pradesh]] as an [[Assistant commissioner of police (India)|assistant commissioner]] before posting as a [[Political officer (British Empire)|political agent]] in [[Hazara region|Hazara]] in the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /><ref name="record_list" /> He received his promotion to [[Captain (land)|captain]] on 17 October 1927.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=33367|page=1935|date=16 March 1928}}</ref>

During his time spent fighting for the [[British Raj|British Empire]] against [[Waziristan campaign (1919–1920)|Pashtun Freedom Fighters in Waziristan]], he learnt to speak [[Pashto]] fluently for his deployment in the [[North-West Frontier Province|North-West Frontier]].<ref>''Mohammad H.R. Talukdar''  [https://books.google.com/books?id=gUZAPwAACAAJ Memoirs of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy] Dacca University Press (1987) ''"after serving in the army for some time and being wounded in a skirmish with the Pathans, joined the political service and spent most of his professional life among the Pathan s as a British political agent in the tribal areas. '''He spoke Pushto fluently''' and had learned the art of offering suitable inducements and of playing off one party against another." pg. 102''</ref> From 1928 to 1933, Mirza spent time as a political agent in the troubled [[Tribal belt (Pakistan)|Tribal Belt]], having served as an [[assistant commissioner]] in the districts of [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ismail Khan]] in April 1928, [[Tonk district|Tonk]] in May 1928, [[Bannu district|Bannu]] in April 1930, and [[Nowshera district|Nowshera]] in April 1931.<ref name="record_list"/> In 1931, Captain Mirza was appointed a district officer and was later posted as deputy commissioner at Hazara in May 1933, where he served for three years until a posting to Mardan as assistant commissioner from October 1936 (deputy commissioner from January 1937).<ref name="record_list"/> Promoted to major on 16 July 1938,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=34539|page=5055|date=5 August 1938}}</ref> he became the political agent of the Tribal Belt in April 1938, stationed at Khyber. He remained there until 1945.<ref name="record_list"/><ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/>

Mirza was appointed and served as the political agent of [[Odisha]] and North West Frontier Province from 1945 until 1946.<ref name="Electronic Gov't">{{cite web |title=President Iskandar Mirza |url=http://www.president.gov.pk/index.php?lang=en&opc=2&sel=4&pId=1 |website=Ministry of Information and Public Broadcasting |publisher=Government of Pakistan |access-date=1 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116103426/http://www.president.gov.pk/index.php?lang=en&opc=2&sel=4&pId=1 |archive-date=16 January 2014}}</ref> He was promoted to [[lieutenant-colonel]] on 16 July 1946.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=37747|page=4946|date=4 October 1946}}</ref> His ability to run the colonial administrative units had brought him to prominence that prompted the British Indian Government to appoint him as the [[Joint Secretary to the Government of India]]<ref name="Head State"/><ref name="Head State2"/> in [[New Delhi]] in 1946.<ref name="Electronic Gov't"/> In this position, he was responsible for dividing the British Indian Army into the future armies of Pakistan and India.<ref name="Electronic Gov't"/> Around this time, he became closer to [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] and began formatting political relations with the politicians of the [[All India Muslim League|Muslim League]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" /> About him [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] wrote: ""According to my instructions the mass movement was launched. A Muslim Deputy-Commissioner, Janab Iskander Mirza, avowing his traditional loyalty to the British, excelled his masters, beating to death Syed Akbar, a Khudai Khidmatgar. He went to the extent of poisoning vegetables in a Khudai Khidmatgar camp. Those who ate them were taken seriously ill. I would rather not expose his other crimes but would rather produce him before the Almighty, whom we all have to face on the Day of judgement."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tendulkar |first1=D. G. |author-link=Dinanath Gopal Tendulkar |year=1967 |title=Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Faith is a Battle |publisher=Gandhi Peace Foundation |location=Bombay |pages=355 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzI6AQAAIAAJ |access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref>

