View source for James Cook

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{{Short description|British explorer and naval officer (1728–1779)}}
{{Redirect|Captain Cook|other uses|Captain Cook (disambiguation)|and|James Cook (disambiguation)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix   = [[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]]
| name               = James Cook
| honorific_suffix   = {{postnominals|FRS|country=GBR|size=100%}}
| image              = Captainjamescookportrait.jpg
| caption            = ''[[Portrait of James Cook]]'' {{circa|1775}}
| alt                = James Cook, wearing a naval uniform, sitting at a table, looking at a map of the world
| birth_date         = {{birth date|df=y|1728|11|7}}{{efn|name=ns}}
| birth_place        = [[Marton, Middlesbrough|Marton]], Yorkshire, England
| death_date         = {{death date and age|df=y|1779|2|14|1728|11|7}}
| death_place        = [[Kealakekua Bay]], Hawaii
| death_cause        =
| education          = Postgate School, [[Great Ayton]]
| occupation         = Explorer, cartographer and naval officer
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Elizabeth Batts Cook|Elizabeth Batts]]|21 December 1762}}
| children           = 6
| signature          = James Cook Signature.svg
| module             = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| branch_label = Branch
| branch = [[Royal Navy]]
| serviceyears_label = Service&nbsp;years
| serviceyears = 1755{{nbnd}}1779
| rank = [[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]]
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[Seven Years' War]]
** [[Conquest of New France]]
{{tree list/end}}
}}
}}

[[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]] '''James Cook''' (7 November 1728{{efn|name=ns}} – 14 February 1779) was a British [[Royal Navy]] officer, explorer, and cartographer who led three voyages of exploration to the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] and [[Southern Ocean|Southern Oceans]] between 1768 and 1779. He completed the first recorded circumnavigation of the main islands of [[New Zealand]], and led the first recorded visit by Europeans to the east coast of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]] and the [[Hawaiian Islands]].

Cook joined the British [[Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)|merchant navy]] as a teenager before enlisting in the Royal Navy in 1755. He first saw combat during the [[Seven Years' War]], when he fought in the [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)|Siege of Louisbourg]]. Later in the war he surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the [[St. Lawrence River]] during the [[Siege of Quebec (1759)|Siege of Quebec]]. In the 1760s he mapped the coastline of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and made important astronomical observations which brought him to the attention of the [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|Admiralty]] and the [[Royal Society]]. This acclaim came at a pivotal moment in British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of {{ship|HMS|Endeavour}} for the [[First voyage of James Cook|first of his three voyages]].  

During these voyages he sailed tens of thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas, mapping coastlines, islands, and features across the globe in greater detail than previously charted{{snd}}including [[Easter Island]], [[Alaska]], and [[South Georgia Island]].  He made contact with numerous [[indigenous peoples]], and claimed several territories for the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].  Renowned for exceptional seamanship and courage in times of danger, he was patient, persistent, sober, and competent, but sometimes hot-tempered. His contributions to the prevention of [[scurvy]], a disease common among sailors, led the Royal Society to award him the [[Copley Gold Medal]].

In 1779, during his second visit to Hawaii, Cook [[Death of James Cook|was killed]] when a dispute with [[Native Hawaiians]] turned violent. His voyages left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century. Numerous memorials have been dedicated to him worldwide.

==Early life==
James Cook was born on 7 November 1728{{efn|name=ns|Born on 7 November ([[Old Style and New Style dates|New Style]]), 27 October ([[Old Style and New Style dates|Old style]]).{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=28}} Dates in this article are in the New Style.}} in the village of [[Marton, Middlesbrough|Marton]], located in the [[North Riding of Yorkshire]], approximately {{convert|8|mi}} from the sea.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=25}}.
|{{harvnb|Robson|2009|p=2}}.
}}</ref> He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from [[Ednam]] in [[Roxburghshire]], and his wife, Grace Pace, from [[Thornaby-on-Tees]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=25}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|pp=13–15}}.
}}</ref> In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at [[Great Ayton]], where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for Cook to attend a school run by a charitable foundation.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=4}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=2–5}}.
}}</ref> In 1741, after five years of schooling, he began work for his father who had been promoted to farm manager.{{sfn|Collingridge|2003|p=15}}

