View source for Jainism

{{Short description|Indian religion}}
{{Redirect|Jain}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Jainism}}

'''Jainism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|eɪ|n|ɪ|z|əm|,_|ˈ|dʒ|aɪ|n|ɪ|z|əm}} {{respell|JAY|niz|əm|,_|JEYE|niz|əm}}),<ref>{{Cite OED|Jainism|1325216520}}</ref> also known as '''Jain Dharma''',<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jainism: Dharma |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/jainism/beliefs/dharma.shtml |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=BBC}}</ref> is an [[Indian religions|Indian religion]] which teaches a path toward spiritual purification. Its salvational goal for ascetics is to reach ''[[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]]'' (liberation), while for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=108}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=18, 98–100}} According to Jain beliefs, vibrational energy (''virya'') draws [[Karma in Jainism|karmic particles]] to the soul and creates bondages.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=104–106}} Purification of soul from karmic particles and thereby liberation can be achieved through ''[[ratnatraya]]'', the path of the three jewels,{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=9–10, 37}} namely ''samyak darśana'', correct faith in the Jain teachings; ''samyak gyana'', correct knowledge and understanding of those teachings; and ''samyak charitra'', correct conduct, behavior consistent with the five vows.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}}{{efn|The five vows are: {{tlit|sa|ahiṃsā}} (non-violence), {{tlit|sa|[[satya]]}} (truth), {{tlit|sa|[[Achourya|asteya]]}} (not stealing), {{tlit|sa|[[brahmacharya]]}} (chastity), and {{tlit|sa|aparigraha}} (non-possessiveness).}} The core of Jainism is also summarized in the three tenets of ''{{tlit|sa|[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahiṃsā]]}}'' (nonviolence), ''{{tlit|sa|[[aparigraha]]}}'' (non-attachment), and ''{{tlit|sa|[[anekāntavāda]]}}'', a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality. 

Jains consider Jainism to be an eternal ''[[dharma]]'', with the {{tlit|sa|tirthankaras}} guiding every time cycle of the [[Jain cosmology|cosmology]]. In [[Jain cosmology]], there is a succession of twenty-four {{tlit|sa|[[tirthankar|tirthankara]]s}}, supreme preachers of ''[[dharma]]'', across the ''[[Avasarpiṇī|avasarpiṇī]]'', the descending half of the time cycle in which the good and religion are decreasing. The first {{tlit|sa|tirthankara}} in the current cycle is ''[[Rishabhadeva]]'', who tradition holds lived millions of years ago; the 23rd {{tlit|sa|tirthankara}} is [[Parshvanatha]], traditionally dated to the 9th century [[Common Era|BCE]]; and the 24th {{tlit|sa|tirthankara}} is [[Mahāvīra|Mahavira]], who lived {{circa|the 6th or 5th century BCE}}. 

Historically, Jainism was one of a number of [[Śramaṇa]] religions that developed in the [[Greater Magadha]] cultural region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bronkhorst |first1=Johannes |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004157194 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GNG5KuH73QC&q=greater+magadha}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Geen |first=Jonathan |date= |title=Jainism and Hinduism|url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/BEJO/COM-034872.xml?rskey=LPg8ed&result=1|encyclopedia=Religion Past and Present Online  |location= |publisher=BRILL |access-date=}}</ref> Jainism has two major sub-traditions, [[Digambara]]s and [[Śvētāmbara]]s, which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have [[mendicant]]s supported by [[Laity|layperson]]s ({{tlit|sa|[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvakas]]}} and {{tlit|sa|śrāvikas}}). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as ''[[Mandirmargi]]s'', and ''Sthānakavasī''.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=20–22}} The Digambara-texts attributed to [[Kundakunda]] inspired [[Shrimad Rajchandra]] (1867-1901), who in turn influenced [[Kanji Swami]] (Kanji Path), [[Dada Bhagwan]],{{sfn|Flügel|2005|p=194–243}} [[Rakesh Jhaveri]] (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission), [[Saubhagyabhai|Saubhagbhai]], [[Lalluji Muni|Lalluji Maharaj]] (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. According to Bauer, "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."{{sfn|Bauer|2004|p=465}}

Currently, the religion has between four and five million followers, known as '''Jains''' or '''Jainas''', who reside mostly in [[Jainism in India|India]], where they numbered around 4.5 million at the 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in [[Canada]], [[Europe]], and the [[United States]]. [[Jainism in Japan|Japan]] is also home to a fast-growing community of converts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Archana|first=K. C.|date=2020-02-23|title=Jainism Gains Traction In Japan, Thousands Travel To India To Transition From Zen To Jain|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/trending/human-interest/jainism-gains-traction-in-japan-thousands-travel-to-india-to-transition-from-zen-to-jain-506991.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en-IN}}</ref> Major festivals include ''[[Paryushana]]'' and ''Das Lakshana'', ''[[Jain festivals#Ashtanhika Parv|Ashtanika]]'', ''[[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]]'', ''[[Akshaya Tritiya]]'', and ''[[Diwali (Jainism)|Diwali]]''.
{{TOC-limit|3}}

==Etymology==
The name ''Jainism'' comes from''ji'' (Sanskrit), "to conquer," referring to the battle against the passions and bodily desires, aiming to reach omniscience. Those few who accomplish this are called ''jina'', "conqueror." Adherents are called ''jain'' or ''jaina'', "follower of the conquerors," a term which replaced the older name ''nirgrantha'', bondless, which was only used for ascetic wanderers.{{sfn|Shah|Dundas}}

Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ''ji'', which means to conquer. In the Jain context, monks have to conquer their senses and karma for liberation. Those who have succeeded are ''jinas'' (victors), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation, and their followers are Jains.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=313}}{{sfn|Sangave|2006|p=15}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jr |first=Donald S. Lopez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9LgDwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Religions in Practice: An Introduction |date=2020-06-30 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21478-8 |pages=20 |language=en}}</ref>

==Jain Doctrine and Philosophy==
{{Main|Jain philosophy}}

===''Ratnatraya'' (The Three Jewels)===
[[File:Ahimsa Jainism.svg|thumb|upright|The hand symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism|''Ahiṃsā'']], the wheel ''[[dharmachakra]]'', the resolve to halt ''saṃsāra'' (transmigration).]]
{{Main|Moksha (Jainism)|Ratnatraya|Gunasthana}}

The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach ''moksha'' for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=108}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=18, 98–100}} Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the three jewels (''ratnatraya''):{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=9–10, 37}} ''samyak darśana'', right vision or faith in the Jain teachings{{sfn|Fohr|2015|p=10}} or scriptures,{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=323}} more specifically the seven tattvas;{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=279}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 151, 200}}{{efn|According to Padmanabh S. Jaini, ''samyak darśana'' is acceptance of the truth of soul (''jīva'').{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=141–147}}}} ''samyak gyana'', right knowledge and understanding of the Jain teachings,{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=323}}{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=7}} more specifically of self (''jiva'') and non-self (''ajiva'');{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=279}} and ''samyak charitra'', correct conduct, behavior consistent with these teachinngs and the five vows.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=323}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} Jain texts often add ''samyak tapas'' (correct asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ([[moksha]]).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=7}} The four jewels are called ''Moksha Marga'' (the path of liberation).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}

The core of Jainism is also summarized in the three tenets of ''{{tlit|sa|[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahiṃsā]]}}'' (nonviolence), ''{{tlit|sa|[[aparigraha]]}}'' (asceticism), and ''{{tlit|sa|[[anekāntavāda]]}}'', a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality.

===Core Principles (The Vows)===
[[File:Nishidhi stone with 14th century Old Kannada inscription from Tavanandi forest.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Doddahundi nishidhi inscription|Nishidhi stone]], depicting the vow of ''sallekhana'', 14th century, [[Karnataka]]]]
{{Main|Ethics of Jainism}}
{{see also|Yamas#Five Yamas}}

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called ''anuvratas'' (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and ''mahavratas'' (great vows) for Jain mendicants.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=228–231}} For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a ''[[guru]]'' (teacher, counsellor), ''deva'' (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=228}} Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:
# ''[[Ahiṃsā]]'', "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=228}} The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=228}} This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.<ref name=pkshah5v>{{cite web |last=Shah |first=Pravin K. |title=Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm |publisher=[[Harvard University]] Literature Center |date=2011 |access-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231033127/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm |archive-date=31 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=33}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=170-173}}
# ''[[Satya]]'', "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=228–231}}<ref name=pkshah5v/>{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=173-175}}
# ''[[Asteya]]'', "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=228}}{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=68}} Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=231}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=175}}
# ''[[Brahmacharya]]'', "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=228–231}}<ref name=pkshah5v/>{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=176-177}}
# ''[[Aparigraha]]'', "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=228–231}} Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=112}}{{sfn|Long|2013|p=109}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=177-178}}

Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three ''guņa vratas'' (merit vows) and four ''śikşā vratas''.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|pp=87–88}}{{sfn|Tukol|1976|p=5}} The ''[[Sallekhana]]'' (or ''Santhara'') vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=179–180}} In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion,{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=16}}{{sfn|Tukol|1976|p=7}} This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.{{sfn|Williams|1991|pp=166–167}}

====''Ahimsa'' - non-violence====
{{anchor|ahiṃsā}}{{Main|Ahimsa in Jainism}}

The principle of ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}} It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}} In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}}{{sfn|Markham|Lohr|2009|p=71}} Jain texts such as ''[[Ācārāṅga Sūtra]]'' and ''[[Tattvartha Sutra|Tattvarthasūtra]]'' state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}} Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.{{sfn|Markham|Lohr|2009|p=71}}{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}

Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}} It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}}{{efn|This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.{{sfn|Flügel|2002|pp=1266–1267}}}}

Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}}

The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}}{{sfn|Sundararajan|Mukherji|1997|pp=392–417}}{{sfn|Izawa|2008|pp=78–81}}{{sfn|Sethia|2004|p=2}}{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|p=409}} The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=88–89, 257–258}} Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad [[Karma in Jainism|karma]] which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}{{sfn|Granoff|1992}}

Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the ''Ahiṃsā'' doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=162–163}}{{sfn|Lorenzen|1978|pp=61–75}} According to [[Paul Dundas|Dundas]], the Jain scholar [[Jinadattasuri]] wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=163}}

However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=162–163}}{{efn|Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.{{sfn|Olson|2014|pp=1–7}}}}

====''Aparigraha'' - non-attachment====
{{anchor|aparigraha}}{{Main|Aparigraha}}

The third main principle in Jainism is ''aparigraha'' which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=112}} For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=117, 152}} The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the [[Śvētāmbara]] tradition.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=117, 152}} For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=112}} According to Natubhai Shah, ''aparigraha'' applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=112–113}}

===Metaphysics and Cosmology===
{{Main|Jain cosmology}}
Jain metaphysics explains the nature of the universe and its interaction with the soul (''jiva'').{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}} It posits that the soul is an eternal entity that is separate from the body and the physical world.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}} Their interaction is what defines the cycle of rebirth (''Saṃsāra'').{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}}
====Soul and karma====
{{Main|Karma in Jainism}}
Jainism, like other Indian religions, believes in ''karma'', but with a unique and fundamental difference. It is the only tradition that conceives of ''karma'' as a physical, material substance — subtle, invisible particles of matter (''pudgala'') that exist in the universe.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=104–106}} These particles are drawn to the soul (''jiva'') by its actions, thoughts, and words.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=103}}

This "''karmic'' dirt" then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=194}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=92–95}} This bondage of ''karma'' is the cause of the soul's entrapment in ''Saṃsāra'' and its repeated cycles of birth and death.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=99–103}}
====The ''Tattvas'' (Fundamental Truths)====
{{Main|Tattva (Jainism)}}
The ''tattvas'' are the seven (or nine) fundamental truths that form the basis of the entire Jain path. They describe the step-by-step process of ''karmic'' bondage and liberation:{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Jīva (Jainism)|Jīva]]'' — The living, sentient soul.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Ajīva]]'' — Non-living substances, including matter, time, and ''karma''.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Āsrava]]'' — The influx or inflow of ''karmic'' particles to the soul.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Bandha (Jainism)|Bandha]]'' — The bondage of these ''karmic'' particles to the soul.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Saṃvara]]'' — The stoppage of new ''karmic'' inflow (achieved by vows and discipline).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Nirjarā]]'' — The shedding or purification of existing, bound ''karma'' (achieved by asceticism).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}
# ''[[Moksha]]'' — The complete liberation of the soul, freeing it from all ''karma'' to regain its pure, omniscient state.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}}

Some texts add two more categories, ''Punya'' (good ''karma'') and ''Paapa'' (bad ''karma''), as sub-types of ''Āsrava'' and ''Bandha'', making nine ''tattvas'' in total.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=177–187}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=151}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=96–98}}
====''Saṃsāra'' (Cycle of Rebirth)====
[[File:Jiva.jpg|thumb|Classification of ''Saṃsāri Jīvas'' (transmigrating souls) in Jainism]]
{{main|Saṃsāra (Jainism)|Vitalism (Jainism)}}
''Saṃsāra'' is the doctrine of the worldly cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, through which the soul transmigrates based on its ''karma''.{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=227–228}} This cycle is considered the natural state of existence, but it is also one of suffering, and the ultimate aim of Jainism is liberation (''Moksha'') from it.{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=224–225}}{{sfn|Sethia|2004|pp=30–31}}

According to Jain tradition, souls can be reborn in one of four states of existence (''gatis''): as heavenly beings, humans, animals/plants, or hellish beings.{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=223-228}} Jain theosophy also describes a vast number of potential birth-situations, traditionally 8.4 million, through which the unliberated soul cycles.{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=223-228}}{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=130–131}} Jain philosophy also uniquely posits the existence of ''abhavya'' (incapable) souls, a category of souls that are eternally trapped in ''Saṃsāra'' and can never attain liberation.{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=225-226}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=104–105}}
====Cosmology: Substance, Time, and Realms====
{{Main|Dravya}}
Jain cosmology views the universe as an uncreated, eternal, and self-sustaining entity.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1917|p=15}} It was never created by a god and will never be destroyed.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1917|p=15}}

This universe is composed of six eternal substances known as ''dravya'':
# ''Jīva'' (the living soul){{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=64-65}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=93}}
# ''[[Pudgala]]'' (non-sentient matter){{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=64-65}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=93}}
# ''[[Dharma (Jainism)|Dharma]]'' (the principle of motion){{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=64-65}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=93}}
# ''[[Adharma]]'' (the principle of rest){{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=64-65}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=93}}
# ''[[Ākāśa (Jainism)|Ākāśa]]'' (space){{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=64-65}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=93}}
# ''[[Kāla (time)|Kāla]]'' (time){{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=64-65}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=93}}{{sfn|Nemicandra|Balbir|2010|p=1 of Introduction}}

[[File:Jain Cosmic Time Cycle.jpg|thumb|right|Division of time in Jain cosmology]] 
''Kāla'' (time) is itself conceived as a boundless, eternal wheel (''kālachakra'') that rotates ceaselessly.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=551}} It is divided into two half-cycles: an ascending arc (''utsarpiṇī'') of progressive happiness and virtue, and a descending arc (''avasarpiṇī'') of progressive sorrow and decline.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=46}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=551}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=313}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=271–272}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=13}}{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1929b|p=124}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=27}}