==Political career in Pakistan==

===Defence Secretary (1947–54)===

He was appointed as the first [[Defence Secretary of Pakistan|Defence Secretary]] in the Liaquat administration by the Prime Minister [[Liaquat Ali Khan]], who relied on running the government on the British viceregal model with the close coordination of the [[Pakistani civil servant|civilian bureaucracy]], the [[Police Service of Pakistan|police]], and the [[Pakistani military|military]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Mokerrom |year=2010 |title=From Protest to Freedom: A Book for the New Generation: the Birth of Bangladesh |publisher=Mokerrom |isbn=978-0-615-48695-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vt3KxEBYk0C&q=Iskander+Mirza+joined+Liaquat&pg=PA91 |page=91 |access-date=31 March 2017 |language=en}}</ref> As Defence Secretary, he oversaw the military efforts in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|first war]] with India in 1947, as well as witnessing the [[Balochistan conflict|failed secession]] in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] by [[Khan of Kalat]].<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Hasnat">{{cite book |last1=Hasnat |first1=Syed Farooq |year=2011 |title=Global Security Watch—Pakistan |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-34698-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KiELa2EoA04C&q=Iskander+Mirza+balochistan+1948&pg=PA94 |page=94 |access-date=31 March 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bajwa |first1=Kuldip Singh |title=Jammu and Kashmir War, 1947–1948: Political and Military Perspective |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124109236 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bREjE5yXNMC&q=Iskander+Mirza+1947+war&pg=PA40 |language=en |year=2003}}</ref>

In 1950, Mirza was promoted to [[two-star rank]], having skipped the one-star promotion as [[brigadier]], and upgraded his rank to [[major-general]] in the [[Pakistan Army]] by the promotion papers approved by Prime Minister Ali Khan. He was appointed as [[colonel commandant]] of the [[Pakistan Army Corps of Military Police|Military Police]] while serving as the Defence secretary in the Liaquat administration. In 1951, Prime minister Ali Khan appointed him as the director of the Department of Kashmir and Afghanistan Affairs (DKA).{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

His tenure as defense secretary also saw the deployment of Military Police in [[East Pakistan]] (now Bangladesh) as a result of the [[Bengali language movement]], during which the [[East Pakistan Rifles]] fatally shot four student activists.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} Within a short span of time, the Military Police had control of the state and its commanding officer submitted the report of their course of action to Major General Iskander Mirza in 1954.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" />

In 1951, he backed the Liaquat administration's decision of appointing the native chiefs of staff of the [[Pakistan Army|army]], [[Pakistan Air Force|air force]], and [[Pakistan Navy|navy]], and dismissed deputation appointments from the [[British military]].<ref name="Springer, Reimer">{{cite book |last1=Cheema |first1=Pervaiz I. |author1-link=Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema |last2=Riemer |first2=Manuel |year=1990 |title=Pakistan's Defence Policy 1947–58 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-20942-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CX6xCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |page=82 |access-date=3 November 2016 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tudor |first1=Maya |year=2013 |title=The Promise of Power: The Origins of Democracy in India and Autocracy in Pakistan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-03296-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2-9ahosP94C&q=commander+in+chief+pakistan+ayub+1953&pg=PA30 |page=30 |access-date=3 November 2016 |language=en}}</ref> For the [[Four-star rank|four-star]] appointment, the [[GHQ (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]] sent the nomination papers to the [[Prime Minister's Secretariat (Pakistan)|Prime Minister's Secretariat]] that included four-senior [[major-general]]s in the race for the [[Commander in Chief (Pakistan Army)|army command]] of the Pakistan Army: Major-General [[Iftikhar Khan]], Major-General [[Muhammed Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]], Major-General [[Ishfakul Majid]], and Major-General [[N.A.M. Raza]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Siddiqui |first=A. R. |date=25 April 2004 |title=Army's top slot: the seniority factor |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1065891 |newspaper=Dawn}}</ref>

Initially, it was Major-General [[Iftikhar Khan]] who was promoted to four-star rank and selected to be appointed as the first native commander of the army but died in an airplane crash en route after finishing the senior [[staff officer|staff officers']] course in the United Kingdom.<ref name="paksoldiers.com">{{cite news |title=Appointments of Pakistan Army Commanders and Historic Facts |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/470253-appointments-of-pakistan-army-commanders-and-historic-facts |access-date=3 November 2016 |work=The News International |date=2 December 2013}}</ref> All three remaining major-generals were bypassed including the recommended senior-most Major-General [[Muhammed Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and Major-General [[Ishfakul Majid]] due to Major-General Mirza's lobbying for the army selection when he presented convincing arguments to Prime Minister [[Liaquat Ali Khan|Ali Khan]] to promote the junior-most Major-General [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]] to the post despite the fact that his name was not included in the nomination list.<ref name="paksoldiers.com"/> Ayub's papers of promotion were controversially approved and was appointed as the first native [[Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army]] with a promotion to the rank of Lieutenant General (acting full General) on 17 January 1951 by Prime Minister Ali Khan.<ref name="Springer, Reimer"/>