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved {{convert|20|mi|km}} to the fishing village of [[Staithes]] to be apprenticed as a shopboy to grocer and [[haberdasher]] William Sanderson.{{sfn|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=25}} After 18 months, Cook, proving not suited for shop work, travelled to the nearby port town of [[Whitby]] and was introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker. The Walkers were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade.{{sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=33–35}}

Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in the Walkers' small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the [[Collier (ship type)|collier]] ''Freelove'', and he spent several years on this and various other [[coastal trading vessel|coasters]], sailing between the [[River Tyne|Tyne]] and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – all skills needed to command a ship.{{Sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=34–36}}

Upon completing his three-year apprenticeship, Cook began working on [[merchant ship]]s in the [[Baltic Sea]]. After obtaining his [[Licensed mariner|mariner licence]] in 1752 he was promoted to the rank of {{nautical term|mate}} and began serving on the collier [[brig]] ''Friendship''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=11.}}</ref> He served as mate on the ''Friendship'' for two and a half years, visiting ports in Norway and Netherlands, learning to navigate in shallow waters along the east coast of Britain, and traversing the [[Irish Sea]] and the [[English Channel]].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=12}}

==Royal Navy==

At the age of 26, Cook was offered a promotion to captain of ''Friendship'', but he declined and instead joined the Royal Navy at [[Wapping]] on 17 June 1755.<ref>{{Multiref|
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=14-16}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=22}}.
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|p=6}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|
Cook did not explain why he left the merchant marine for the navy, other than he wanted to "take his future fortune" in that direction. His employer John Walker reported that "[Cook] had always an ambition to go into the Navy". According to Beaglehole, Cook's choice was "unusual", because at age 26 Cook was beginning at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, and because most considered employment in the merchant marine to be more attractive than employment in the navy.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=15-17}}}} He entered the navy when Britain was expanding its naval forces in anticipation of the conflict that became known as the [[Seven Years' War]].<ref name=joinNavy/>  Cook's first posting was two years aboard {{HMS|Eagle|1745|6}}, serving as [[Able seaman (rank)#Royal Navy|able seaman]] and [[master's mate]] under Captain Joseph Hamar and, later, Captain [[Hugh Palliser]].<ref name=joinNavy>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robson|2009|pp=19–25}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=16}}.
}}</ref>  In October and November 1755 he took part in ''Eagle''{{'}}s capture of one French warship and the sinking of another. Following the death of ''Eagle''{{'}}s [[boatswain]], Cook was unofficially promoted to fill that role in January 1756.{{sfn|Robson|2009|p=26}} His first command was in March 1756 when he was briefly in charge of ''Cruizer'', a small cutter attached to ''Eagle''.{{sfn|Robson|2009|pp=28-29}}<!--{{efn|While commanding the ''Cruizer'', Cook drew a view of the coast of  Brittany in his log.{{sfn|Robson|2009|p=39}}}}--> In June 1757, Cook passed his [[Master (naval)|master's]] examinations at [[Trinity House]], [[Deptford]], qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.{{sfn|Williams|2011}}{{efn|The [[Master (naval)|master]] of a ship was responsible for navigation and sailing the ship. The master was the senior [[warrant officer#Rank and status in the 18th century|warrant officer]] on board.}} He then joined the [[sixth-rate]] frigate [[HMS Solebay (1742)|HMS ''Solebay'']] as ship's master under Captain Robert Craig.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=25}}<!--{{efn|HMS ''Solebay'' was commissioned in 1742, captured by the French in 1744, cut out by a British privateer in 1746, and recommissioned in the British Navy in 1746.{{sfn|Winfield|2007|pp=1894, 1902, 2084}}
}}-->

===Seven Years' War===
[[File:The Bay and Harbour of Gaspey - map by James Cook 1758.png|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A map of Gaspé Bay in Canada|This hand-drawn chart of [[Gaspé Bay]], Canada, was created by Cook in 1758, soon after he learned surveying skills from [[Samuel Holland (surveyor)|Samuel Holland]]. A year later it became the first chart of Cook's to be engraved and printed.<ref name=GaspeBay/>]]