[[File:Jain universe.JPG|thumb|right|Rebirth ''loka'' (realms of existence) in Jain  cosmology{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–92}}]]
The universe itself is structurally divided into three realms, or ''lokas'': the ''Urdhva Loka'' (upper world of heavenly beings), the ''Madhya Loka'' (middle world of humans, animals, and plants), and the ''Adho Loka'' (lower world of hellish beings).{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=25}} All unliberated souls, including gods and demons, transmigrate through these three realms based on their karma.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=25}}

===Epistemology (Philosophy of Knowledge)===
{{Main|Jain epistemology}}

Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (''[[pramana]]''). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (''pratyaksa''), inference (''anumana''), and testimony (''sabda'' or the word of scriptures).{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|Soni|2000|pp=367–377}} These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as ''Tattvarthasūtra'', ''Parvacanasara'', ''Nandi'' and ''Anuyogadvarini''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=75–76, 131, 229–230}}{{sfn|Soni|2000|pp=367–377}} Some Jain texts add analogy (''upamana'') as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to [[pramana|epistemological theories]] found in other Indian religions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–230}}

In Jainism, ''jnāna'' (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds—''mati jñāna'' (sensory knowledge), ''śrutu jñāna'' (scriptural knowledge), ''avadhi jñāna'' ([[clairvoyance]]), ''manah prayāya Jñāna'' ([[telepathy]]) and ''[[kevala jnana]]'' ([[omniscience]]).{{sfn|S.A. Jain|1992|p=16}} According to the Jain text ''Tattvartha sūtra'', the first two are indirect knowledge, and the remaining three are direct knowledge.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=6}}

====''Anekāntavāda'' - many-sided reality====
[[File:Medieval Jain temple Anekantavada doctrine artwork.jpg|thumb|Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with [[Blind men and an elephant]]]]
{{Main|Anekantavada}}

The second main principle of Jainism is ''anekāntavāda'',{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} from ''anekānta'' ("many-sidedness," etymologically "[[Privative a|non]]-oneness" or "not being one") and ''vada'' ("doctrine").{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are ''Naya'', "partial expression of the truth".{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are ''syāt'', or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Mark Owen |last=Webb |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |title=Jain philosophy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221042158/http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |archive-date=21 February 2015 |access-date=22 February 2015 |url-status=live |encyclopedia=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |issn=2161-0002}}</ref> It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} It suggests that the great error is belief in ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.{{sfn|Schwartz|2018}} The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt'').{{sfn|Matilal|1990|pp=301–305}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=205–218}} These texts identify ''anekāntavāda'' as a key difference from the [[Buddha]]'s teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.{{sfn|Matilal|1998|pp=128–135}} The permanent being is conceptualized as ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' (soul) and ''[[ajiva]]'' (matter) within a dualistic ''anekāntavāda'' framework.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99, 104–105, 229–233}}

According to [[Paul Dundas]], in contemporary times the ''anekāntavāda'' doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of [[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute reality]] and human existence.{{sfn|Sethia|2004|pp=86–91}} He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=98–106}} Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=233}}

===Concept of God (and Tirthankaras)===
[[File:Jain 24-Tirthankaras.jpg|thumb|Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras, [[Jaipur]], {{circa|1850}}]]
{{Main|God in Jainism}}

Jainism is a [[transtheistic]] religion,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182}} holding that the [[Jainism and non-creationism|universe was not created]], and will exist forever.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=241}} The universe is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=241–242}} In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of [[Hinduism]], but similar to Buddhism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=241–243}} However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die, and reborn like earthly beings.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=247–249, 262–263}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=20–21, 34–35, 74, 91, 95–96, 103}} The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=262–263}} It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=262–263}} However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals, or other beings.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=262–263}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=91, 95–96}} The perfect enlightened souls ''with'' a body are called ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihants]]'' (victors) and perfect souls ''without'' a body are called ''[[Siddha]]s'' (liberated souls). Only a soul with a human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly, and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=222–223}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182}}{{sfn|Rankin|Mardia|2013|p=40}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Jainism}}
{{For timeline}}

Jainism is a religion founded in [[ancient India]]. Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''[[tirthankars|tirthankaras]]'' and revere [[Rishabhanatha]] as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus River Valley civilization]] have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two ''tirthankaras'', the 23rd ''tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th ''tirthankara'' [[Mahavira]] (<abbr>c.</abbr> 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the [[Buddha]]. According to Jain texts, the 22nd ''Tirthankara'' [[Neminatha]] lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of [[Krishna]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bharatdiscovery.org/india/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0|title=ऋषभनाथ तीर्थंकर &#124; भारतकोश|website=bharatdiscovery.org}}</ref>

===Origins: Parshvanatha and Mahavira===
{{See also|Timeline of Jainism|Śramaṇa}}

Jainism is an ancient [[Indian religion]] of obscure origins.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=185}}{{sfn|Rankin|Mardia|2013|p=975}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=13}} Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first ''tirthankara'' [[Rishabhanatha]] as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=16}} It is one of the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the [[Veda]]s,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=639}}{{sfn|Billimoria|1988|pp=1–30}} and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.{{sfn|Jambuvijaya|2002|p=114}}{{sfn|Pande|1957|p=353}}{{efn|Long notes that [[Ṛṣabha]], the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the [[Indus Valley civilization]], speculating that they may be related to Jainism.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=53–54}}}}

The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars as [[historicity|historical]] figures.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|pp=104, 129}}{{sfn|Saraswati|1908|p=444}} The 23rd Tirthankara, [[Parshvanatha]], was likely a historical being,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=183}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=10}} dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;{{sfn|Barnett|1957|p=7}} historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html|title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi|date=13 September 2013}}</ref> Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jain [[Śramaṇa|ascetic]] community which subsequently got revived and reformed by [[Mahavira]].{{sfn|Basham|1951|p=108}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=30-31}}

Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2003a|p=383}}{{sfn|Keown|Prebish|2013|pp=127–130}} The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=105}} later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.{{sfn|Neelis|2010|pp=72–76}}{{sfn|Hirakawa|1993|pp=4–7}} Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=ix–xi, 151–162}}

Kings [[Bimbisara]] ({{Circa|558}}–491 BCE), [[Ajatashatru]] ({{Circa|492}}–460 BCE), and [[Udayin]] ({{Circa|460}}–440 BCE) of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] were patrons of Jainism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=41}} Jain tradition states that [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (322–298 BCE), the founder of the [[Mauryan Empire]] and grandfather of [[Ashoka]], became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic [[Bhadrabahu]] in the later part of his life.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=63–65}}{{sfn|Boesche|2003|pp=7–18}} Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=63–65}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=39–46, 234–236}}

===Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence===
The historicity of Jainism is supported by epigraphic and archaeological evidence.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=273}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1988|p=13}} The [[Hathigumpha Inscription]] at the [[Udayagiri Caves]] in Odisha, dated to the 2nd century BCE, is a key piece of early evidence.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=273}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1988|p=13}} This inscription, from King [[Kharavela]] of [[Kalinga (region)|Kalinga]], details his patronage of Jain monks.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=273}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1988|p=13}} It also provides a historical reference by mentioning the retrieval of a Jina idol taken from Kalinga by a [[Nanda dynasty]] king (c. 4th century BCE).{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=273}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1988|p=13}}

Additionally, excavations at [[Kankali Tila]] in [[Mathura]] have provided extensive archaeological evidence of an early Jain center.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=30}} The site yielded numerous Jain stupas, statues, and ''ayagapatas'' (votive tablets) dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=30}} These tablets, commissioned by lay followers (''śrāvakas''), represent early physical evidence of an organized ''sangha'' (community) that included monks, nuns, and laity.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=30}}

The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the ''Niganthas'' (Jains).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=43}} ''Tirthankara'' statues date back to the second century BCE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=444}} Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=9–10}} Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=49}} There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=202}}

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG|[[Rishabhanatha|Rishabhdev]], believed to have lived over 592.704×10<sup>18</sup> years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.
File:Ashoka Pillar at Feroze Shah Kotla, Delhi 03.JPG|Jain inscription of [[Ashoka]] ({{Circa|236 BCE}})
File:Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg|''Chaumukha'' Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), [[LACMA]], sixth century
File:Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg|[[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] built by [[King Kharavela]] of [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]] in second century CE
File:La grotte Jain Indra Sabha Ellora Caves, India.jpg|The Indra Sabha cave at the [[Ellora Caves]] are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments.
File:Kazhugumalai_Jain_beds_(8).jpg|Kazhugumalai Jain beds
</gallery>

===Sects and Traditions (The Primary Division)===
{{Main|Jain schools and branches}}
{{multiple image |total_width=250
| image1 = Mahavir.jpg
| caption1 = Digambara [[Mahāvīra]] iconography
| image2 = Shri Simandhar Swami.jpg
| caption2 = Śvētāmbara [[Simandhar Swami]] iconography
}}

The Jain community is divided into two major [[Religious denomination|denominations]], ''[[Digambara]]'' and ''[[Śvētāmbara]]''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}} This schism is ancient and centers on differing monastic disciplines, canonical scriptures, and core doctrines (such as the liberation of women).{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}}
* The ''Digambara'' (sky-clad) tradition holds that male monks must renounce all possessions, including clothes, to practice ''achailakya'' (nudity).{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}} Female monastics, known as ''[[Aryika]]s'', wear unstitched plain white [[saree]]s.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}}
* The ''Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad) tradition holds that monastics, both male and female, may wear simple, seamless white robes (''sachailakya'').{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}}
====The Great Schism: Traditional Accounts====
The ''Digambara'' tradition places the origin of the schism around the 4th century BCE.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=46}} According to their account, ''Acharya'' [[Bhadrabahu]] predicted a twelve-year famine in [[Magadha]] and led a migration of monks to [[Karnataka]].{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=47}} [[Sthulabhadra]], a pupil, remained behind with other monks.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=47}} The Digambara tradition holds that Sthulabhadra's northern group relaxed the original practice of nudity and began wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the returning monks who had preserved the ''mūla sangha'' (original community).{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=47}} In this view, the ''Digambaras'' preserved the original ''achailakya'' (nude) practice of Mahavira, while the ''Svetambaras'' adopted a more lax, clothed practice.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=47}}
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit ''Suttapahuda'' of [[Kundakunda]].{{sfn|Jaini|1991|p=3}}

The ''Svetambara'' tradition, in texts like the ''Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya'' (5th cent. CE), places the schism much later.{{cn|date=November 2025}} Their account states the ''Digambara'' sect arose 609 years after Mahavira's ''nirvana'' (c. 1st-2nd cent. CE), founded by a monk named [[Sivabhuti]].{{cn|date=November 2025}} The narrative states that Sivabhuti, in a "fit of pique," adopted nudity, which his original tradition rejected.{{sfn|B.S.L. Hanumantha Rao|1973|p=}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}{{sfn|Murti|2004|p=}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1927|p=}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|1914|p=704}} Svetambara texts accuse this new sect of "eight concealments," including the rejection of the canonical texts preserved by their tradition and the new doctrine that women could not attain liberation.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46–48}}{{sfn|Sogani|1967|p=}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}{{sfn|Paszkiewicz|2024|p=24}}

====Scholarly Analysis and Solidification====
Most modern scholars, such as Padmanabh Jaini and Paul Dundas, conclude that the schism was not a single "event" but a gradual hardening of differences over several centuries.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46-48}} Monastic nudity and the wearing of robes likely co-existed as acceptable monastic options for some time.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46-48}} Archaeological evidence from Mathura, for instance, shows nude ''tirthankara'' images from the [[Kushan Empire]] (c. 1st century CE).<ref>The Jaina Stupa at Mathura: Art and Icons, Renuka Porwal, Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur, 2016</ref>

The definitive, formal split is often associated with the [[Council of Vallabhi]] in the 5th century CE.{{sfn|Price|2010|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=21–22}} This council was organized by the ''Svetambara'' tradition to formally codify their canonical scriptures (the ''Agamas'').{{sfn|Price|2010|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=21–22}} The ''Digambara'' tradition, which had its own (and different) scriptural canon, did not attend and rejected the authenticity of these texts, solidifying the schism.{{sfn|Price|2010|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=21–22}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46-48}}

====Key Doctrinal and Practical Differences====
Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code,{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=211}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=31–33}} interpretations of teachings,{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}}{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=27–28}} and on Jain history especially concerning the ''tirthankaras''.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=12}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=73–74}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=21}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=17}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|pp=79–80}} Their monasticism rules differ,{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=167}} as does their [[iconography]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=167}} Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants,{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=47}} where Digambara has mostly had male monks{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=314–331, 353–361}} and considers males closest to the soul's liberation.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=36–37}}{{sfn|Harvey|2016|pp=182–183}} The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism{{sfn|Harvey|2016|pp=182–183}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=55–59}} and state that the 19th ''Tirthankara'' [[Māllīnātha]] was female,{{sfn|Vallely|2002|p=15}} which Digambara rejects.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=56}} Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=16}}

Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart [[Śvetāmbara]] Jains<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gender and Salvation |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft138nb0wk&chunk.id=d0e6969&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e6841&brand=ucpress |access-date=2024-08-01 |website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref> [[Digambara#Criticism of Digambara sect|criticize Digambara sect's practices]] of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=12XEBENpExoC&q=Naked |title=The Ādi Granth: Or, Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs |date=1877 |publisher=Wm. H. Allen |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nudity |url=https://www.alislam.org/articles/nudity/ |access-date=2024-08-01 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Guide To Buddhism A To Z |url=https://www.buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=288#:~:text=The%20Buddha%20made%20it%20a,I,305). |access-date=2024-08-01 |website=www.buddhisma2z.com}}</ref>

Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the [[Kushan Empire]] (c.{{nbsp}}1st century CE).{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=167}} ''Tirthankara'' represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the ''Ardhaphalaka'' (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=167}} The [[Yapaniya]]s, believed to have originated from the ''Ardhaphalaka'', followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=167}} In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.{{sfn|Flügel|2005|p=194–243}}

===Medieval Patronage and Decline===
Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=69–70}} In the second half of the first century CE, [[Hindu king]]s of the [[Rashtrakuta]] dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.{{sfn|Pereira|1977|pp=21–24}} King [[Harshavardhana]] of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=52}} The Pallava King [[Mahendravarman I]] (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=409}} His work ''[[Mattavilasa Prahasana]]'' ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.{{sfn|Arunachalam|1981|p=170}} The [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava dynasty]] built many temples at the [[Ellora Caves]] between 700 and 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora.asp |title=World Heritage Sites – Ellora Caves |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007002950/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora.asp |archive-date=7 October 2015 |access-date=23 September 2021 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]], [[Government of India]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Gopal|1990|p=178}}{{sfn|Owen|2012b|pp=1–10}} King [[Āma]] of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=52–54}} [[Mularaja]] (10th century CE), the founder of the [[Chalukya dynasty]], constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=56}} During the 11th century, [[Basava]], a minister to the Jain [[Kalachuris of Kalyani|Kalachuri]] king [[Bijjala II|Bijjala]], converted many Jains to the [[Lingayatism|Lingayat]] Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=75–77}} The [[Hoysala dynasty|Hoysala]] King [[Vishnuvardhana]] ({{circa|1108}}–1152 CE) became a [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavite]] under the influence of [[Ramanuja]], and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.{{sfn|Das|2005|p=161}}