With Ayub becoming the [[Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army|army chief]], it marked a change in the military tradition of preferring native Pakistanis and ending the transitional role of [[British Army]] officers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haqqani |first=Hussain |author-link=Husain Haqqani |year=2010 |title=Pakistan Between Mosque and Military |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&pg=PA33 |publisher=Carnegie Endowment |page=33 |isbn=978-0-87003-285-1}}</ref> Also in 1951, he helped in elevating [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[HMS Choudri|M.S. Choudhri]] to the promotion to two-star rank, [[rear-admiral]], in order to assume the [[Commander in Chief (Pakistan Navy)|navy command]] of the Pakistan Navy, but it was not until in 1953 when [[HMS Choudri|Admiral Choudhri]] took over the command.<ref name="Springer, Reimer"/><ref name="NYU Press, Cheema">{{cite book |last1=Cheema |first1=Pervaiz Iqbal |author-link=Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema |year=2002 |title=The Armed Forces of Pakistan|publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-1633-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cw_gduyRv5oC&pg=PA93 |pages=93–94 |access-date=3 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

===Governorship of East Bengal and Cabinet Minister (1954–55)===

{{Main|Bogra Formula|One Unit}}

[[File:Iskander Mirza, Governor General of Pakistan, with his highness, Shah of Iran.jpg|framed|left|Iskander Mirza (right) meeting the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]], as the Governor General of Pakistan]]

Due to rapid political instability in [[East Bengal]], Mirza was relieved as [[Defence Secretary of Pakistan|Defence Secretary]] and took over the governorship of East Bengal, in an appointment approved by then [[Governor-General of Pakistan|Governor-General]] [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad|Sir Malik Ghulam]] on 29 May 1954.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003">{{cite web|title=Iskander Mirza|url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/person.asp?perid=P015|website=The Story of Pakistan|access-date=2 February 2012|date=June 2003|archive-date=9 December 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209063751/http://storyofpakistan.com/iskander-mirza/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 1 June 1954, Mirza took over the [[Government of East Pakistan|Government of East Bengal]] from Chief Minister [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]] as part of the [[governor's rule]] that dismissed the [[United Front (East Pakistan)|United Front]].<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/><ref name="APH Publishing, Ahmed">{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Salahuddin |year=2004 |title=Bangladesh: Past and Present |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=9788176484695 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Szfqq7ruqWgC&q=iskander+mirza+governor+bengal&pg=PA142 |page=142 |access-date=6 April 2017 |language=en}}</ref> He imposed [[Military coups in Bangladesh|martial law]], backed by the [[East Pakistan Rifles]], and dismissed the [[East Bengal Legislative Assembly]].<ref name="APH Publishing, Ahmed"/>

After landing at the then [[Dacca Airport]], Mirza sharply announced in the [[Bengali language]] to the [[Media of Pakistan|Pakistan media]] representatives, that he would not hesitate to use force in order to establish peace in the province, and personally threatening [[Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani|Maulana Bhashani]] of shooting him.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/>{{rp|142}}

Iskander Mirza ruled East Pakistan with an iron fist, having arrested 319–659 political activists in his first week, including [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] and [[Yusuf Ali Chowdhury]].<ref name="APH Publishing, Ahmed"/><ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/>

By mid-June 1954, the number of arrests reached 1,051, including 33 assembly members and two [[Dhaka University]] professors.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/> His authoritative actions had sown a permanent seed of hatred for the [[Pakistani government]] in the hearts of the people of East Pakistan.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/> Amid criticism at the public level in Pakistan, Mirza was relieved from the post of the Governorship to East Bengal to [[Muhammad Shahabuddin]] in October 1954.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bangabhaban.gov.bd/Homes/banglahistory_submenu/12/51 |title=Pakistan Period (1947–1971) |website=Bangabhaban – The President House of Bangladesh |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414050508/http://bangabhaban.gov.bd/Homes/banglahistory_submenu/12/51 |archive-date=14 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ellis,_Sir_Thomas_Hobart|title=Ellis, Sir Thomas Hobart |website=Banglapedia |access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref> On 24 October 1954, he was appointed as [[Interior Minister of Pakistan|Interior Minister]] in the [[Mohammad Ali Bogra|Bogra administration]] of Prime Minister [[Mohammad Ali Bogra]].<ref name="Routledge, Kapur">{{cite book |last1=Kapur |first1=Ashok |year=2006 |title=Pakistan in Crisis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv2IAgAAQBAJ&q=iskander+mirza+Interior+minister&pg=PA32 |publisher=Routledge |page=32 |isbn=978-1-134-98977-5 |access-date=6 April 2017 |language=en}}</ref> During this time, he had maintained close political ties to the United States's establishment and was backed by Governor-General [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad|Sir Malik Ghulam]] for this post, which Mirza only remained at until 7 August 1955.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" />