During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the [[fourth-rate]] Navy vessel {{HMS|Pembroke|1757|6}}.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=14–23}} With others in ''Pembroke''{{'}}s crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)|captured]] the [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] in [[Nova Scotia]] from the French in 1758.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=32-33}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=16–19}}.
}}</ref>

The day after the fall of Louisbourg, Cook met an army officer, [[Samuel Holland (surveyor)|Samuel Holland]], who was using a [[plane table]] to survey the area.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=18}} The two men had an immediate connection through their interest in [[surveying]], and Holland taught Cook the methods he was using.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Skelton|1954|pp=97-99}}.
|{{harvnb|Hayes|2015|pp=106-107}}.
}}</ref> They collaborated on developing preliminary charts of the entrance to the [[Saint Lawrence River]], with Cook writing the accompanying [[sailing directions]].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=37-39}} Cook's first map to be engraved and printed  was of [[Gaspé Bay]], drawn in 1758 and published in 1759.<ref name=GaspeBay>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=34}}.
|{{harvnb|Hayes|2015|pp=106-107}}.
}}</ref> The integration of Holland's land-surveying techniques with Cook's [[Hydrography|hydrographic]] expertise enabled Cook, from that point forward, to produce nautical charts of coastal regions that significantly exceeded the accuracy of most contemporary charts.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=33, 40–41}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=34}}.
}}</ref>

As Major-General [[James Wolfe|James Wolfe's]] advance on Quebec progressed in 1759, Cook and other ships' masters took soundings, marked shoals, and updated charts{{snd}}particularly around Quebec. This information enabled Wolfe to mount a stealthy nighttime attack by transporting troops across the river, leading to victory in the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=43-49}}.
|{{harvnb|Skelton|1954|p=93}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=18–19}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|pp=37–38}}.
|{{harvnb|Hayes|2015|pp=106-107}}.
}}</ref>

===Newfoundland===
[[File:Cooks Karte von Neufundland.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A large and detailed map of Newfoundland| This 1775 chart of [[Newfoundland]] was based on charts prepared by Cook and others.{{sfn|"A General Chart of the Island of Newfoundland with the Rocks & Soundings". ''Royal Museums Greenwich''}}
]]
As the Seven Years' War came to a close, Cook was tasked with charting the rugged coast of Newfoundland.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=62-73}} He was appointed master of {{HMS|Grenville|1763|6}}, and spent five seasons producing charts.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Skelton|1954|pp=102-106}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=78–97}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|As master of ''Grenville''{{snd}}a small ship with a crew of 18 to 20 men{{snd}}Cook commanded the ship, although he did not have the rank of commander or captain.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=78–79}}}} He surveyed the north-west stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the [[Burin Peninsula]] and [[Cape Ray]] in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767.{{sfn|Whiteley|1975}} Cook employed local pilots to point out the rocks and hidden dangers.{{sfn|Whiteley|1975}}<!--{{efn| During the 1765 season, local pilots were engaged to assist with mapping. The pilots included John Beck for the coast west of "[[St. Lawrence, Newfoundland and Labrador|Great St Lawrence]]", Morgan Snook for [[Fortune Bay]], John Dawson for Connaigre Bay and [[Hermitage Bay]], and John Peck for the "[[Bay d'Espoir|Bay of Despair]]".{{sfn|Whiteley|1975}}
}}-->

Cook severely injured his right hand in August 1764 when a [[powder horn]] he was carrying exploded.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004| p=24}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole |1974|p=80}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The injury left Cook with a large scar between his thumb and forefinger. During his third voyage,  when a Hawaiian asked him to prove he was a warrior, Cook showed the scar.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=391}}}} In July 1765, Cook experienced the first of several [[ship grounding]]s he faced during his career: ''Grenville'' struck an uncharted rock, and cargo had to be unloaded before she could be refloated.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=32}}