[[File:Gori Mandar.jpg|alt=Jain monuments in Nagarparkar, Pakistan|thumb|The ruins of [[Gori Temple, Nagarparkar|Gori Jain temples]] in [[Nagarparkar]], Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947<ref name=":0"/>]]
Jainism faced persecution during and after the [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]]. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of [[Delhi Sultanate]] remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT439|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of The Delhi Sultanate|publisher=Penguin UK|author=[[Burjor Avari]]|date=April 2015|isbn=9789351186588}}</ref> One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, [[Alp Khan]] permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.<ref name=Pushpa>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=54|title=The Jain Community in the Delhi Sultanate|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|author=Pushpa Prasad|pages= 224, 225}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Peter Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA221 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=288|isbn=978-0-521-54329-3}}</ref> [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.<ref>{{cite book |author = Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGSKTttoa3IC&pg=PR17 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2008|page=101|quote=Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) is mentioned in Jain texts as showing favour to Jain scholars|isbn=9780810864016}}</ref>

The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperors]] in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under [[Humayun]] (1540–1556), [[Akbar]] (1556–1605), [[Jahangir]] (1605–1627) and even [[Aurangzeb]] (1658–1707).<ref>{{Cite web |author=[[Audrey Truschke]]|title=What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders) |url=https://scroll.in/article/829943/what-aurangzeb-did-to-preserve-hindu-temples-and-protect-non-muslim-religious-leaders |access-date=2022-08-13 |website=Scroll.in |date=23 February 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. [[Babur]] (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in [[Gwalior]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kurt Titze|author2=Klaus Bruhn|title=Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loQkEIf8z5wC|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1534-6|pages=101–102 |quote="In 1527, the Urvahi Jinas were mutilated by the Mughal emperor Babar, a fact he records in his memoirs"}}</ref> In 1567, Akbar [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568)|ravaged the fort of Chittor]]. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ram Vallabh Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D.|publisher=Mateshwari|year=1976|page=221|quote=A glaring example of this sort of feeling is the destruction of several Hindu and Jain shrines, made at Chittor, during the course of invasion by the forces of Akbar|oclc=2929852}}</ref> Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under [[Jahangir]], [[Shah Jahan]] and most notably under [[Aurangzeb]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=EATON |first=RICHARD M. |title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States |date=2000 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26198197 |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=283–319 |doi=10.1093/jis/11.3.283 |jstor=26198197 |issn=0955-2340}}</ref>

The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.{{Sfn|Cort|1998|pp=85–86}}

===Colonial era===
[[File:Virchand Gandhi poster.jpg|thumb|A poster of [[Virchand Gandhi]], who represented Jainism at the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] in [[Chicago]] in 1893]]
[[File:Shrimad Rajchandra Spiritual Centre (cropped).jpg|thumb|A 34-foot-tall idol of [[Shrimad Rajchandra]] at [[Dharampur, Gujarat|Dharampur]], [[Valsad district|Valsad]]]]

A Gujarati Jain scholar, [[Virchand Gandhi]], represented Jainism at the first [[World Parliament of Religions]] in 1893, held in America during the [[World's Columbian Exposition|Chicago World's Fair]]. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.<ref name=it>{{cite web |title=Virchand Gandhi – a Gandhi before Gandhi An unsung Gandhi who set course for his namesake |url=http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9374:virchand-gandhi--a-gandhi-before-gandhi-an-unsung-gandhi-who-set-course-for-his-namesake-&catid=25:community&Itemid=457 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822022233/http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9374:virchand-gandhi--a-gandhi-before-gandhi-an-unsung-gandhi-who-set-course-for-his-namesake-&catid=25:community&Itemid=457 |work=[[India Tribune]] |archive-date=22 August 2012 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=OpenCourt>{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Mrs. Charles|title=The Open Court, Vol. 16, Nr. 4 "The Death of Mr. Virchand R. Gandhi"|date=April 1902|publisher=[[The Open Court Publishing Company]] |location=Chicago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-IeAQAAIAAJ&q=gandh&pg=PA51|language=en}}</ref>

[[Shrimad Rajchandra]], a mystic, poet and philosopher from [[Gujarat]] is believed to have attained ''jatismaran gnana'' (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.<ref name="KarbhariGāndhī1911">{{cite book|author1=Bhagu F. Karbhari|author2=Vīrchand Rāghavajī Gāndhī|title=The Jain Philosophy: Collected and Ed. by Baghu F. Karbhari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5kWQQAACAAJ|year=1911|publisher=N.M. Tripathi & Company|pages=116–120|language=en}}</ref> He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.{{sfn|Salter|2002|p=145}} Shrimad Rajchandra composed [[Atma Siddhi|Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra]], considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wiley|first=Kristi L.|title=The A to Z of Jainism|date=2006|publisher=Vision Books|isbn=81-7094-690-5|location=New Delhi|oclc=647405338|language=en}}</ref> He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doshi|first=Manu|title=Srimad Rajachandra's Atma-Siddhi (in Gujarati and English)|publisher=Koba: Srimad Rajachandra Adhyatmik Sadhana Kendra}}</ref>

# Self (soul) exists
# It is permanent and eternal
# It is the doer of its own actions
# It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions
# Liberation exists
# There is a path to achieve liberation.

Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gajanan Krishna |last=Bhatavadekar |title=Report on the Census of the Baroda Territories 1881 |url={{Google books|4AEJAAAAQAAJ |plainurl=yes}} |year=1867 |publisher=[[Government of India]] |page=31 note 140}}</ref>{{sfn|Hopkins|1902|p=283}}{{sfn|Sunavala|1934|pp=91–93}} Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as [[Champat Rai Jain]] defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=33}} Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.{{sfn|Hackett|2008|pp=63–68}} These criticisms, states [[John E. Cort]], were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=12–16, 200–207, 218–219, 251 with note 10}}

The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=348–349}} The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya [[Shantisagar]] entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=348–349}} Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the [[British Raj]] and prompted their discontinuance.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=56}} The laws were abolished by India after independence.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=359–360}}

=== Modern era ===
The texts attributed to [[Kundakunda]] inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with his notion of [[Two truths doctrine|two truths]] and his emphasis on direct insight into ''niścayanaya'' or ‘ultimate perspective’, also called “supreme” ([[paramārtha]]) and “pure” (śuddha).{{efn|According to Long, this view shows influence from Buddhism and Vedanta, which see bondage are arising from [[Avidyā (Buddhism)|avidya]], ignorance, and see the ultimate solution to this in a form of spiritual [[gnosis]].{{sfn|Long|2013|p=127}} Johnson also notes that "his use of a vyavahara/niscaya distinction [...] has more in common with Madhyamaka Buddhism and even more with Advaita Vedanta than with the Jain philosophy of Anekantavada."{{sfn|Johnson|1995|p=137}} Cort, referring to Johnson, notes that "a minority position exemplified by Kundakunda has deemphasized conduct and focused upon knowledge alone."{{sfn|Cort|1998|p=10}}}} 

[[Shrimad Rajchandra]] (1867-1901) was a [[Jainism|Jain]] poet and mystic who was inspired by works of [[Kundakunda]] and [[Digambara]] mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition,{{sfn|Prakash C. Jain|2025|p=7,9}} his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neither [[Śvetāmbara]] nor [[Digambara]], and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred as ''Raj Bhakta Marg'', ''Kavipanth'', or ''Shrimadiya'', which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself.{{sfn|Salter|2002}} His teachings influenced [[Kanji Swami]], [[Dada Bhagwan]],{{sfn|Flügel|2005|p=194–243}} [[Rakesh Jhaveri]] (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission), [[Saubhagyabhai|Saubhagbhai]], [[Lalluji Muni|Lalluji Maharaj]] (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. 

Kanji Panth is a lay movement founded by [[Kanji Swami]] (1890-1980).{{sfn|Shaw, Richard}} Nominally it belongs to the [[Śvetāmbara]]<ref name="philtar_Jainism"/> but is inspired by Kundakunda and [[Shrimad Rajchandra]] (1867-1901), though "lacking a place in any Digambara ascetic lineage descending from Kundakunda."{{sfn|Shaw, Richard}} Kanji Swami has many followers in the Jain diaspora.{{sfn|Bauer|2004|p=464}} They generally regard themselves simply as Digambara Jains, more popularly known as ''Mumukshu'', following the mystical tradition of Kundakunda and Pandit Todarmal.{{sfn|Shaw, Richard}} 

Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."{{sfn|Bauer|2004|p=465}}

The [[Akram Vignan Movement]] established by [[Dada Bhagwan]] draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures, though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu [[Religious syncretism|syncretistic]] movement.{{sfn|Flügel|2005}}

Greatly influenced by [[Shrimad Rajchandra]], the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] stated regarding Jainism:{{sfn|Rudolph|Rudolph|1984|p=171}}
{{blockquote|No religion in the World has explained the principle of ''Ahiṃsā'' so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of ''Ahiṃsā'' or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on ''Ahiṃsā''.{{sfn|Janardan Pandey|1998|p=50}}}}

[[Acharya Chandana|Chandanaji]] became the first Jain woman to receive the title of [[Acharya]] in 1987.{{sfn|Miller|Long|Reading|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_9i_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 7, 10–]}}

==Practices==

===The Four-Fold Community (''Caturvidha Saṅgha'')===
{{Main|Jain monasticism}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 275
| image1            = Ellora, cave 33, Digambar Jain guru (9841591645).jpg
| caption1          = Digambara sadhu (monk)
| image2            = Acharya Vijayavallabhasuri.jpg
| caption2          = Śvētāmbara-Deravasi sadhu (monk)
| caption3          = Śvētāmbara-Sthanakwasi sadhu (monk)
| image3            = Jain Sthanakvasi monk.jpg
}}

{{multiple image |total_width=275
| image1 = Jain 1.jpg
| caption1 = A Śvētāmbara sadhvi (nun)(early 20th-century)
| image2 = Viramati Mataji.jpg
| caption2 = A Digambara sadhvi (nun)
}}
Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=118–122}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|p=113}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=169–174, 178–198 with footnotes}} Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching ''siddha'' and ''moksha'' ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=118–122}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=205–212 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=144–150}}

Jain texts like ''Tattvartha Sūtra'' and ''[[Uttaradhyayana|Uttaradhyayana Sūtra]]'' discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=120–21}} Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=120–122}} Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting [[mendicants]], studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=120–122}} Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|p=182 with footnote 3}}{{sfn|Johnson|1995|pp=196–197}} Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the ''jiva'' (soul).{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=169–174, 178–198 with footnotes}} According to tradition, the ''tirthankaras'' such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Shanti Lal Jain|1998|p=51}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=15–18, 41–43}}

Monastic organization, ''sangh'', has a four-fold order consisting of ''sadhu'' (male ascetics, ''muni''), ''sadhvi'' (female ascetics, ''aryika''), ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvaka]]'' (laymen), and ''śrāvikā'' (laywomen).{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=150}} The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called ''gacch'' or ''samuday'', in autonomous regional Jain congregations.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2009|p=17}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=2–3}} Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the ''Dandasan'' – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|p=197}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=152, 163–164}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=190}}

In Jainism, six essential duties (''avashyakas'') are prescribed for ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvakas]]'' (householders).<ref name=psja>{{harvnb|Jaini|1998|pp=188–191}}</ref>{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|pp=171–173}} The six duties are:<ref>{{citation|last=Jain|first=Vijay K.|title=Acharya Umasvami's Tattvārthsūtra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC|year=2011|publisher=Vikalp Printers|isbn=978-81-903639-2-1|quote=Non-Copyright|page=v}}</ref>
#Worship of ''[[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]]'' (five supreme beings)
#Following the preachings of Jain saints.
#Study of [[Jain scriptures]]
#''[[Samayika]]'': practising serenity and meditation
#Following discipline in their daily engagement
#Charity (''dāna'') of four kinds:{{sfnm|Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|2008|1pp=82–83|Sangave|2001|2p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC&pg=PA157 157]}}
##''Ahara-dāna''- donation of food
##''Ausadha-dāna''- donation of medicine
##''Jnana-dāna''- donation of knowledge
##''Abhaya-dāna''- saving the life of a living being or giving of protection to someone under threat

These duties became fundamental ritual activities of a [[Jain]] householder. Such as spreading the [[grain]] for the [[birds]] in the morning, and [[filter (water)|filtering]] or [[boiling]] the water for the next few hours' use became ritual acts of [[Charity (virtue)|charity]] and [[non-violence]].<ref name=psja/> ''Samayika'' was used as a word for all spiritual activity including icon worship during medieval times.<ref name=psja/>

===''Ahimsa'' in Practice: The Jain Diet===
{{Main|Jain vegetarianism|Fasting in Jainism}}
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being [[Jain vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Devout Jains practice [[lacto-vegetarianism]], meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. [[Veganism]] is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.{{sfn|Voorst|2015|p=105}} Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid [[root vegetable]]s such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=260}}{{efn|In Jainism, the ''ahiṃsā'' precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}}} Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ''ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata''.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}} Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}}

Jains fast particularly during festivals.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} This practice is called ''upavasa'', ''tapasya'' or ''vrata'',{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=85–86}} and may be practiced according to one's ability.{{sfn|Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|2008|pp=92–94}} Digambaras fast for ''Dasa-laksana-parvan'', eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day ''paryusana'' with ''samvatsari-pratikramana''.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=72, 85–86}} The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (''punya'').{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}}

===Meditation - ''sāmāyika''===
{{main|Jain meditation}}
{{multiple image
| image1 = Jain meditation.jpg
| image2 = Shravanabelagola_Bahubali_wideframe.jpg
| footer = Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th-century [[Gommateshwara statue]] depicting standing meditation ([[Kayotsarga]] posture)
| total_width=330
}}
Jainism considers meditation (''dhyana'') a necessary practice, but it never has been a central practice.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=166–169}} In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=166–169}} 

According to [[Padmanabh Jaini]], ''[[Sāmāyika]]'' is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of ''siksavrata'' (ritual restraint).{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=180–181}} The goal of ''Sāmāyika'' is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second ''siksavrata''.{{efn|The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is ''posadhopavasa'' (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is ''dana'' (giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=180–181}}}} The ''samayika'' ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as ''Puja'' in a Jain temple and doing charity work.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=180–182}}{{sfn|S.A. Jain|1992|p=261}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=128–131}} According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, ''samayika'' connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".{{sfn|Johnson|1995|pp=189–190}}{{efn|According to Dundas, ''samayika'' seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=170}}}}