As an Interior Minister, he provided strong political advocacy for the controversial geopolitical program, [[One Unit|One-unit]], which he faced strong criticism on by [[West Pakistan]]'s politicians and the public in general.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003a" />

===Governor-General of Pakistan (1955–56)===

In the [[Mohammad Ali Bogra|Bogra administration]], he also took care of the matters of the [[Ministry of States and Frontier Regions (Pakistan)|Commonwealth and Kashmir affairs ministry]] as he had gained major political influence in the administration in 1955.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003a">{{cite web|title=Iskander Mirza Becomes Governor-General [1955]|url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A059|website=Story of Pakistan|access-date=2 February 2012|date=June 2003|archive-date=2 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202042923/http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A059|url-status=dead}}</ref> During this time, [[Governor-General of Pakistan|Governor-General]] [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad|Malik Ghulam]] survived another attack of [[paralysis]] that made him unable to talk and walk, seeking treatment in the United Kingdom on a two-month leave.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003a" />

Appointed only as [[Governor-General of Pakistan|acting governor-general]] since 7 August 1955, Mirza dismissed [[Malik Ghulam Muhammad|Sir Malik Ghulam]] to take over his post on 6 October 1955, and [[Forced resignation|forced]] Prime Minister Bogra to resign when he appointed him as the [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003a"/> On 12 August 1955, he invited [[Muhammad Ali (politician)|Muhammad Ali]], the [[Finance Minister of Pakistan|Finance Minister]], to take over the government as a prime minister.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/>

==Presidency (1956–58)==

[[File:Iskander Mirza being sworn in as the President of Pakistan (August 7, 1955).ogv|framed|Iskander Mirza being sworn in as the first President of Pakistan.]]
The newly constituted [[Electoral College (Pakistan)|Electoral College]] [[1956 Pakistani presidential election|unanimously elected]] Mirza as the interim [[President of Pakistan|president]] upon the promulgation of the [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|first set]] of the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]] on 23 March 1956.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003b">{{cite web|title=Iskander Mirza Becomes President [1956]|url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A062|website=Story of Pakistan|access-date=2 February 2012|date=June 2003|archive-date=21 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221225038/http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A062|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Coalition government|coalition]] of the [[All-Pakistan Awami League|Awami League]], the [[Pakistan Muslim League|Muslim League]], and the [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|Republican Party]] endorsed his presidency.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003b"/>

The Constitution drives the country's [[system of government]] towards [[Parliamentary democracy|parliamentarianism]], with [[Executive branch|executive powers]] vested under the elected [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] while the president served as a [[Figurehead|ceremonial]] [[head of state]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003b"/>

On 12 September 1956, he established and became vice-president of the [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|Republican Party]] that was in direct conflict with the [[Pakistan Muslim League|Muslim League]], mainly due to disagreements on the idea of republicanism and conservatism.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/> Unable to keep the substantial pressure on Mirza's Republic Party eventually led the Muslim League's successful demand for the resignation of Prime Minister [[Chaudhry Muhammad Ali|Muhammad Ali]] on 12 September 1956.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chaudhry Muhammad Ali Becomes Prime Minister |url=http://storyofpakistan.com/chaudhry-muhammad-ali-becomes-prime-minister |website=Story of Pakistan |date=1 June 2003 |access-date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

Upon these developments, President Mirza invited the [[Bangladesh Awami League|Awami League]] to form the central government that appointed [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy|Huseyn Suhrawardy]] as the Prime Minister, who made an alliance with the Republican Party, to take over charge of the government.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003e">{{cite web |title=H. S. Suhrawardy Becomes Prime Minister |url=http://storyofpakistan.com/h-s-suhrawardy-becomes-prime-minister |website=Story of Pakistan |date=1 July 2003 |access-date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Shah Pahlavi of Iran making a state visit to Pakistan (1956).ogv|framed|right|Shah of Iran's first state visit to Pakistan]]

Despite both being ethnic [[Bengalis]] and hailing from [[East Pakistan| East Bengal]], the two leaders had very different views of running the central government and both leaders were in brief conflict, causing harm to the [[Unity, Faith and Discipline|unity]] of the nation.<ref name="The Story of Pakistan-2003"/> Prime Minister Suhrawardy found it extremely difficult to govern effectively due to the issue of [[One Unit]], alleviating the [[Economy of Pakistan|national economy]], and President Mirza's constant unconstitutional interference in the [[Suhrawardy administration]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003e"/>