While in Newfoundland, Cook precisely recorded apparent (or local) time of the start and end of the [[solar eclipse]] of 5 August 1766.<!--{{efn|The apparent time was determined from the zenith of the sun, measured with a carefully calibrated quadrant.}}--> He sent the results to the English astronomer [[John Bevis]], who compared them with the same data from an observation of the eclipse carried out in [[Oxford]] and calculated the difference in longitude between the two locations.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=32–35}}.
|{{harvnb|Bevis|Cook|1767}}.
}}</ref>  The results were communicated to the [[Royal Society]] in 1767 and the longitude position obtained was used by Cook in his printed sailing directions for Newfoundland.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Bevis|Cook|1767}}.
|{{harvnb|David |2009|p=398}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Prior to  the late 1760s, determining the longitude of a point on the earth was extremely difficult.  During that decade, two independent methods were developed that permitted computation of longitude: the  [[Lunar distance (navigation)|lunar distance]]  technique and [[marine chronometer]]s.  Cook had access to neither in Newfoundland, but he began using both during his Pacific voyages.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=115-116}}.
|{{harvnb|David |2009|p=398}}.
}}</ref>
}}

At the end of the 1767 surveying season, while HMS ''Grenville'' was returning to her home port of [[Deptford Dockyard|Deptford]], Cook encountered a storm at the entrance to the Thames. He anchored ''Grenville'' off the [[Nore]] lighthouse and prepared the ship to ride out the weather. An anchor cable snapped, causing the ship to run aground on a shoal. Despite efforts to refloat her, [[HMS Grenville (1763)#grounding|Cook and his crew were forced to abandon ship]]. They returned when the storm abated, lightened and rerigged the ship, and continued into Deptford.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=61}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=4}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=93–94}}.
}}</ref>

===Exploration of the Pacific Ocean===
{{Further|Exploration of the Pacific}}
[[File:Carte Reduite du Globe Terrestre by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin 1764.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|This 1764 map of the world, by French [[hydrographer]] [[Jacques-Nicolas Bellin]], shows the major landmasses known to Europeans in the 1760s. Unknown areas included Alaska, the east coast of Australia, and the west coast of Canada.{{sfn|Bellin|1764|p=14}}<!--{{efn|Later editions of Bellin's map, such as [[:File:Essay d'une carte rédute, contenant les parties connuees du globe terrestre.jpg|this one published sometime after 1771]], included discoveries from Cook's first voyage, including the east coast of Australia.}}--> ]]
Cook's achievements in North America{{snd}}hydrographic and astronomical{{snd}}were noticed by the Admiralty, and came at a pivotal moment in British overseas exploration.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=1-10}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=38–39}}.
}}</ref> Europeans had started exploring the Pacific Ocean in the early 16th century, and by the mid-18th century they had charted much of the ocean's perimeter, and were actively engaged in trade with the [[Philippines]], [[Spice Islands]], and [[Mexico]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1966|pp=8,16-17,40}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=133}}.
|{{harvnb|Paine|2013|pp=497-498}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|
By the 1750s, Europeans had already encountered and documented many lands of the Pacific Ocean, including: [[Tierra del Fuego]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=29}} [[Peru]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=37}} [[Panama]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=16}} [[Mexico]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=37}} [[California]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=42}} [[Malacca]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=8}} [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=110}}, [[Philippines]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=32}} [[Solomon Islands]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|pp=72, 209}} [[Japan]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p= 8}} [[Tasmania]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=162}} [[New Zealand]],{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|p=148}} [[Kamchatka]],{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=264}} and the [[Bering Strait]].{{sfn|Hough |1994|p=319}}
}}--> Yet vast regions of the ocean remained largely unexplored by Europeans, including the coastlines of Canada and Alaska, much of the southern Pacific, and the central oceanic expanse. Several major questions persisted:{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|pp=cxx-cxxi}} Did a [[North-West Passage]] connect the North Pacific with the North Atlantic?<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2011}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1966|pp=9,10,229}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|p=lxxxiv}}.
}}</ref> Did the hypothesised continent of ''[[Terra Australis|Terra Australis Incognita]]'' (undiscovered southern land) exist?<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2011}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1966|pp=9,10,229}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|p=lxxxii}}.
}}</ref> And were there yet-undiscovered cultures or lands in the central Pacific?<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=1-10}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|pp=lxxxv-lxxxvi,xcviii,cxx-cxxi}}.
}}</ref>