===Devotion, Worship, and Prayer===
{{Main|Jain rituals}}
[[File:Shravanbelgola Gomateshvara feet prayer1.jpg|thumb|left|Praying at the feet of a statue of [[Bahubali]]]]
There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=187–189}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=162–165, 295–296}} The ultimate ritual is ''sallekhana'', a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=187–189}} The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=187–189}} The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=291–299}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=186–187}}

Jains ritually worship numerous deities,{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=162–165, 295–296}} especially the ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|Jinas]]''. In Jainism a ''Jina'' as ''deva'' is not an [[avatar]] (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic ''tirthankara'' achieved.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=295–299}} Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, [[Parshvanatha]], [[Neminatha]] and [[Rishabhanatha]].{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=40}} Among the non-''tirthankara'' saints, devotional worship is common for [[Bahubali]] among the Digambaras.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=182–184}} The ''[[Panch Kalyanaka]]'' rituals remember the five life events of the ''tirthankaras'', including the ''[[Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava]]'', ''Panch Kalyanaka Puja'' and ''Snatrapuja''.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=196, 343, 347}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=196–199}}

[[File:A Jain ritual offerings and puja recital at a temple, worship in Jainism.jpg|thumb|upright|Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=45–46, 215}}]]
The basic ritual is ''darsana'' (seeing) of ''deva'', which includes Jina,{{sfn|Lindsay Jones|2005|p=4771}} or other [[Yaksha|yaksas]], gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]], [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] and 16 Vidyadevis (including [[Sarasvati]] and [[Lakshmi]]).{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=33, 59, 92, 138, 191}}{{sfn|Cort|1987|pp=235–255}}{{sfn|Mishra|Ray|2016|pp=141–148}} Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=365}} The worship ritual is called ''devapuja'', and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=199–200}} Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the [[namaskar]], completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=199–200}}

Jain practices include performing ''[[abhisheka]]'' (ceremonial bath) of the images.{{sfn|Pratapaditya Pal|1986|p=29}} Some Jain sects employ a ''pujari'' (also called ''upadhye''), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=204–205}}{{sfn|Salvadori|1989|pp=169–170}} More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.{{sfn|Babb|1996|pp=32–33}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=45–46, 215}}

Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of [[mantra]]s and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=81–82}}{{sfn|Nayanar|2005|p=35}} The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (''[[Namokar Mantra|panca namaskara]]'') mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=81–82}}{{sfn|Voorst|2015|p=107}} Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the ''Rishi-mandala'' including the ''tirthankaras''.{{sfn|Gough|2012|pp=1–47}} The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.{{sfn|Cort|2001b|pp=417–419}}

===Festivals===
{{Main|Jain festivals}}
[[File:Das Lakshana (Paryusana) celebrations, New York City Jain temple 2.JPG|thumb|left|Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryushana), [[Jain Center of America]], New York City]]
The most important annual Jain festival is called the ''[[Paryushana]]'' by Svetambaras and ''[[Dasha-Lakshana-Parvan|Dasa lakshana parva]]'' by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of [[Bhadra (Hindu calendar)|Bhadrapada]] in the [[Hindu calendar|Indian calendar]]. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}}{{sfn|Melton|2011|p=673}} It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}} It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time.{{sfn|Melton|2011|p=673}} Svetambaras recite the ''Kalpasūtras'', while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}}

{{Quote box
 |quote  = '''Forgiveness'''
<poem>
I forgive all living beings,
may all living beings forgive me.
All in this world are my friends,
I have no enemies.
</poem>
 |source = — ''Jain festival prayer on the last day''{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=284}}
 |bgcolor=#FFDDBB
 |align  = right
}}
The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as ''[[Samvatsari]]''. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}} Forgiveness is asked by saying "''[[Micchami Dukkadam]]''" or "''Khamat khamna''" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of ''Paryushana'' is "abiding" or "coming together".{{sfn|Cort|1995|p=160}}

[[Mahavir Jayanti|Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]] celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of [[Chaitra]] in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=220}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=211}} The festivities include visiting Jain temples, [[Tirtha (Jainism)|pilgrimages]] to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in [[Bihar]], north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=220}} [[Diwali (Jainism)|The next day of Dipawali]] is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of ''[[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]]''.{{sfn|Pechilis|Raj|2013|p=86}} The Hindu festival of [[Diwali]] is also celebrated on the same date (''Kartika Amavasya''). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and [[Diya (lamp)|''diyas'']] (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, ''Nirvan Ladoo'' is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.{{sfn|Pechilis|Raj|2013|p=86}} Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are [[Akshaya Tritiya]] and [[Raksha Bandhan]], similar to those in the Hindu communities.{{sfn|Pechilis|Raj|2013|p=85}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=164}}

==Scriptures and texts==
{{Main|Jain literature}}
{{Multiple images
| image1            = Jain Agamas.jpeg
| caption1          = Stela depicting ''Śhrut Jnāna'', or complete scriptural knowledge
| image2            = Suryaprajnapati Sutra.jpg
| caption2          = The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a fourth or third century BCE astronomy text of Śvētāmbara Jains. Above: its manuscript from {{circa|1500}} CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schoyencollection.com/23-religions/living-religions/23-17-jainism/astronomy/ms-5297 |title=Suryaprajnapti Sūtra |work=[[Schøyen Collection|The Schøyen Collection]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615024618/http://www.schoyencollection.com/23-religions/living-religions/23-17-jainism/astronomy/ms-5297|archive-date=15 June 2017|access-date=16 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
| image3            = Mangulam inscription.jpg
| caption3          = [[Mangulam]] inscription dated 3rd century BCE
| align             = 
| direction         = 
| total_width       = 400
| alt1              = 
}}

Jain canonical scriptures are called ''Agamas''. They are believed to have been [[oral tradition|verbally transmitted]], much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts,{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=60–61}} and to have originated from the sermons of the ''tirthankaras'', whereupon the ''[[Ganadhara]]s'' (chief disciples) transmitted them as ''Śhrut Jnāna'' (heard knowledge).{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1929b|pp=135–136}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=109–110}} The spoken scriptural language is believed to be ''[[Ardhamagadhi]]'' by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=60–61}}

The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=61}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=112–113, 121–122}} and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara ''Āchāryas'' recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four ''anuyoga''.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2016|p=xii}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=78–81}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=124}} The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=121–122}} The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or ''Vedas'': history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=123–124}}{{efn|Not to be confused with the four ''[[Veda]]s'' of Hinduism.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164–165}}}}

The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]s'' are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=125–126}} Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=125–126}} Both traditions consider his ''Niryuktis'' and ''Samhitas'' important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by [[Umaswati]], the ''[[Tattvarthasūtra]]'' is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=439–440}}{{sfn|Dundas|2006|pp=395–396}}{{efn|That Which Is, known as the ''Tattvartha Sūtra'' to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."{{sfn|Umāsvāti|1994|p=xi–xiii}}}} In the Digambara tradition, the texts attributed to [[Kundakunda]] are highly revered and have been historically influential,{{sfn|Finegan|1989|p=221}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2003|pp=25–34}}{{sfn|Chatterjee|2000|pp=282–283}} while the oldest being ''[[Kasayapahuda]]'' and ''[[Shatkhandagama]]'' attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include: ''[[Samayasara]]'', ''[[Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra]]'', and ''[[Niyamasara]]''.{{sfn|Jaini|1991|pp=32–33}}

==Culture (Art, Architecture)==
{{Main|Jain art}}
{{Multiple images
| image1            = Detail of a leaf with the birth of mahavira.jpg
| caption1          = The birth of Mahavira, from the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' (c.{{nbsp}}1375–1400 CE)
| image2            = "Sihanamdika ayagapata", Jain votive plate, Kankali Tila, Mathura dated 25-50 CE.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ayagapata|Sihanamdika ayagapata]], 25–50 CE, [[Kankali Tila]], Mathura, [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| image3            = KHANDAGIRI AND UDAYGIRI Cave Inscriptions 1.jpg
| caption3          = Inscriptions at a [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves|Udaygiri-Khandagiri]] 2nd–1st-century BCE Jain rock cut cave, [[Odisha]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_orissa_udaigiricaves.asp |title=Udaygiri and Khandagiri Caves |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029012248/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_orissa_udaigiricaves.asp |archive-date=29 October 2015 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]], [[Government of India]] |access-date=29 October 2015}}</ref>
| total_width       = 500
}}

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of ''tirthankara'' or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. ''Yakshas'' and ''[[yakshini]]s'', attendant spirits who guard the ''tirthankara'', are usually shown with them.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=184}} The earliest known Jain image is in the [[Patna]] museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=184}} Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=95}}

''Ayagapata'' is a type of [[votive]] tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the ''[[stupa]]'', ''[[dharmacakra]]'' and ''[[triratna]]''. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near [[Mathura]] in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.{{sfn|Kishore|2015|pp=17–43}}{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=9–10}} ''[[Samavasarana]]'', a preaching hall of ''tirthankaras'' with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=184}}

[[File:Kirti Stambha (Tower of Fame) (4571936260).jpg|thumb|[[Kirti Stambh]] in [[Chittor Fort]], 12th century CE]]

The [[Kirti Stambh|Jain tower in Chittor]], Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.{{sfn|Owen|2012a|pp=1–2}} Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=183}} Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as ''Panch Kalyanaka'', from the life of the ''tirthankara''. Rishabha, the first ''tirthankara'', is usually depicted in either the [[lotus position]] or ''kayotsarga'', the standing position. He is distinguished from other ''tirthankara'' by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=113}} In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and [[Indra]] marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|p=16}} Each of the twenty-four ''tirthankara'' is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as ''Tiloyapannati'', ''Kahavaali'' and ''Pravacanasaarodhara''.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=187}}

===Temples===
{{Main|Jain temple}}
{{Major Jain temples}}
[[File:Palitana.jpg|thumb|Jain temples on [[Shatrunjaya]] hill near [[Palitana]], Gujarat]]
A Jain temple, a ''Derasar'' or ''Basadi'', is a [[place of worship]].{{sfn|Babb|1996|p=66}} Temples contain ''tirthankara'' images, some fixed, others moveable.{{sfn|Babb|1996|p=66}} These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.{{sfn|Babb|1996|p=66}} One of the images is marked as the ''moolnayak'' (primary deity).{{sfn|Babb|1996|p=68}} A ''[[manastambha]]'' (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.{{sfn|Settar|1989|p=195}} Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=188}}

Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa ([[Vidisha]]) and [[Pataini temple]] in Madhya Pradesh, the [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] in Maharashtra, the [[Palitana temples]] in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near [[Mount Abu]], Rajasthan.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barik |first=Bibhuti |title=Plan to beautify Khandagiri – Monument revamp to attract more tourists |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150623/jsp/odisha/story_27206.jsp |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=23 June 2015 |location=[[Bhubaneswar]] |access-date=16 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223232545/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150623/jsp/odisha/story_27206.jsp |archive-date=23 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=Alexander | author-link=Alexander Cunningham | title=Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces in 1873–74 and 1874–75 | volume=9 | series=Archaeological Survey of India | publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing | year=1879 | url={{Google books|X88OAAAAQAAJ|page=31|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} | page=31 }}</ref> [[Ranakpur Jain temple|Chaumukha temple]] in [[Ranakpur]] is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.{{sfn|Sehdev Kumar|2001|p=106}} According to Jain texts, [[Shikharji]] is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain ''Tīrthaṅkaras'' along with many other monks attained ''moksha'' (died without being reborn, with their soul in ''[[Siddhashila]]''). The Shikharji site in northeastern [[Jharkhand]] is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.{{Sfn|Cort|2010|pp=130–133}}{{efn|Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=275}}}} The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.{{sfn|Berger|2010|p=352}} Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the [[Jain community]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/murti.html |title="Murtipujakas, Jainism", ''Encyclopedia of World Religions'' (PHILTAR)|work=Division of Religion and Philosophy, St Martin's College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013131021/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/murti.html |archive-date=13 October 2007 |access-date=13 October 2007}}</ref> The [[Jain complex, Khajuraho]] and [[Pattadakal#Jain Temple|Jain Narayana temple]] are part of a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 |title= Khajuraho Group of Monuments |publisher= [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Centre]] |access-date= 14 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170218144204/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240/ |archive-date= 18 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239 |title= Group of Monuments at Pattadakal |publisher= [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Centre]] |access-date= 14 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140326134122/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239 |archive-date= 26 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Saavira Kambada Basadi]] or ''1000 pillars'' and [[Brahma Jinalaya]] are important Jain centers in Karnataka.{{sfn|Butalia|Small|2004|p=367}}{{sfn|Fergusson|1876|p=271}}{{sfn|Pandya|2014|p=17}} In and around [[Madurai]], there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.<ref>{{cite web |first=S. S. |last=Kavitha |url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/namma-madurai-history-hidden-inside-a-cave/article4051011.ece |title=Namma Madurai: History hidden inside a cave |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=31 October 2012 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103053626/http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/namma-madurai-history-hidden-inside-a-cave/article4051011.ece |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of ''tirthanakars'' and deities with inscriptions including the [[Hathigumpha inscription|Elephant Cave inscription]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=alfabetos/dravidi |title=Dravidi Or Kalinga Syllabary |work=proel.org |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201132912/http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=alfabetos%2Fdravidi |archive-date=1 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2024|p=460}} Jain cave temples at [[Badami cave temples|Badami]], [[Mangi-Tungi]] and the Ellora Caves are considered important.{{sfn|Owen|2012a|p=50}} The [[Sittanavasal Cave]] temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE. [[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscriptions.<ref>{{cite web |first=S. S. |last=Kavitha |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-past/article100194.ece |title=Preserving the past |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=3 February 2010 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103060244/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-past/article100194.ece |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The eighth century [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds|Kazhugumalai temple]] marks the revival of Jainism in South India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/15/stories/2003091503060500.htm |title=Arittapatti inscription throws light on Jainism |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 September 2003 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123051449/http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/15/stories/2003091503060500.htm |archive-date=23 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200" caption="Jain temples of varied styles in India and abroad">
File:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg|[[Ranakpur Jain Temple]]
File:Delwada.jpg|[[Dilwara Temples]]
File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg|[[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho|Parshvanath Temple]] in [[Khajuraho]]
File:Jain temples on Girnar mountain aerial view.jpg|[[Girnar Jain temples]]
File:Jal Mandir.The Jain Temple at Pawapur,.jpg|[[Jal Mandir]], [[Pawapuri]]
File:Lodurva Temples.jpg|[[Lodhurva Jain temple]]
File:Palitana.jpg|[[Palitana temples]]
File:1000-Pillar-Temple-Moodbidri-Left-Side-View.JPG|[[Saavira Kambada Basadi]], [[Moodbidri]], [[Karnataka]]
File:Templejaindanvers.jpg|[[Jain temple, Antwerp]], [[Belgium]]
File:Jain temple at Lakkundi.jpg|[[Brahma Jinalaya]], [[Lakkundi]]
File:Sheth_Hutheesinh_Temple.jpg|[[Hutheesing Jain Temple]]
<!--Please DO NOT add any more images here, there are QUITE enough already, thanks!-->
</gallery>

===Pilgrimages===
{{Main|Tirtha (Jainism)}}

[[File:Shikharji Parasnath Giridih.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Shikharji]]]]

Jain ''Tirtha'' (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:{{sfn|Titze|1998}}

* ''Siddhakshetra''{{snds}}Site of the [[Moksha (Jainism)|''moksha'']] of an ''arihant'' (''kevalin'') or ''tirthankara'', such as: [[Mount Kailash|Ashtapada]] of [[Rishabhanatha]], [[Shikharji]] of 20 [[Tirthankara]], [[Girnar]] of [[Neminatha]], [[Pawapuri]] of [[Mahaveera]], [[Champapuri]] (capital of [[Anga]]) of [[Vasupujya]], [[Mangi-Tungi]] of [[Rama|Ram]], [[Palitana]] of 3 [[Pandavas]].
* ''Atishayakshetra''{{snds}}Locations where divine events are believed to have occurred, such as: [[Mahavirji]], [[Rishabhdeo]], [[Kundalpur]], [[Tijara Jain Temple|Tijara]], and [[Aharji]].
* ''Puranakshetra''{{snds}} Places associated with the lives of great men, such as: [[Ayodhya]], [[Vidisha]], [[Hastinapur]], and [[Rajgir]].
* ''Gyanakshetra''{{snds}} Places associated with famous ''[[acharya]]s'', or centers of learning, such as [[Shravanabelagola]].

Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built [[Nagarparkar Jain Temples|temples]] in locations such as [[Nagarparkar]], [[Sindh]] (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6111/ |title=Nagarparkar Cultural Landscape |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510093259/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6111/ |archive-date=10 May 2017 |url-status=live |work=Tantative Lists |publisher=[[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Centre]]}}</ref>

===Statues and sculptures===
{{Main|Jain sculpture}}

{{Infobox religious building
| name                  = Gommateshwara<br>(Bahubali)
| religious_affiliation = Jainism
| image                 = Gommateshwara, Shravanabelagola.jpg
| alt                   = Gommateshwara statue ಗೊಮ್ಮಟೇಶ್ವರ
| caption               = The 58.8-foot high monolithic statue of [[Bahubali]] built in 981 CE
}}
[[File:Thirthankara Suparshvanath Museum Rietberg RVI 306.jpg|thumb|upright|Idol of [[Suparśvanātha]] ]]

Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four ''tīrthaṅkaras''; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in [[lotus position]] or ''kayotsarga'', along with ''Arihant'', [[Bahubali]], and protector deities like [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]].{{sfn|Arora|2007|p=405}} Quadruple images are also popular. ''Tirthankar'' idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=184}}

A monolithic, {{convert|18|m|ft|adj=on|abbr=off}} statue of Bahubali, ''[[Gommateshvara]]'', built in 981 CE by the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Ganga]] minister and commander [[Chavundaraya]], is situated on a hilltop in [[Shravanabelagola]] in [[Karnataka]]. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by ''[[The Times of India]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/and-indias-7-wonders-are-/articleshow/2256323.cms |title=And India's 7 wonders are... |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=5 August 2007 |access-date=3 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018033432/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2256323.cms |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The {{convert|33|m|ft|adj=on|abbr=off}} tall [[Statue of Ahiṃsā]] (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the [[Nashik district]] in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/70-crore-plan-for-idol-installation-at-Mangi-Tungi/articleshow/50037188.cms |title=70-crore plan for idol installation at Mangi-Tungi |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 December 2015 |last=Botekar |first=Abhilash |access-date=7 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119161127/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/70-crore-plan-for-idol-installation-at-Mangi-Tungi/articleshow/50037188.cms |archive-date=19 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Idols are often made in ''[[Ashtadhatu]]'' (literally "eight metals"), namely [[Akota Bronze]], [[brass]], [[gold]], [[silver]], stone [[monolith]]s, [[rock cut]], and precious stones.{{sfn|Pratapaditya Pal|1986|p=22}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jais/hd_jais.htm |title=Jain Sculpture |date=January 2012 |access-date=16 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506060348/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jais/hd_jais.htm |archive-date=6 May 2017 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Symbols===
{{Main|Jain symbols}}

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 275
| image1            = Om jaïn orange.svg
| caption1          = [[Om#Jainism|Om in Jainism]]
| flag_caption      = Flag for Indian Jains
| image2            = In-jain.png
| caption2          = [[Jain flag]]
}}

Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the [[swastika]], [[Om#Jainism|''Om'']], and the ''Ashtamangala''. In Jainism, ''Om'' is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "''Arihant'', ''[[Ashiri]]'', ''[[Acharya]]'', ''[[Upajjhaya]]'', ''Muni''".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991001132837/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |title=Om – Significance in Jainism |publisher=Department of Computer Science of [[Colorado State University]] |archive-date=October 1, 1999 |access-date=September 23, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=410–411}} The ''[[Ashtamangala]]'' is a set of eight auspicious symbols:{{sfn|Titze|1998|p=234}} in the Digambara tradition, these are [[chatra (umbrella)|chatra]], ''[[dhvaja]]'', ''[[kalasha]]'', [[fly-whisk]], [[mirror]], chair, [[hand fan]] and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, ''[[Srivatsa]]'', ''[[Nandavarta]]'', ''Vardhmanaka'' (food vessel), ''Bhadrasana'' (seat), ''[[Kalasha]]'' (pot), ''Darpan'' (mirror) and pair of fish.{{Sfn|Titze|1998|p=234}}

[[File:Stambha of Parshwanath Jain Mandir, Belgachhiya 18.jpg|thumb|A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's ''nirvana''.]]

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism|''ahimsā'']]. The wheel represents the ''[[dharmachakra]]'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ''ahimsā''. The five colours of the [[Jain flag]] represent the ''[[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]]'' and the five vows.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=iv}} The [[swastika]]'s four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=17}}{{sfn|Jansma|Jain|2006|p=123}} The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=17–18}}

In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.{{Sfn|Robinson|2006|p=225}} It depicts the three ''lokas'', heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes ''Siddhashila'', a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of ''Ahiṃsā'' are included, with the Jain mantra ''[[Parasparopagraho Jivanam|Parasparopagraho Jīvānām]]''{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=123}} from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's ''Tattvarthasūtra'', meaning "souls render service to one another".{{sfn|Vallely|2013|p=358}}

== Jainism and ecology ==
Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions, offers a profound ecological philosophy rooted in its core principles.<ref name="JE">{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Jain Ecology| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =The Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development| date =| url =https://interfaithsustain.com/jain-ecology/ | accessdate =26 May 2025}}</ref> As noted in the Jain Declaration on Nature, "Jainism is fundamentally a religion of ecology and has turned ecology into a religion. It has enabled Jains to create an environment-friendly value system and code of conduct."<ref name="YA">Singhvi L.M.,{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Jain Faith Statement| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology| date =| url =https://fore.yale.edu/World-Religions/Jainism/Statements | accessdate =26 May 2025}}</ref> Central to Jain ethics is ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), which extends beyond human interactions to encompass all living beings. "All breathing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law."<ref>ĀcārāṅgaSūtra I:4.1, as translated by Hermann Jacobi, Jaina Sutras in Two Parts.  Part One: the ĀkārāṅgaSūtra; The Kalpa Sūtra(New York: Dover, 1968, first published, 1884), p. 36.</ref> 

The Jain concept of ''parasparopagrahojīvānām'' in the [[Tattvarth Sutra]], the most authoritative sacred text of Jains, teaches that all souls are responsible for one another and  underscores the mutual interdependence of all life forms.<ref name="GO">Dr. Palakh Jain,{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Give and take: The essence of living!| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =Governance Now| date =| url =https://www.governancenow.com/views/columns/give-and-take-the-essence-of-living | accessdate =26 May 2025}}</ref> [[Mahavira]], the founder of Jainism taught, "One who neglects or disregards the existence of earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is entwined with them."<ref name="FOR">L. M. SINGHVI,{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Jain Declaration on Nature (pdf p.219)| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology| date =| url =https://fore.yale.edu/sites/default/files/Jain-Declaration-on-Nature.pdf | accessdate =26 May 2025}}</ref> This principle is not merely philosophical but is reflected in daily practices. For instance, Jain monks and nuns often wear masks to prevent inhaling and harming microscopic organisms, demonstrating meticulous care for even the smallest forms of life.<ref>ĀcārāṅgaSūtra II:15.i.1-5, Jacobi 1968, 203-204</ref>

Jainism also emphasizes ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-possessiveness), advocating for minimal consumption and a lifestyle that avoids excess. This principle encourages individuals to live sustainably, reducing their ecological footprint. "Using any resource beyond one's needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jain faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence."<ref>L. M. Singhvi,{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Jain Declaration on Nature (pdf p224)| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology| date =| url =https://fore.yale.edu/sites/default/files/Jain-Declaration-on-Nature.pdf | accessdate =26 May 2025}}</ref> 

In contemporary times, Jain communities continue to uphold these ecological principles through various initiatives. These include [[tree planting]], [[wildlife conservation]], and promoting [[vegetarianism]], all aimed at fostering a harmonious relationship with nature. Such practices exemplify the enduring relevance of Jain teachings in addressing modern environmental challenges.<ref>Patil, R.B., Jainism And Ecology, Journal of Dharma 33, 2 April-June 2008</ref> 

Through its unwavering commitment to non-violence, interdependence, and minimalism, Jainism offers a holistic framework for ecological sustainability, emphasizing the sacredness of all life and the importance of living in harmony with the environment.<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | title =Ecology and Ethics in Jainism and Buddhism| newspaper =| location = | pages = | language = | publisher =Academia.edu| date =| url =https://www.academia.edu/45587030 | accessdate =26 May 2025}}</ref>

==Comparison with other religions==
{{main|Buddhism and Jainism|Jainism and Hinduism}}

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 300
| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| header            = Jain stupa
| image1            = Holi relief, Mathura, c1st century CE.jpg
| footer_align      = center
| footer            = Jain votive plaque with [[Jain stupa]], the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated from [[Kankali Tila]], [[Mathura]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quintanilla |first1=Sonya Rhie |title=Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology |journal=Artibus Asiae |date=2000 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=79–137 Fig.26 |doi=10.2307/3249941 |issn=0004-3648|jstor=3249941 }}</ref><br>The inscription reads:<br><small>''"Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamana. The daughter of the matron (?) courtesan Lonasobhika (Lavanasobhika), the disciple of the ascetics, the junior (?) courtesan Vasu has erected a shrine of the Arhat, a hall of homage (ayagasabha), cistern and a stone slab at the sanctuary of the [[Nirgrantha]] Arhats, together with her mother, her daughter, her son and her whole household in honour of the Arhats."''<ref>{{cite web |title=Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds |url=https://vmis.in/ArchiveCategories/collection_gallery_zoom?id=1335&siteid=541&minrange=0&maxrange=0&assetid=72574&self_archive_id=161621&index=124 |website=vmis.in}}</ref></small>
}}

[[File:Sculpture panel showing a Jain stupa and torana, Mathura 75-100 CE.jpg|thumb|290px|''Sivayasa Ayagapata'', with stupa fragment, [[Kankali Tila]], 75–100 CE]]

All four [[Indian religions|Dharmic religions]]—Jainism, [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Buddhism]]—share concepts and doctrines such as [[karma]] and [[Reincarnation|rebirth]].{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=11–22}}{{sfn|Appleton|2016|pp=1–21, 25–27, 57–58, 82–84}}{{sfn|McFaul|2006|pp=27–28}} They do not believe in eternal [[heaven]] or [[hell]] or [[judgment day]], and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) to be important,{{sfn|Shaw|Demy|2017}}{{rp|p. 635|quote=Ahiṃsā (to do no harm) is a significant aspect of three major religions: Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism}} link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (''[[moksha]]'').{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=18–22}}{{sfn|McFaul|2006|pp=27–40}}

Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises: While all three believe in impermanence, Buddhism incorporates the premise of ''[[anatta]]'' ("no eternal self or soul") while Hinduism maintains the concept of an eternal unchanging ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]'' ("soul"); by contrast, Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' ("soul").{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=87–88}}{{sfn|Wiley|2004|pp=2–5}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=122–125}} In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal ''jivas'', predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few ''siddhas'' (liberated ones).{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|pp=157–158, 168–169}} Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass [[advaita|nondualism]] where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|pp=54–62, 77–82, 132}}{{sfn|Perrett|2013|pp=247–248}}{{sfn|Bartley|2013|pp=1–10, 76–79, 87–98}} Jainism rejected the non-dual concept, stating that if there were only one universal consciousness which was already liberated, the purpose of dharma would be nullified. Additionally, the need and desire for an infinitely blissful consciousness to create the universe would imply a limitation within that consciousness. Jainism also criticized Vedanta's inability to explain how an intangible consciousness could create a material universe, filled with countless living beings who experience suffering.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/atmasiddhi1 | title=Atmasiddhi–The Jain Path of Enlightenment | date=28 December 2008 }}</ref> Jain scholar Dr. Hukumchand Bharill explains that, according to both Jainism and Vedanta, only consciousness can perceive itself, while the [[mind]] and [[Human body|body]] are incapable of recognizing and experiencing the soul. In Jainism, the soul, in its state of ignorance, mistakenly identifies with the body and consequently experiences suffering. When the soul realizes its true nature, it attains enlightenment, gaining infinite knowledge and bliss. If there were only a singular, universal consciousness, Bharill questions, who attains realization as the consciousness is already liberated, and the mind is incapable of experiencing soul's boundless knowledge-bliss nature.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/discovery-of-truth_202206/page/104/mode/1up | title=Discovery of Truth (Satya Ki Khoj) | date=4 November 2002 }}</ref>

While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (''[[vibhu]]''), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and [[Brahman]] through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=58, 102–105}}

Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth.{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=18–22}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010b|pp=174–175}} Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.{{sfn|Juergensmeyer|2011|p=54}}{{sfn|Kelting|2009|pp=206 note 4}} Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system,{{sfn|Nesfield|1885|pp=116–117}}{{sfn|Pope|1880|pp=40–41}} but later scholars consider this a Western error.{{sfn|Alberts|2007|pp=258–259}} A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.{{sfn|Juergensmeyer|2011|p=54}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=147–149, 304 footnote 24}}{{sfn|Babb|1996|pp=137–145, 54, 172}}{{sfn|Sangave|1980|pp=73, 316–317}}{{efn|According to [[Richard Gombrich]] and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."{{sfn|Gombrich|2012|pp=344–353 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Alberts|2007|pp=258–259}}{{sfn|Florida|2005|pp=134–137}}}}

Monasticism is similar in all three traditions,{{sfn|Johnston|2000|pp=681–683}}{{sfn|Caillat|2003a|pp=30–34 with footnote 28}} with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month [[monsoon]] season, and celibacy,{{sfn|Caillat|2003a|pp=30–34 with footnote 28}} originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.{{sfn|Johnston|2000|pp=681–683}} Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a ''sangha'' (monastery) and staying in its premises.{{sfn|Hirakawa|1993|pp=4–7}} Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.{{sfn|Johnston|2000|pp=681–683}} In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.{{sfn|Johnston|2000|pp=681–683}}{{efn|Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=42–43}} }}

Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,<ref>''Nisithabhasya'' (in ''Nisithasutra'') 289; Jinadatta Suri: ''Upadesharasayana'' 26; Dundas pp. 162–163; Tähtinen p. 31.</ref> and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.<ref>Jindal pp. 89–90; Laidlaw pp. 154–155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.: ''Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism'', in: ''Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism'', ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52–60; Tähtinen p. 31.</ref> Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.<ref>Harisena, ''Brhatkathakosa'' 124 (10th century); Jindal pp. 90–91; Sangave p. 259.</ref> The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain ''Tirthankara'' within its premises in a place of honour,{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Sharma|Ghosal|2006|pp=100–103}} while temple complexes such as the [[Badami cave temples]] and [[Khajuraho]] feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.{{sfn|Michell|2014|pp=38–52, 60–61}}{{sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1996|pp=468–470}}

Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of [[plant soul]]s, were transmitted from [[Western Satraps|Western Kshatrapa]] territories to [[Mesopotamia]] and then integrated into [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] beliefs.<ref name="FynesRCC">{{cite journal|last=Fynes|first=Richard C.C.|title=Plant Souls in Jainism and Manichaeism The Case for Cultural Transmission|journal=East and West|publisher=Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)|volume=46|issue=1/2|year=1996|issn=0012-8376|jstor=29757253|pages=21–44|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757253}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Jain communities}}

With an estimated four to five million followers worldwide,{{Sfn|Voorst|2014|p=96}}{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=lix, 1395}} the vast majority of Jains reside in India. According to the [[2011 Census of India]], there were 4.45 million Jains in the country, constituting 0.37% of the total population.<ref name=jaindemographics/> The community is highly concentrated, with 78.2% of Indian Jains living in four states: [[Jainism in Maharashtra|Maharashtra]] (31.5%), [[Jainism in Rajasthan|Rajasthan]] (14.0%), [[Jainism in Gujarat|Gujarat]] (13.0%) and [[Madhya Pradesh]] (12.7%).<ref name=jaindemographics/> Other states with significant populations include [[Jainism in Karnataka|Karnataka]] (9.9%), [[Jainism in Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]] (4.8%), [[Jainism in Delhi|Delhi]] (3.7%) and [[Tamil Jain|Tamil Nadu]] (2.0%).<ref name=jaindemographics>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/c-01.html |title=C-1 Population By Religious Community |publisher=[[Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner]], [[Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]] |date=2011 |access-date=9 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913045700/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html |archive-date=13 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, the [[Government of India]] granted Jainism "national minority" status.
===Global Diaspora===
Significant Jain communities exist globally, largely tracing their origins to Indian migration.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=43}} The oldest of these is in [[Jainism in Africa|East Africa]], particularly Kenya and Uganda, where Jain merchants settled in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-23 |title=Jainism - Ahimsa, Dharma, Digambara {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism/Early-medieval-developments-500-1100 |access-date=2025-06-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Political instability in those countries in the 1960s and 1970s led to a secondary migration, primarily to the [[Jainism in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], which now has a community estimated at 25,000 to 30,000.{{sfn|Mugambi|2010|p=108}} The first Jain temple consecrated outside India was in [[Leicester]].{{sfn|Mugambi|2010|p=108}}

The largest diaspora community is in the [[Jainism in the United States|United States]], with estimates ranging from 80,000 to 100,000, and a significant population also resides in [[Jainism in Canada|Canada]] (est. 12,000+).{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=43}} A notable community exists in Antwerp, Belgium, where Jains have played a prominent role in the global diamond trade since the mid-20th century. In recent decades, Jainism has also attracted converts in other nations, such as [[Jainism in Japan|Japan]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Hemali |last=Chhapia |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/thousands-of-japanese-making-a-smooth-transition-from-zen-to-jain/articleshow/74262195.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223131538/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/thousands-of-japanese-making-a-smooth-transition-from-zen-to-jain/articleshow/74262195.cms |title=Thousands of Japanese making a smooth transition from Zen to Jain |date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |access-date=23 September 2021 |url-status=live |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
===Socio-Economic Profile===
The Jain community is a distinct socio-economic group within India. Data from the 2015–16 [[National Family Health Survey]] (NFHS-4) identified Jains as the wealthiest religious community in the country.<ref>{{citation |last=Kishore |first=Roshan |title=Delhi and Punjab richest states, Jain wealthiest community: National survey |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-and-punjab-richest-states-jain-wealthiest-community-national-survey/story-sakdd3MBOfKhU2p5LrNVUM.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113035739/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-and-punjab-richest-states-jain-wealthiest-community-national-survey/story-sakdd3MBOfKhU2p5LrNVUM.html |date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=13 January 2018 |access-date=23 September 2021 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |url-status=live }}</ref> This is strongly correlated with high educational attainment. According to the 2011 census, Jains have the highest literacy rate in India at 86.7% (for ages 7+), and this figure exceeded 97% for the population excluding the retired.<ref>{{citation |first=Bharti |last=Jain |title=Jains have highest percentage of literates: Census 2011 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jains-have-highest-percentage-of-literates-Census-data/articleshow/53942863.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=31 August 2016 |access-date=19 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129153443/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jains-have-highest-percentage-of-literates-Census-data/articleshow/53942863.cms |archive-date=29 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Jains also have the highest percentage of college graduates of any religious community.<ref>{{citation |title=Distribution of Population by Religions |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Ad_Campaign/drop_in_articles/04-Distribution_by_Religion.pdf |publisher= [[Census of India]], [[Government of India]] |year=2011 |access-date=19 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191803/http://censusindia.gov.in/Ad_Campaign/drop_in_articles/04-Distribution_by_Religion.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Scholars often attribute this socio-economic profile to the theological principles of the faith.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=277}} The rigorous observance of ''Ahiṃsā'' (non-violence) historically discouraged professions like agriculture, which involve the harming of insects and microbes.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=278}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=191}} This steered the community toward mercantile pursuits, such as commerce, banking, jewelry, and trade.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=191}}{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=279}} A notable historical example of this financial prominence was the [[Jagat Seth]] family, a Jain banking house that served as state bankers to the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] and the [[East India Company]] in the 18th century.{{sfn|Dalrymple|2019|p=}}{{sfn|Ramkrishna Mukherjee|1955|p=239}}

In the modern era, this focus has translated to high representation in business, finance, and professional fields.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=191}}{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=279}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=177-178}} Foundational industrialists like [[Walchand Hirachand]], who established India's first modern shipyard and aircraft factory, emerged from the community.<ref>{{citation |last=Gunjal |first=Achal |title=The 'Transport Man of India' who put nation on a fast track |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/shipping-/-transport/indian-independence-day-history-walchand-hirachand-hindustan-aeronautical-limited-the-transport-man-of-india-who-put-nation-on-a-fast-track/articleshow/123296863.cms?from=mdr |date=15 August 2025 |website=[[The Economic Times]] }}</ref> In finance, the merchant [[Premchand Roychand]] was a key 19th-century founder of the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]].<ref>{{citation |title=This businessman is India’s original Big Bull, founded Rs 300 lakh crore Bombay Stock Exchange |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-premchand-roychand-jain-businessman-1800s-india-original-big-bull-rs-300-lakh-crore-bombay-stock-exchange-bse-3050791 |date=8 July 2023 |website=[[DNA India]] }}</ref> This prominence in large-scale industry continues with contemporary figures such as [[Gautam Adani]], founder of the [[Adani Group]], and the Patni family of [[Kishangarh]], founders of RK Marble, a major global stone processor. This representation also extends to technology and the sciences. [[Narendra Patni]], for instance, was a pioneer of the Indian IT services industry with the founding of [[Patni Computer Systems]]. In science, physicist [[Vikram Sarabhai]], founder of the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO), is widely regarded as the "father of the Indian space program."<ref>{{citation |last=Singh |first=Anwesha |title=Remembering Father Of Indian Space: How Vikram Sarabhai Built Indian Space Research Organisation From Scratch |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/remembering-father-of-indian-space-how-vikram-sarabhai-built-isro-from-scratch-9067576 |date=12 August 2025 |website=[[NDTV]] }}</ref>

===Community and Philanthropy===
A defining characteristic of the Jain community is its highly organized and historical practice of ''dāna'' (charity).{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=197}} This is a central religious duty for laypersons (''śrāvakas''), who are motivated by two key theological concepts.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=197}} Firstly, scholars identify ''dāna'' as the primary mechanism for the laity to acquire good ''karma'' (''punya''), which is sought to ensure worldly well-being and a favorable rebirth. Secondly, this practice is the main expression of the householder's vow of ''Aparigraha'' (non-attachment). This dual motivation has resulted in a long-standing tradition of institutional philanthropy.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=197}}

This is most famously expressed in the establishment of ''panjrapoles'' (animal hospitals and sanctuaries), which provide care for animals in accordance with the principle of ''Ahiṃsā''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=197-198}} The community has also historically funded and managed ''dharamshalas'' (pilgrim rest-houses), educational institutions, and ''bhandaras'' (manuscript libraries), which have been crucial in preserving tens of thousands of ancient and medieval texts.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=197-198}}

In the 20th century, this philanthropic tradition of supporting educational institutions evolved to include the founding of major national bodies. Industrialist [[Kasturbhai Lalbhai]], for example, was a key co-founder of the [[Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad]] (IIM-A) and the [[Physical Research Laboratory]]. In the field of public policy, physicist [[Daulat Singh Kothari]] chaired the influential [[Kothari Commission]] (1964–1966), which provided the comprehensive framework for the modernization of India's education policy.