President Mirza demanded the resignation of Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy|Suhrawardy]] and turned down his request to seek a [[motion of confidence]] at the [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003e"/> Threatened by President Mirza's dismissal, Prime Minister Suhrawardy tendered his resignation on 17 October 1957 and was succeeded by [[I. I. Chundrigar]] but he too was forced to resign in a mere two months.<ref>{{cite web |title=I. I. Chundrigar Becomes Prime Minister |url=http://storyofpakistan.com/i-i-chundrigar-becomes-prime-minister |website=Story of Pakistan |date=1 June 2003 |access-date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

President Mirza had widely lacked the parliamentary spirit, distrusting the civilians to ensure the integrity and sovereignty of the country.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003b"/> His unconstitutional interference in the [[Civil authority|civil administration]] made the elected prime ministers effectively unable to function, as he had dismissed four elected prime ministers in a matter of two years.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003b"/> On his last nomination, he appointed [[Feroz Khan Noon|Feroz Khan]] as the seventh Prime Minister of the country, who had been supported by the Awami League and the Muslim League.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d" />

===Martial law===

{{Main|Martial law in Pakistan}}

After the [[1954 East Pakistani legislative election|legislative elections]] held in 1954, the [[Awami League]] had been successfully negotiating with the [[Pakistan Muslim League|Muslim League]] for a [[Coalition government|power-sharing]] agreement to form the [[Government of Pakistan|national government]] against the [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|Republican Party]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003"/>

By 1958, [[I I Chundrigar|I.I. Chundrigar]] and [[Abdul Qayyum Khan|A.Q. Khan]] had successfully reorganized the Muslim League that was threatening the reelection and the political endorsement for Mirza for his second term of the presidency.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003"/> Furthermore, the [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|Republican Party]], presided by Prime Minister [[Feroz Khan Noon|Sir Feroze Khan]], had been under pressure over the electoral reforms issue at the [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003"/> Upon witnessing these developments, President Mirza ordered the mass mobilization of the military and imposed [[State of emergency|emergency]] rule in the country after declaring [[1958 Pakistani coup d'état|martial law]] against his own [[Republican Party (Pakistan)|party]]'s administration led by Prime Minister [[Feroz Khan Noon|Feroze Khan]] by abrogating the [[Rule of law|writ]] of the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]] and dissolving the [[National Assembly of Pakistan|national]] and [[:Category:Provincial Assemblies of Pakistan|provisional assemblies]] at midnight on 7/8 October 1958.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003">{{cite web|title=Martial Law|url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A065|website=Story of Pakistan|date=June 2003|access-date=2 February 2012|archive-date=7 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207032340/http://storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A065|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the morning of 8 October 1958, President Mirza announced via [[Radio Pakistan|national radio]] that he was introducing a new constitution "more suited to the genius of the Pakistan nation",<ref name="Hassan-2000"/> as he believed democracy was unsuited to Pakistan "with its 15% literacy rate".<ref name="Hassan-2000">{{cite book |last=Hassan |first=Mubashir |author-link=Mubashir Hassan |year=2000 |title=The Mirage of Power |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=394 |isbn=978-0-19-579300-0}}</ref> Upon abdicating, Mirza took the nation into confidence, saying that:

{{blockquote|text=Three weeks ago, I (Iskander Mirza) imposed martial law in Pakistan and appointed General Ayub Khan as [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Supreme Commander]] of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces| [Armed Forces]]] and also as [[Chief Martial Law Administrator]].... By the grace of [[Allah|God]]... This measure which I had adopted in the interest of our beloved country has been extremely well received by our people and by our friends and well wishers abroad... I have done best to administer in the difficult task of arresting further deterioration and bringing order out of chaos... In our efforts to evolve an effective structure for future administration of this country... [[Pakistan Zindabad|Pakistan Zindabad, Pakistan Zindabad!]]|sign=President Iskander Mirza, <small>abdicating on 1958.10.27</small>|source=<ref>{{cite web |last=Iqbal Academy Pakistan |title=Lengthy Text of President Iskander Ali Mirza's speech |url=http://therepublicofrumi.com/archives/58abdication.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602153442/http://therepublicofrumi.com/archives/58abdication.htm |archive-date=2 June 2013 |access-date=3 February 2012}}</ref>}}

This martial law imposed by the country's first president was the first example of [[Military coups in Pakistan|martial law]] in Pakistan, which would continue until the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|dissolution]] of East Pakistan in 1971.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003"/> Iskander Mirza appointed then-[[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Army Commander]] of the [[Pakistan Army]], General [[Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan)|Ayub Khan]], as the [[Chief Martial Law Administrator]] (CMLA), which proved his undoing within three weeks.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003"/>