The [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]]{{snd}}signed when the Seven Years' War ended in 1763{{snd}}enabled the Royal Navy to redirect resources from warfare to exploration.{{sfn|Blainey|2020|pp=1-10}} Britain soon dispatched several explorers to the Pacific Ocean, including [[John Byron]], [[Samuel Wallis]], and [[Philip Carteret]].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1966|pp=199,200-201,233}} They returned with accounts of [[Tahiti]], and reported sightings of ''Terra Australis''{{efn|Wallis' crew reported seeing   ''Terra Australis'' near Tahiti. Cook's first voyage travelled extensively around Tahiti, and found the reports to be mistaken. The sightings were possibly  cloud banks or islands.<ref name=TerAus/>}} {{snd}}setting the stage for Cook's first voyage.<ref name=TerAus>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=24}}.
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=1-10}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1966|p=233}}.
}}</ref>

==First voyage (1768{{nbnd}}1771)==
{{Main|First voyage of James Cook}}
[[File:Cook'sFirstVoyage54.png|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A map of the entire globe, with lines showing the track of Cook's first voyage|During Cook's first voyage he became the first recorded European to encounter the east coast of Australia.<ref name=maptrack>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Cobbe|1979|pp=8–9}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=416–423}}. }}</ref><ref name=firstAus/> 
]]
Cook's first scientific voyage was a three-year expedition to the south Pacific Ocean aboard [[HMS Endeavour|HMS ''Endeavour'']], conducted from 1768 to 1771. The voyage was jointly sponsored by the Royal Navy and [[Royal Society]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=18–20}}<!--{{efn|The Royal Society agreed to pay Cook a one hundred [[Guinea (coin)|guinea]] gratuity, equivalent to {{GBP|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|{{£sd |g=100}}|1768|r=0}}|link=yes}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}, in addition to his naval pay.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=18–20}}}}--> The publicly stated goal was to observe the 1769 [[transit of Venus]] from the vantage point of Tahiti.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=47–56}}{{efn|Observing the transit of Venus from several points on the earth would enable astronomers to compute the distance from the earth to the sun.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=16}}  The organisers of Cook's first voyage decided to use Tahiti as the location for the observation of the transit of Venus based on information from British naval officer [[Samuel Wallis]]. In 1767, Wallis was the first European to encounter Tahiti. He returned to England with news of Tahiti in May 1768, just a few months before the departure of the first voyage.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=21-22}}}} Additional objectives{{snd}}outlined in secret orders{{snd}}were searching for the postulated ''Terra Australis'' and claiming lands for Britain.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=16–18}}.
| {{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=47–56}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|pp=cclxxii–cclxxiii}}.
}}</ref>{{efn |name=order|The secret orders to Cook in his first voyage read, in part: "You are also ''with the Consent of the Natives'' to take possession of Convenient Situations in the Country in the Name of the King of Great Britain; or, if you find the Country uninhabited take Possession for His Majesty by setting up Proper Marks and Inscriptions, as first discoverers and possessors. ... You will also observe with accuracy the Situation of such Islands as you may discover in the Course of your Voyage that have not hitherto been discover'd by any Europeans, and take possession for His Majesty and make Surveys and Draughts of such of them as may appear to be of Consequence..." (Emphasis added).{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|pp=cclxxii–cclxxiii}} }}

In early 1768, the Admiralty asked the shipwright [[Adam Hayes]] to select a vessel for the expedition; he chose the merchant [[Collier (ship)|collier]] ''Earl of Pembroke'', which the Royal Navy renamed ''Endeavour''.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|McLintock|1966}}.
|{{harvnb|"April – June, 1768" ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The ''Earl of Pembroke'' was built by [[Fishburn's shipyard|Thomas Fishburn]], launched in June 1764 from the [[Port of Whitby]].{{sfn|McLintock|1966}} Cook had lived in [[Whitby]] for three years when apprenticing for the merchant marine, and he was familiar with colliers, and with Fishburn.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=46}}
}} On 5 May 1768{{snd}}based on the recommendation of [[Hugh Palliser]]{{snd}}Cook, aged 39, was selected by the Admiralty to lead the voyage.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=38–39}}{{efn|Palliser was Cook's former captain, on the ''Eagle''.  Before Cook was selected to lead the voyage, the Royal Society (co-sponsor of the expedition) had suggested geographer [[Alexander Dalrymple]] as a leader, but [[Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke|Edward Hawke, first Lord of the Admiralty]], rejected Dalrymple, reportedly saying he would sooner have his right hand cut off than permit anyone but a King's Officer to command one of the ships of His Majesty's Navy.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"April – June, 1768" ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=38–39}}.
}}</ref>
}} The next day he took his examination for the [[Lieutenant (navy)|rank of lieutenant]]{{snd}}a rank which was required to command a ship armed with the number of guns planned for ''Endeavour''.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=38–39}}.
|{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=30}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|The promotion to [[Lieutenant (navy)|lieutenant]] was effective on 25 May 1768, the date he took command.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=38–39}}}}-->