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion}}
* [[Outline of Jainism]]
* [[Jain law]]
* [[Jain cosmology]]
* [[List of ancient Jains]]
* [[List of Jains]]
* [[Nonviolence]]
* [[Vegetarianism]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|23em|refs=
<!-- P -->
<!-- "philtar_Jainism" -->
<ref name="philtar_Jainism">{{cite web|url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/index.html|title=Jainism|website=Philtar.ac.uk|access-date=22 December 2017}}</ref>
}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtgZAAAAMAAJ |title=Journal ... |date=1928 |publisher=Anthropological Society of Bombay |language=en }}
<!-- A -->
* {{citation|last=Alberts|first=Wanda|title=Integrative Religious Education in Europe: A Study-of-Religions Approach|url={{Google books|xvwKWS3VKfcC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2007|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-097134-7|language=en}}
* {{citation |last=Appleton |first=Naomi |title=Shared Characters in Jain, Buddhist and Hindu Narrative: Gods, Kings and Other Heroes |url={{Google books|3QWcDQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-05574-7 |language=en }}
* {{citation |last=Arora |first=Udai Prakash |author-link=Udai Prakash Arora |year=2007 |title=Udayana |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8-179-75168-8 |url={{Google books|d4VeYJdww2YC|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Arunachalam |editor-first=M. |title=Aintām Ulakat Tamil̲ Mānāṭu-Karuttaraṅku Āyvuk Kaṭṭuraikaḷ |url={{Google books|3WFDAAAAYAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |date=1981 |publisher=International Association of Tamil Research }}
<!-- B -->
* {{citation |last=Babb |first=Lawrence A. |title=Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture |url={{Google books|C8HcBvE8XJ4C|plainurl=yes}} |year=1996 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91708-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Bailey |first=William |title=The Theological Universe |url={{Google books|G7_GBgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Bailey Publishing, PA |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-312-23861-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Balcerowicz |first=Piotr |author-link=Piotr Balcerowicz |title=Essays in Jain Philosophy and Religion |url={{Google books|NcRpfZcIhLoC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2003 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-1977-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Balcerowicz |first=Piotr |title=Jainism and the definition of religion |date=2009 |publisher=[[Hindi Granth Karyalay]] |location=Mumbai |isbn=978-81-88769-29-2 |edition=1st |language=en}}
* {{citation |last=Balcerowicz |first=Piotr |title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism |url={{Google books|nfOPCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Barnett |first=Lincoln |author-link=Lincoln Barnett| display-authors=etal| editor1-last=Welles |editor1-first=Sam |title=The World's Great Religions |year=1957 |publisher=[[Time Inc.|Time Incorporated]] |location=New York |edition=1st }}
* {{citation |last=Bartley |first=C.J. |title=The Theology of Rāmānuja: Realism and Religion |url={{Google books|9SpTAQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-85306-7 }}
* {{cite book | last=Basham | first=A.L. | title=History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas: A Vanished Indian Religion | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | series=Jainism Series | year=1951 | isbn=978-81-208-1204-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC}}
* {{cite book | last =Bauer | first =Jerome | year =2004 | chapter =Kanji Swami (1890-1980) | editor-last =Jestice | editor-first =Phyllis G.| title=Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia | publisher=ABC-CLIO | pages=464 | isbn=9781576073551 | volume=1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5cQH17-HnMC&pg=PR43}}
* {{citation |last=Berger |first=Peter |author-link=Peter L. Berger |title=The Anthropology of Values: Essays in Honour of Georg Pfeffer |url={{Google books|qSt8YyRKr0wC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2010 |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |location=India |isbn=978-81-317-2820-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Bhandarkar |first=Sir Ramkrishna Gopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-ttAAAAMAAJ |title=Collected Works of Sir R. G. Bhandarkar: Miscellaneous articles, reviews, addresses &c |year=1927 |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |language=en }}
* {{citation |last=Billimoria |first=P. |title=Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge, Studies of Classical India |year=1988 |volume=10, Springer |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-010-7810-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Boesche |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Boesche |title=The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra |url={{Google books|K85NA7Rg67wC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2003 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0607-5 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Butalia |editor-first=Tarunjit Singh |editor-last2=Small |editor-first2=Dianne P. |title=Religion in Ohio: Profiles of Faith Communities |url={{Google books|LRFePtMXjT8C|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Ohio University Press]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-8214-1551-1 }}
<!-- C -->
* {{citation |last=Caillat |first=Colette |date=2003a |title=Gleanings from a Comparative Reading of Early Canonical Buddhist and Jain Texts |publisher=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=26 |issue=1 }}
* {{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EscwAQAAMAAJ |title=The Practical Path |author=Champat Rai Jain |author-link=Champat Rai Jain |year=1917 |publisher=The Central Jain Publishing House }}
* {{citation |last=Charitrapragya |first=Samani |editor-last=Sethia |editor-first=Tara |title=Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jaininsm |url={{Google books|QYdlKv8wBiYC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2004 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4 }}
* {{citation|last=Chatterjee|first=Asim Kumar|title=A Comprehensive History of Jainism: From the Earliest Beginnings to AD 1000|url={{Google books|IH7XAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2000|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|isbn=978-81-215-0931-2}}
* {{citation |last1=Clarke |first1=Peter |author-link=Peter B. Clarke |last2=Beyer |first2=Peter |title=The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations |url={{Google books|rBgn3xB75ZcC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2009 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-87212-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Cort | first=John | year=1987 |author-link=John E. Cort |title=Medieval Jain Goddess Traditions | journal=Numen | volume=34 | issue=2 | pages=235–255 | doi=10.1163/156852787x00047  |issn = 0029-5973 }}
* {{citation |last=Cort |first=John E. |date=1995 |title=The Jain Knowledge Warehouses : Traditional Libraries in India|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=77–87 |doi=10.2307/605310 |jstor=605310 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Cort |editor-first=John E.|date=1998 |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |url={{Google books|yoHfm7BgqTgC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3785-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Cort |first=John E. | date=2001a |title=Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India |url={{Google books|PZk-4HOMzsoC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-513234-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Cort |first=John E |year=2001b |editor-last=White |editor-first=David Gordon |title=Tantra in Practice |url={{Google books|hayV4o50eUEC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-1778-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Cort |first=John E. | year=2010 |title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History |url={{Google books|MDBpq23-0QoC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-538502-1 }}
<!-- D -->
* {{citation |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |author-link=Roshen Dalal |title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url={{Google books|pNmfdAKFpkQC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2010a |orig-date=2006 |publisher=Penguin books] |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url={{Google books|DH0vmD8ghdMC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2010b |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Dalrymple |first=William |authorlink=William Dalrymple |title=The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company |year=2020 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=9781526634016 |url={{Google books|HUMIEAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |language=English }}
* {{citation |last=Das |first=Sisir Kumar |author-link=Sisir Kumar Das |title=A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular |url={{Google books|BC3l1AbPM8sC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2005 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-2171-0 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Doniger |editor-first=Wendy |editor-link=Wendy Doniger |title=Encyclopedia of World Religions |url={{Google books|ZP_f9icf2roC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1999 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url={{Google books|X8iAAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |edition=Second |date=2002 |orig-date=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 |location=London and New York }}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |editor-last=Buswell |editor-first=Robert E. |chapter=Jainism and Buddhism |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan Reference Lib. |year=2003a |isbn=978-0-02-865718-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |editor-last=Olivelle |editor-first=Patrick |title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE |url={{Google books|efaOR_-YsIcC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-977507-1 }}
<!-- F -->
* {{citation |last=Fergusson |first=James |title=A History of Architecture in All Countries: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day |url={{Google books|JXZAAAAAYAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |volume=3 |publisher=John Murray |date=1876 }}
* {{citation|last=Finegan|first=Jack|title=An Archaeological History of Religions of Indian Asia|url={{Google books|BrDXAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|isbn=978-0-913729-43-4}}
* {{citation |last=Florida |first=Robert E. |title=Human Rights and the World's Major Religions: The Buddhist tradition |url={{Google books|IlfuAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-31318-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Flügel |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Flügel |year=2002 |chapter=Terapanth Śvētāmbara Jain Tradition |editor-last=Melton |editor-first=J.G. |editor-last2=Baumann |editor-first2=G. |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-223-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Flügel |first=Peter | year=2005 |editor-last=King |editor-first=Anna S. |editor-last2=Brockington |editor-first2=John |editor-link2=John Brockington |title=Present Lord: Simandhara Svami and the Akram Vijnan Movement |url=http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/7438/1/Present_Lord_2003.pdf |work=The Intimate Other: Love Divine in the Indic Religions |publisher=[[Orient Longman]] |isbn=978-81-250-2801-7 |location=New Delhi }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Flügel |editor-first=Peter |year=2006 |editor-link=Peter Flügel |title=Studies in Jain History and Culture: Disputes and Dialogues |url={{Google books|CIgqBgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-23552-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Fohr |first=Sherry |title=Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed |url={{Google books|HMXuBQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4411-5116-2 }} PB: {{ISBN|978-1-4411-6594-7}}; ePDF: {{ISBN|978-1-4742-2756-8}}; ePub: {{ISBN|978-1-4742-2755-1}}
<!-- G -->
* {{citation |last=Gombrich |first=Richard |title=Buddhist Precept & Practice |url={{Google books|lqp4LuZQnHsC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-15623-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Gopal |first=Madan |editor-last=Gautam |editor-first=K.S. |title=India through the ages |year=1990 |publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India }}
* {{citation |last=Gough |first=Ellen |title=Shades of Enlightenment: A Jain Tantric Diagram and the Colours of the Tirthankaras, International Journal of Jain Studies |year=2012 |volume=8 |number=1 |url=http://gsas.yale.edu/news/studying-jainism-and-its-tantric-ritual-diagrams-india |access-date=9 May 2017 |archive-date=30 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130065533/http://gsas.yale.edu/news/studying-jainism-and-its-tantric-ritual-diagrams-india |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation |last=Granoff |first=Phyllis |title=The violence of non-violence: a study of some Jain responses to non-Jain religious practices |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=15 |year=1992 |number=1 |url=https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8791/2698 }}
* {{citation |last =Grimes | first =John | year=1996 | title =A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English | publisher =SUNY Press | location =New York | isbn =0-7914-3068-5 }}
<!-- H -->
* {{citation |last=Hackett |first=Rosalind I. J. |title=Proselytization Revisited: Rights Talk, Free Markets and Culture Wars |url={{Google books|ZHHXAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2008 |publisher=Equinox Academic |isbn=978-1-84553-227-7 }}
* {{citation |last=Harvey |first=Graham |title=Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices |url={{Google books|wrTsCwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-93690-8 }}
* {{citation |last1=Hastings |first1=James |last2=Selbie |first2=John Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KqB2T_3kTIC |title=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics: Confirmation-Drama |year=1914 |publisher=T. & T. Clark |isbn=978-0-567-06509-4 |language=en }}
* {{citation |last=Hirakawa |first=Akira |title=A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna |url={{Google books|XjjwjC7rcOYC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0955-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Hiriyanna |first=M. |title=Outlines of Indian Philosophy |url={{Google books|9xGyRAjftrwC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1086-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Hopkins |first=Edward Washburn |title=The Religions of India |url={{Google books|O0IvAAAAYAAJ|page=PA283|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1902 |publisher=Ginn & Company }}
<!-- I -->
* {{citation |last=Izawa |first=A. |title=Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual |publisher=Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku |year=2008 |volume=12 }}
<!-- J -->
* {{citation |last=Jacobi |first=Hermann |title=Jain Sūtras (Translation) |editor=Max Muller (The Sacred Books of the East Series, Volume XXII) |url=https://archive.org/stream/jainsūtrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up |year=1964 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Original: [[Oxford University Press]]) }}
<!-- Jain(i) -->
* {{citation |last1=Jain |first1=Jyotindra |author-link=Jyotindra Jain |last2=Fischer |first2=Eberhard |author-link2=Eberhard Fischer (art historian) |title=Jain Iconography |url={{Google books|gFZ7vQ2jwlEC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1978 |publisher=Brill |volume=12 |isbn=978-90-04-05259-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |title=Lord Mahāvīra and His Times |url={{Google books|8-TxcO9dfrcC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1991 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0805-8 |ref={{sfnref|Kailash Chand Jain|1991}} }}
* {{cite book | last =Jain | first =Prakash C. | year =2025 | ref={{sfnref|Prakash C. Jain|2025}} | title =Jains in India and Abroad: A Sociological Introduction | publisher =DK Printworld}}
* {{citation |last=Jain |first=Shanti Lal |title=ABC of Jainism |url=https://archive.org/details/abcofjainismcomp0000jain/page/51 |year=1998 |publisher=Jnanodaya Vidyapeeth |isbn=978-81-7628-000-6 |ref={{sfnref|Shanti Lal Jain|1998}} }}
* {{citation |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh |year=1980  |editor-last=Doniger |editor-first=Wendy |title=Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions |url={{Google books|4WZTj3M71y0C|plainurl=yes}}|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-03923-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. | date =1991 |author-link=Padmanabh Jaini |title=Gender and Salvation: Jain Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women |url={{Google books|GRA-uoUFz3MC|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-520-06820-9 |publisher=University of California Press }}
* {{citation |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. | date =1998 | orig-date =1979 |title=The Jain Path of Purification |url={{Google books|wE6v6ahxHi8C|plainurl=yes}}|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-1578-0 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Jaini |editor-first=Padmanabh S. |title=Collected Papers On Jain Studies |url={{Google books|HPggiM7y1aYC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2000 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |location=Delhi |edition=First |isbn=978-81-208-1691-6 }}
<!-- J - continued -->
* {{citation |last=Jambuvijaya |first=Muni |year=2002|title=Essays in Jain Philosophy and Religion|editor=Piotr Balcerowicz & Marek Mejor | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1977-1 }}
* {{citation |last1=Jansma |first1=Rudi |last2=Jain |first2=Sneh Rani |title=Introduction to Jainism |date=2006 |publisher=Prakrit Bharti Academy |location=Jaipur |url={{Google books|lYLXAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-81-89698-09-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Johnson |first=W.J. |year=1995 |title=Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umāsvāti and Kundakunda |url={{Google books|vw8OUSfQbV4C|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1309-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Johnston |first=William M. |title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism: A–L |url={{Google books|GfC0TDkJJNgC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2000 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-57958-090-2 }}
* {{citation |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|OgMmceadQ3gC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Jones |first=Lindsay |title=Encyclopedia of religion |date=2005 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 |url={{Google books|0jMOAQAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |ref={{sfnref|Lindsay Jones|2005}} }}
* {{citation |last=Juergensmeyer |first=Mark |title=The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions |url={{Google books|EsMVDAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2011 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-976764-9 }}
<!-- K -->
* {{citation |last=Kelting |first=M. Whitney |title=Heroic Wives Rituals, Stories and the Virtues of Jain Wifehood |url={{Google books|-txAd-dK0tEC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-973679-9 }}
* {{citation |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |last2=Prebish |first2=Charles S. |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |url={{Google books|NFpcAgAAQBAJ|page=PA127|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-98588-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Kishore |first=Kanika |date=2015-06-16 |title=Symbol and Image Worship in Jainism |journal=Indian Historical Review |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=17–43 |doi=10.1177/0376983615569814 |s2cid=151841865}}
* {{citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |title=A History of India |url={{Google books|RoW9GuFJ9GIC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Kumar |first=Sehdev |title=A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan: Architecture & Iconography |url={{Google books|nSDACkmA_ukC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Abhinav Publications |date=2001 |isbn=978-81-7017-348-9 |ref={{sfnref|Sehdev Kumar|2001}} }}
<!-- L -->
* {{citation | last =Lochtefeld | first =James G. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A–M |volume=1 |date=2002a |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |url={{Google books|5kl0DYIjUPgC|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{citation | last =Lochtefeld | first =James G. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z |volume=2 |year=2002b |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1 |url={{Google books|g6FsB3psOTIC|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{citation |last=Long | first=Jeffery D. |author-link=Jeffery D. Long |title=Jainism: An Introduction |url={{Google books|ajAEBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2013 |orig-year=2009 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-85771-392-6 }}
* {{citation | last =Lorenzen | first=David N. | title=Warrior Ascetics in Indian History | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=98 | issue=1 | pages=61–75 | year=1978 | doi=10.2307/600151 | jstor=600151 }}
<!-- M -->
* {{citation |last1=Markham |first1=Ian S. |last2=Lohr |first2=Christy |title=A World Religions Reader |url={{Google books|JdNNz1jcN9cC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2009 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4051-7109-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Matilal |first=Bimal Krishna |title=Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues |url={{Google books|V8SLH7ogB9oC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0717-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Matilal |first=Bimal Krishna |editor-last=Ganeri |editor-first=Jonardon |editor-last2=Tiwari |editor-first2=Heeraman |title=The Character of Logic in India |url={{Google books|NzZRu12ngLAC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3739-1 }}
* {{citation |last=McFaul |first=Thomas R. |title=The Future of Peace and Justice in the Global Village: The Role of the World Religions in the Twenty-first Century |url={{Google books|V_XCDYzE8qsC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-275-99313-9 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Melton |editor-first=J. Gordon |editor-link=J. Gordon Melton |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |volume=1 |url={{Google books|KDU30Ae4S4cC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-59884-206-7 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Melton |editor-first=J. Gordon |editor-last2=Baumann |editor-first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |url={{Google books|v2yiyLLOj88C|plainurl=yes}} |edition=Second |volume=One: A–B |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Michell |first=George l |title=Temple Architecture and Art of the Early Chalukyas: Badami, Mahakuta, Aihole, Pattadakal |url={{Google books|-1TroAEACAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2014 |publisher=Niyogi Books |isbn=978-93-83098-33-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Christopher Patrick |last2=Long |first2=Jeffery D. |last3=Reading |first3=Michael |year=2019 |title=Beacons of Dharma: Spiritual Exemplars for the Modern Age |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-6485-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9i_DwAAQBAJ }}
* {{citation |last1=Mishra |first1=Susan Verma |first2=Himanshu Prabha |last2=Ray |title=The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces: The temple in western India, 2nd century BCE–8th century CE |url={{Google books|CtDLDAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-19374-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee |title=Chandragupta Maurya and his times |url={{Google books|i-y6ZUheQH8C|plainurl=yes}} |edition=4th |year=1988 |orig-date=1966 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0433-3 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Mugambi |editor-first=J.N.K. |editor-link=Jesse Mugambi |title=A Comparative Study of Religions |edition=Second |url={{Google books|cx8ACQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=University of Nairobi Press |date=2010 |orig-date=1990 |isbn=978-9966-846-89-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Mukherjee |first=Ramkrishna |authorlink=Ramkrishna Mukherjee |title=The Rise and Fall Of The East India Company |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.449474/page/238/mode/1up |year=1955 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |location=[[Bombay]] |ref={{sfnref|Ramkrishna Mukherjee|1955}} }}
* {{citation |last=Murti |first=D. Bhaskara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwVuAAAAMAAJ |title=Prāsādam: Recent Researches on Archaeology, Art, Architecture, and Culture : Professor B. Rajendra Prasad Festschrift |year=2004 |publisher=Harman Publishing House |isbn=978-81-86622-67-4 |language=en }}
<!-- N -->
* {{citation |last=Nayanar |title=Gāthā 1.29 |year=2005 }}
* {{citation |last=Neelis |first=Jason |title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia |url={{Google books|GB-JV2eOr2UC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2010 |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-18159-5 }}
* {{citation | last1=Nemicandra |first1=Acarya |last2=Balbir |first2=Nalini | title=Dravyasamgrha: Exposition of the Six Substances | publisher =[[Hindi Granth Karyalay]] | year=2010 | location=Mumbai | version=(in Prakrit and English) Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series (vol-19) | isbn=978-81-88769-30-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Nesfield |first=John Collinson |title=Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh |url={{Google books|nuU-AAAAYAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=1885 |publisher=North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press }}
<!-- O -->
* {{citation |last=Olson |first=Carl | title=The conflicting themes of nonviolence and violence in ancient Indian asceticism as evident in the practice of fasting | journal=International Journal of Dharma Studies | volume=1 | issue=2 | pages=1 | year=2014 | doi=10.1186/2196-8802-2-1 | doi-access=free }}
* {{citation |last=Owen |first=Lisa |author-link=Lisa Owen |title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora |url={{Google books|MUszAQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Brill |date=2012a |isbn=978-90-04-20629-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Owen |first=Lisa |author-link=Lisa Owen |title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora |url={{Google books|vHK2WE8xAzYC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2012b |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-20629-8 }}
<!-- P -->
* {{citation |last=Pal |first=Pratapaditya |author-link=Pratapaditya Pal |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700 |url={{Google books|clUmKaWRFTkC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Los Angeles Country Museum of Art, [[University of California Press]] |date=1986 |volume=1 |isbn=978-0-87587-129-5 |ref={{sfnref|Pratapaditya Pal|1986}} }}
* {{citation |last=Pande |first=Govind |title=Studies in the Origins of Buddhism |url={{Google books|__1kiAonBzIC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1957 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1995) |isbn=978-81-208-1016-7 }}
* {{citation |last=Pandey |first=Janardan |url={{Google books|lmJnWrjnfjMC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1998 |title=Gandhi and 21st Century |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-672-7 |ref={{sfnref|Janardan Pandey|1998}} }}
* {{citation|url={{Google books|bBd_BAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=Indian Philately Digest|first=Prashant H.|last=Pandya|date=2014}}
* {{citation |last=Paszkiewicz |first=Joshua R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tInVEAAAQBAJ |title=Indian Spirituality: An Exploration of Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, and Sikh Traditions |year=2024 |publisher=Wellfleet Press |isbn=978-1-57715-425-9 |language=en }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Pechilis |editor-first=Karen |editor-last2=Raj |editor-first2=Selva J. |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |url={{Google books|kaubzRxh-U0C|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-203-07993-5 }}
* {{citation |last=Pereira |first=José |title=Monolithic Jinas |url={{Google books|LMTgiygj4-oC|page=PA24|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2397-6 }}
* {{citation| last=Perrett| first=Roy W.| title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy| url={{Google books|edhYAQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}| year=2013| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=978-1-135-70322-6}}
* {{citation |last=Pope |first=George Uglow |title=A Text-book of Indian History |url={{Google books|xpABAAAAQAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=1880 |publisher=W.H. Allen & Company }}
* {{citation |last=Price |first=Joan |title=Sacred Scriptures of the World Religions: An Introduction |url={{Google books|J0eycqQq9U4C|plainurl=yes}} |year=2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-8264-2354-2 }}
<!-- Q -->
* {{citation |editor-last=Qvarnström |editor-first=Olle |title=Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini |url={{Google books|5_EdL2FtIqQC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2003 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-89581-956-7 }}
<!-- R -->
* {{citation |last1=Rankin |first1=Aidan D. |last2=Mardia |first2=Kantilal |author-link2=Kantilal Mardia |title=Living Jainism: An Ethical Science |url={{Google books|bQxZAQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |date=2013 |publisher=John Hunt Publishing |isbn=978-1-78099-911-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Rao |first=B. S. L. Hanumantha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tpDAAAAIAAJ |title=Religion in Āndhra: A Survey of Religious Developments in Āndhra from Early Times Upto A.D. 1325 |year=1973 |publisher=Welcome Press |language=en |ref={{sfnref|B.S.L. Hanumantha Rao|1973}} }}
* {{citation |last=Raychaudhuri |first=H. C. |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |chapter=India in the Age of the Nandas |editor-first=K. A. Nilakanta |editor-last=Sastri |editor-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |title=Age of the Nandas and Mauryas |edition=Second |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoAwor58utYC |year=1988 |orig-year=1967 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0466-1 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Ring|editor-first=Trudy  |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first2=Noelle |editor-last3=Schellinger |editor-first3=Paul |title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places |year=1996 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-884964-04-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Robinson |first=Thomas Arthur |title=World Religions |url={{Google books|20DBvovDC0QC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Hymns Ancient and Modern|Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd]] |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-334-04014-9 }}
* {{citation |last1=Rudolph |first1=Lloyd I. |last2=Rudolph |first2=Susanne Hoeber |title=The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India |url={{Google books|7guY1ut-0lwC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1984 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-73137-7 }}
<!-- S -->
* {{cite thesis|last=Salter|first=Emma|url=http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/9211/|title=Raj Bhakta Marg: the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain community in the twenty first century|date= 2002|type=Doctoral thesis|access-date=2018-09-21|via=University of Huddersfield Repository|pages=125–150|publisher=University of Wales}}
* {{citation |last=Salvadori |first=Cynthia |title=Through open doors |url={{Google books|4xIRAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=1989 |publisher=Kenway |isbn=978-9966-848-05-5 }}
* {{citation |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |author-link=Vilas Adinath Sangave |title=Jain Community: A Social Survey |url={{Google books|FWdWrRGV_t8C|plainurl=yes}} |date=1980 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |location=Bombay |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-317-12346-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |title=Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture |url={{Google books|QzEQJHWUwXQC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2001 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |location=Mumbai |isbn=978-81-7154-839-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |title=Aspects of Jain religion |url={{Google books|8UhvGRoyAqMC|plainurl=yes}} |edition=5 |date=2006 |orig-date=1990 |publisher=[[Bharatiya Jnanpith]] |isbn=978-81-263-1273-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Saraswati |first=Dayanand |author-link=Dayanand Saraswati |title=An English translation of Satyarth Prakash (Reprinted in 1970) |year=1908 |url=https://archive.org/stream/satyarthprakashl00dayauoft#page/n467/mode/2up |publisher=Lahore : Virganand Press }}
* {{citation |last=Sethia |first=Tara |title=Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism |url={{Google books|QYdlKv8wBiYC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2004 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4 }}
* {{citation | last =Settar | first=S.| date =1989 |title=Inviting Death: Indian Attitude Towards the Ritual Death  | editor-last=Ishwaran |editor-first=K. |url={{Google books|vmc3vs5Ija0C|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=E. J. Brill |isbn=90-04-08790-7 }}
* {{citation | last =Shah | first =Natubhai |year=1998 |title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors |url={{Google books|g120RG8GkHAC|plainurl=yes}} |volume=2 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-31-8 |ref={{sfnref|Natubhai Shah|1998}} }}
* {{citation | last =Shah | first=Natubhai | date =2004 |orig-date=1998 | title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors |url={{Google books|qLNQKGcDIhsC|plainurl=yes}} |volume=I |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-1938-2 |ref={{sfnref|Natubhai Shah|2004}} }}
* {{citation | last =Shah |first=Umakant Premanand |author-link=Umakant Premanand Shah |title=Jain-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jain iconography |url={{Google books|m_y_P4duSXsC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1987 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-208-6 |ref={{sfnref|Umakant P. Shah|1987}} }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Shah | first1 =Umakant Premanand  | last2 =Dundas | first2 =Paul | title =Jainism {{!}} Definition, Beliefs, History, Literature, & Facts | encyclopedia =[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | publisher =[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | url =https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism}}
* {{citation |last1=Sharma |first1=Ramesh Chandra |last2=Ghosal |first2=Pranati |title=Jain Contribution to Varanasi |url={{Google books|YoLXAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=Jnanapravaha |isbn=978-81-246-0341-3 }}
* {{citation |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey M. |last2=Demy |first2=Timothy J. |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict |url={{Google books|KDlFDgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-517-6 }}
* {{cite web | last =Shaw | first =Richard | ref ={{sfnref|Shaw, Richard}} | title=Kanji swami Panth | publisher=Division of Religion and philosophy | work=University of Cumbria  | url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/kanji.html | access-date=21 February 2013}}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Ram Bhushan Prasad |title=Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka |url={{Google books|JtWGm4E4qZIC|plainurl=yes}} |year=2008 |orig-date=1975 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-3323-4 |ref={{sfnref|Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|2008}} }}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url={{Google books|Pq2iCwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |year=2024 |orig-year=2016 |isbn=978-93-325-6996-6 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2024}} }}
* {{citation |last=Sinha |first=Jadunath |title=Indian Psychology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCwmmWXJBqEC |year=1944 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120801653 }}
* {{citation |last=Sogani |first=Kamal Chand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3prRAAAAMAAJ |title=Ethical Doctrines in Jainism |year=1967 |publisher=Lalchand Hirachand Doshi |language=en }}
* {{citation |last1=Solomon |first1=Robert C. |last2=Higgins |first2=Kathleen M. |title=A Passion for Wisdom: A Very Brief History of Philosophy |url={{Google books|btIm8_a8Ol8C|plainurl=yes}} |year=1998 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-511209-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Soni |first=Jayandra |title=Basic Jain Epistemology |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=367–377 |year=2000 |jstor=1400179}}
* {{citation |last=Sunavala |first=A.J. |title=Adarsha Sadhu: An Ideal Monk |url={{Google books|oUU4AAAAIAAJ|page=PA91|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1934 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-001-40429-5 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Sundararajan |editor-first=K. R. |editor-last2=Mukherji |editor-first2=Bithika |title=Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUWIEfAY-mMC |year=1997 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-1937-5 |chapter=20 }}
* {{citation |last=Schwartz |first=William Andrew |title=The Metaphysics of Paradox: Jainism, Absolute Relativity, and Religious Pluralism |date=2018 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-6392-5 |url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498563925/The-Metaphysics-of-Paradox-Jainism-Absolute-Relativity-and-Religious-Pluralism |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824002257/https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498563925/The-Metaphysics-of-Paradox-Jainism-Absolute-Relativity-and-Religious-Pluralism |archive-date=24 August 2018 |url-status=live }}
<!-- T -->
* {{citation |last=Taylor |first=Bron |author-link=Bron Taylor |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature |url={{Google books|i4mvAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4411-2278-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Titze |first=Kurt |title=Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence |url={{Google books|loQkEIf8z5wC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |edition=2 |date=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1534-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |date=2015-09-01 |title=Dangerous Debates: Jain responses to theological challenges at the Mughal court |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=1311–1344 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X14000055 |s2cid=146540567 |issn=0026-749X }}
<!-- U -->
* {{citation |last=Umāsvāti |first=Umaswami |title=That which is (Translator: Nathmal Tatia) |url={{Google books|0Rw4RwN9Q1kC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1994 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-06-068985-8 }}
<!-- V -->
* {{citation |last=Vallely |first=Anne |title=Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnology of a Jain Ascetic Community |url={{Google books|eI4PAY9rDmQC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2002 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8415-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Vallely |first=Anne |editor-last=Bullivant |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last2=Ruse |editor-first2=Michael |title=The Oxford Handbook of Atheism |url={{Google books|93VoAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-166739-8 }}
* {{citation |last=von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |trans-title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |url={{Google books|WzEzXDk0v6sC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] (Reprint: 1999) |year=1925 |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-1376-2 }}
* {{citation|last=Voorst|first=Robert E. Van|author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst|url={{Google books|mD8aCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=RELG: World|edition=2|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|date=2014|isbn=978-1-285-43468-1}}
* {{citation |last=Voorst |first=Robert E. Van |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=RELG: World |url={{Google books|37TcBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2015 |edition=Second |isbn=978-1-285-43468-1 }}
* {{citation |editor-last=Vyas |editor-first=R. T. |author-link=R.T. Vyas |url={{Google books|fETebHcHKogC|plainurl=yes}} |title=Studies in Jain Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects |publisher=The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara |year=1995 |isbn=81-7017-316-7 }}
<!-- W -->
* {{cite book |last=Weber |first=Thomas |year=2004 |title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-139-45657-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe |url-access=registration }}
* {{citation|last=Wiley|first=Kristi L.|title=Historical Dictionary of Jainism|url={{Google books|QCT-CQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-6558-7}}
* {{citation |last=Wiley |first=Kristi L. |title=The A to Z of Jainism |url={{Google books|cIhCCwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2009 |volume=38 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-6337-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Robert |title=Jain Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras |url={{Google books|LLKcrIJ6oscC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1991 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0775-4 }}
* {{citation|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature|url={{Google books|Lgz1eMhu0JsC|plainurl=yes}}|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0265-0}}
<!-- Y -->
* {{citation |last=Yandell |first=Keith E. |title=Philosophy of Religion A Contemporary Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6aHAgAAQBAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134827237 }}
<!-- Z -->
* {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Joseph |editor-link=Joseph Campbell |title=Philosophies Of India |year=1953 |orig-date=1952 |publisher=[[Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd]] |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer |isbn=978-81-208-0739-6 }}