===Dismissal and end of presidency===

The [[two-man rule]] political regime was evolved under President Mirza and his appointed [[Chief Martial Law Administrator|chief martial law administration]] and then-[[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|army chief]] General [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]].<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c">{{cite web |title=Ouster of President Iskander Mirza |url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A117 |website=Story of Pakistan |date=June 2003 |access-date=2 February 2012 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207032427/http://storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A117 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, the two men had very different [[point of view (philosophy)|points of view]] on running the government with the new situation, even though they were responsible for bringing about the change.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" />{{Rquote|right|I did not mean to do it.... The martial law would be for the shortest possible duration until the new elections....|President Mirza, 1958|<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" />}}

President Mirza had not envisaged any change in his previous powers; he wanted to retain the ability to maneuver things in keeping with his own whims.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" /> Judging from the situation, the things however had changed as the time and situation both were demanding the complete solution.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" /> General Ayub Khan came to an understanding that the real [[Power (politics)|political power]] rested with the support of the military, and within a week of enforcing [[Martial law in Pakistan|martial law]], President Mirza realized the delicate position he got himself into.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" /> In an interview with [[Dawn (newspaper)|''Dawn'']], President Mirza regretted his decision saying: "I did not mean to do it"<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" /> while offering assurances that martial law would be for the shortest possible duration.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-10 |title=Mohammed Ayub Khan {{!}} Biography, Reforms, & Martial Law {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mohammad-Ayub-Khan |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1958, President Mirza accepted the resignation of Vice-Admiral [[HMS Choudri|M.S. Choudhri]], replacing him with Vice-Admiral [[Afzal Rahman Khan|A.R. Khan]] as the new [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|naval chief]] but [[Civil military relations|civil-military relations]] continued to be a dominant factor between President Mirza and General Ayub Khan.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c" />

Mirza unilaterally made Ayub Khan Prime Minister and appointed a new [[Cabinet of Pakistan|cabinet]] of technocrats for him.<ref name="Nation Books, Hiro">{{cite book |last1=Hiro |first1=Dilip |author-link=Dilip Hiro |title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpPCBAAAQBAJ&q=Mirza++Ayub+Khan%E2%80%99s+rivals&pg=PA149 |year=2015 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=978-1-56858-503-1 |page=149 |language=en}}</ref>

The new administration did not satisfy CMLA Ayub Khan who had more control in the administration than President Mirza.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c"/> Ayub dispatched the military unit to enter the [[Aiwan-e-Sadr|presidential palace]] on midnight of 26–27 October 1958 and placed him in an airplane to be exiled to England.<ref>{{cite book|title=Army and Democracy: Military Politics in Pakistan|author=Aqil Shah|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2014|isbn= 978-0-674-72893-6}}</ref><ref name="Springer, Rizvi" /> Subsequently, Admiral A. R. Khan and [[Gang of Four (Pakistan)|four army and air force generals]]: [[Azam Khan (general)|Azam]], [[Amir Mohammad Khan|Amir]], [[Wajid Ali Khan Burki|Wajid]], and [[Asghar Khan]] were instrumental in the dismissal of President Mirza.<ref name="Springer, Rizvi">{{cite book|last1=Rizvi|first1=H. |year=2000 |title=Military, State and Society in Pakistan|publisher=Springer, Rizvi|isbn=9780230599048|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwGIDAAAQBAJ&q=Afzal+Rahman+Khan+admiral&pg=PA104 |page=104 |access-date=1 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003c"/>

==Exile and death==

[[File:Iskandar Mirza funeral 2.jpg|thumb|Mirza's state funeral in the [[Sepahsalar Mosque]], [[Tehran]]]]

Exiled in 1959, Mirza lived the remainder of his [[Life in Exile After Abdication|life in exile]] in London, England, where he financially struggled running a small [[Pakistani cuisine|Pakistani cuisine hotel]] until his death.<ref name="Jang Publications">{{cite web |url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/books/archive/051225/books15.htm |title=Rewviews: Rehabilitation overdue |author=Humair Ishtiaq |date=25 December 2005 |work=Dawn |location=Karachi, Pakistan |publisher=Jang Publications |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130121084926/http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/books/archive/051225/books15.htm |archive-date=21 January 2013 |access-date=2 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was reported widely by Pakistani media that despite hailing from a wealthy Nawab and aristocratic family, Mirza lived in [[Life in extreme conditions|poverty]] in England and his regular income was based on his retirement pension of £3,000 as a former military officer and president. Foreign dignitaries such as [[Ardeshir Zahedi]], [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]], [[Kenneth James William Mackay, 3rd Earl of Inchcape|Lord Inchcape]], Lord Hume, and [[Pakistani billionaires]] [[Pakistani community of London|in London]] made his life in exile tolerable.<ref name="Humayun Mirza 1999"/>

At the London hospital where he died, he once said to his wife, Nahid: "We cannot afford medical treatment, so just let me die."<ref name="Humayun Mirza 1999">Humayun Mirza, From Plassey to Pakistan: The Family History of Iskander Mirza, 1999, Ferozsons, Lahore</ref>

He died of a heart attack on 13 November 1969, his 70th birthday. [[Yahya Khan]], the [[president of Pakistan]], denied him a burial in [[East Pakistan]]. [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], the [[List of monarchs of Persia|Shah of Iran]], sent his personal plane to London to bring President Mirza's body to [[Tehran]], where he was given a [[state funeral]]. Hundreds of Iranians, including Prime Minister [[Amir-Abbas Hoveyda|Abbas Hoveyda]], and [[Pakistanis in Iran|Pakistani expatriates in Iran]] bade farewell and offered their prayers.<ref name="Jang Publications"/>

The funeral ceremony was marred by the absence of Iskander Mirza's relatives living in Pakistan. The military government barred them from leaving Pakistan in time despite the best efforts of Ardeshir Zahedi, Iran's foreign minister, and President Iskander Mirza's friends in Pakistan and Iran. There are unfounded rumors that after the [[Islamic Revolution]] in Iran (1979), his grave was desecrated.<ref name="Jang Publications"/>

===Family===

Mirza was married twice: his first marriage took place on 24 November 1922, when he married an Iranian woman, Rifaat Begum (1907–23 March 1967). The couple had two sons and four daughters.<ref name="Times of India">{{cite news|last=Kabita Chowdhury|title=First Pakistan president's Bengal home in a shambles|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/First-Pakistani-presidents-Bengal-home-in-a-shambles/articleshow/11286894.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=29 December 2011|access-date=3 February 2012|archive-date=5 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505230755/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-29/kolkata/30568408_1_house-national-property-pratibha-patil|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Humayun Mirza]] is the only surviving son of Iskander Mirza. He was born in [[Poona]], India, and was educated at [[Doon School]]. He also studied in the U.K., before moving to the U.S., where he earned his MBA from [[Harvard]]. He married Josephine Hildreth, the daughter of [[Horace Hildreth]], the U.S. ambassador to Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-12 |title=Grounding the Humanities |url=https://www.bucknell.edu/news/grounding-humanities |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=www.bucknell.edu |language=en}}</ref> He retired from the [[World Bank]] in 1988. He lives in [[Bethesda, Maryland]]. He is the author of a book "From Plassey to Pakistan: The Family History of Iskander Mirza." Humayun's younger brother, [[Enver Mirza]], had died in a plane crash in 1953.

In October 1954, while in West Pakistan, Mirza's second marriage took place in Karachi after he fell in love with an Iranian aristocrat, [[Naheed Amirteymour]] (1919–2019), daughter of [[Amirteymour Kalali]]. She was a close friend of Begum [[Nusrat Bhutto]]. It was this friendship that brought [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] into the political arena of Pakistan.<ref name="ZAB calls Iskander Mirza">{{cite web |title=ZAB calls Iskander Mirza 'Greater Than Jinnah' |url=http://talkhaba.com/2011/06/iskander-mirza-was-greater-than-muhammad-ali-jinnah-z-a-bhutto-asserts.html |url-status=dead |publisher=Indian Press News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908185318/http://talkhaba.com/2011/06/iskander-mirza-was-greater-than-muhammad-ali-jinnah-z-a-bhutto-asserts.html |archive-date=8 September 2011 |access-date=3 February 2012}}</ref>

==Legacy==

Iskandar Ali Mirza is often criticized by [[:Category:Pakistani historians|Pakistani historians]] for imposing martial law.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/> Historians have noted that Mirza held that Pakistanis "lacked the parliamentary spirit and because of the lack of training in the field of democracy and the low literacy rate among the masses, democratic institutions cannot flourish in Pakistan".<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/> He believed that the judicial authorities should be given the same powers which they used to enjoy during the British Indian Empire.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Roraback |first1=Amanda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmClf6kOfA0C&pg=PA16 |title=Pakistan in a Nutshell |publisher=Enisen Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=9780970290892 |page=16 |language=en |access-date=30 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="Electronic Gov't" />