'''Attribution:'''
* {{source-attribution|{{citation |last=Jain |first=Champat Rai |title=The Practical Dharma |url=https://archive.org/details/ThePracticalDharma |year=1929 |publisher=The Indian Press |ref={{sfnref|Champat Rai Jain|1929b}} }} }}
* {{source-attribution| {{citation |last=Jain |first=S. A. |title=Reality (English Translation of Srimat Pujyapadacharya's Sarvarthasiddhi) |date=1992 |orig-date=First edition 1960 |publisher=Jwalamalini Trust |url=https://archive.org/details/Reality_JMT |edition=Second |ref={{sfnref|S.A. Jain|1992}} }} }}
* {{source-attribution| {{citation |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsūtra |date=2011 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-2-1 |edition=1st |url={{Google books|zLmx9bvtglkC|plainurl=yes}} |ref={{sfnref|Vijay K. Jain|2011}} }} }}
* {{source-attribution| {{citation |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation |url={{Google books|4iyUu4Fc2-YC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2012 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-4-5 |ref={{sfnref|Vijay K. Jain|2012}} }} }}
* {{source-attribution| {{citation |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Ācārya Nemichandra's Dravyasaṃgraha |url={{Google books|g9CJ3jZpcqYC|plainurl=yes}} |date=2013 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-5-2 |ref={{sfnref|Vijay K. Jain|2013}} }} }}
* {{source-attribution| {{citation |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Ācārya Samantabhadra's Ratnakarandaka-śrāvakācāra: The Jewel-casket of Householder's Conduct |date=2016 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-9-0 |url={{Google books|87AnDAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |ref={{sfnref|Vijay K. Jain|2016}} }} }}
* {{source-attribution| {{citation |last=Tukol |first=Justice T.K. |author-link=T. K. Tukol |title=Sallekhanā is Not Suicide |date=1976 |publisher=L.D. Institute of Indology |location=[[Ahmedabad]] |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/SallekhanaIsNotSuicide |quote= }} }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Jainism}}{{Wikiquote}}
* {{Citation|title=Jainism {{!}} Definition, Beliefs, History, Literature, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=14 July 2023 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | ref=none}}
* [https://www.srikanta-sastri.org/the-original-home-of-jainism "The Original Home of Jainism"] by [[S. Srikanta Sastri]]
* [https://www.worldrecordsindia.com/2023/08/31/youngest-jain-sadhviji-to-observe-muktavali-tapasya-girnar-junagadh-parasdham/ "Youngest Jain Sadhviji to Observe 285 Fasts in 11 Months – Muktavali Tapasya"] by World Records India
* {{cite SEP |url-id=/jaina-philosophy |title=Jaina Philosophy |last=Gorisse |first=Marie-Hélène}}

{{Jainism topics}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jainism| ]]
[[Category:Dualism in cosmology]]
[[Category:History of religion in India]]
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Nāstika]]
[[Category:Religions that require vegetarianism]]