Mirza's political ideology reflected [[Secularism in Pakistan|secularism]], and an image of [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]], strongly advocating [[Separation of religion and state|religious separation in]] state matters.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/> Mirza had never had a high opinion of politicians.<ref name="Humayun Mirza 1999"/> He was well known for his conviction that the politicians were destroying the country. He felt that in order to work towards real and responsible democracy, the country must have what he called "controlled democracy".<ref name="Humayun Mirza 1999"/>

Historians also asserted that Mirza's role as the [[head of state]] led him to play an active part in power politics, building an image of being a [[kingmaker]] in the country's politics.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/> Mirza took full advantage of the weaknesses of politicians and played them against each other, first offsetting the influence of the Muslim League by creating the Republican Party.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/>{{Rquote|right|Your services are indispensable for Pakistan. When the history of our country is written by objective historians, your name will be placed even before that of Mr. Jinnah....|[[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], 1958|<ref name="ZAB calls Iskander Mirza"/>}}

During his short span of four years as the head of state, four prime ministers were changed, three of them were his appointees, while the only popularly elected Bengali prime minister was dismissed. Iskander Mirza is thus widely held responsible for the instability that brought the active role of Pakistan armed forces into politics.<ref name="Story of Pakistan-2003d"/>

By the 1950s, Mirza had moved his personal wealth to [[Pakistan]] which was confiscated by the government of Pakistan when he was exiled, and it was reported by ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' in 2016, that his family estate in Murshidabad, West Bengal, was left in ruins.<ref name="Hindustan Times, 2016">{{cite news |title=House of Pakistan's first president in Murshidabad in ruins|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/house-of-pakistan-s-first-prez-in-murshidabad-now-in-ruins/story-KOBTNcPkXeN1OTMeSEBxFO.html |work=Hindustan Times |date=27 June 2016 |access-date=12 April 2017}}</ref>

===Honours===

{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2018}}
<div class="center">
(ribbon bar, as it would look today)

[[File:Order of the Indian Empire Ribbon.svg|100px]]
[[File:Order of the British Empire (Civil) Ribbon.png|100px]]
[[File:India Service Medal BAR.svg|100px]]

[[File:King George V Silver Jubilee Medal ribbon.svg|100px]]
[[File:GeorgeVICoronationRibbon.png|100px]]
[[File:UK Queen EII Coronation Medal ribbon.svg|100px]]
[[File:PakistanIndependenceMedalRibbon.jpg|100px]]

</div>
* [[India General Service Medal (1909)]]
* [[King George V Silver Jubilee Medal]] – 1935
* [[King George VI Coronation Medal]] – 1937
* [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) – 1939
* [[Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire]] (CIE) – 1945
* [[Pakistan Medal]] – 1948
* [[Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal]] – 1953
* Grand Collar of the [[Order of Pahlavi]] of the [[Empire of Iran]] – 1956
* [[Order of the Supreme Sun]], 1st Class of the [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] – 1958

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{cite book|last=Shahab|first=Qudrat-Ullah|year=2005|edition=21st|title=Shahabnama|publisher=Sang-e-Meel|author-link=Qudrat-Ullah Shahab|location=Karachi|isbn=978-969-35-0025-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Mirza|first=Humayun|year=2002|title=From Plassey to Pakistan|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-7618-1509-9}}
{{Subject bar
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|portal2        = British Empire
|portal3        = Politics
|portal4        = India
|portal5        = Pakistan
|q              = y
|q-search       = Iskander Mirza
|voy            = n
|d              = y
|d-search       = Q155111
}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-new|office}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Defence Secretary of Pakistan]]|years=1947–1954}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Akhter Husain]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Governor of [[East Bengal]]|years=1954}}
{{s-aft|after={{nowrap|[[Muhammad Shahabuddin]]}}<br /><small>Acting</small>}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Mushtaq Ahmed Gurmani]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Interior (Pakistan)|Minister of the Interior]]|years=1954–1955}}
{{s-aft|after=[[A. K. Fazlul Huq|Fazlul Huq]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Malik Ghulam Muhammad]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Governor-General of Pakistan]]|years=1955–1956}}
{{s-non|reason=Position abolished. Himself as first [[President of Pakistan]]}}
|-
{{s-new|office. Himself as last [[Governor-General of Pakistan]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Pakistan]]|years=1956–1958}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Presidents of Pakistan}}
{{Governors-General of Pakistan}}
{{Governors of East Bengal}}
{{Interior Minister of Pakistan}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mirza, Iskander}}
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