Like most colliers, ''Endeavour'' had a large hold, a sturdy construction that would tolerate grounding, was small enough to be [[Careening|careened]] (laid on her side for repairs), and had a shallow [[Draft (hull)|draught]] that enabled navigating in shallows.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=149–150}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=280}}.
}}</ref> Upon completion of the first voyage, Cook wrote: "It was to these properties in her, those on board owe their Preservation. Hence I was enabled to prosecute Discoveries in those Seas so much longer than any other Man ever did or could do."{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=280}} When selecting ships for his second voyage in 1772, Cook chose the same type of ship, from the same shipbuilder.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=280–281}}

The Admiralty authorised a ship's company of 73 sailors and 12 [[Royal Marines|marines]].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|p=588}} Cook's second lieutenant was [[Zachary Hicks]], and his third lieutenant was [[John Gore (seaman)|John Gore]], a 16-year naval veteran who had already circumnavigated the world twice aboard [[HMS Dolphin (1751)|HMS ''Dolphin'']].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=63–64}}
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|p=cxxx}}
}}</ref> Also on the ship were astronomer [[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]] and 25-year-old naturalist [[Joseph Banks]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=50–52}} Banks provided funding for seven others to join the journey: the naturalists [[Daniel Solander]] and [[Herman Spöring, Jr.|Herman Spöring]], the artists [[Alexander Buchan (artist)|Alexander Buchan]] and [[Sydney Parkinson]], two black servants, and a secretary.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=57–63}}

===Tierra del Fuego===

The expedition departed England on 25 August 1768 and headed south to round [[Cape Horn]] into the Pacific.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=53,160-166}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=32,45-49}}.
}}</ref>  They made a stop in [[Tierra del Fuego]], where Cook composed his first anthropological essay, detailing his observations of the indigenous [[Haush]] people.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=50–52}} Banks went ashore with several members of his party to collect botanical specimens. During the overnight excursion, his two black servants, Thomas Richmond and George Dorlton, froze to death.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=61}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=56-59}}.
}}</ref>

===Tahiti===
The ship continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the [[1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti|observations of the transit of Venus]] were made.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=64–79}}{{efn|The crew had two months to prepare for the transit. During that period they replenished their provisions and built a small fort{{snd}}which they named [[Point Venus]]{{snd}}to enclose the equipment that would be used for observing the transit.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=67-68,93}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=64,77}}.
}}</ref>  When the data about the transit of Venus was later provided to astronomers in Britain, it was deemed to be rather imprecise.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Herdendorf|1986|pp=46-47,51}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=70}}.
}}</ref>}}  In May, Cook and some of his crew observed Tahitians [[surfing]]{{snd}} becoming the first Europeans to witness the practice.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=70}}

In June, two incidents happened that recurred in various forms throughout Cook's voyages: Tahitians were offended when some of his crew took rocks{{snd}}to use as ship's ballast{{snd}}from a sacred [[marae]] without permission.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=73–74}} In a separate event, Tahitians took various items from the crew, prompting Cook to seize 22 canoes{{snd}}many of which did not belong to the individuals responsible{{snd}}as ransom until the stolen property was returned.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=73–74}}
[[File:Maori warrior 1784 by Sydney Parkinson.jpg|thumb|alt=An indigenous Māori man from New Zealand, wearing a cloak and holding a club.|This drawing of a Māori warrior by ''Endeavour'' artist [[Sydney Parkinson]] was published in his [[A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas|posthumous book]] about the first voyage.{{sfn|Parkinson|1784|loc=[https://collection.sl.nsw.gov.au/record/74VvEZ6Pj83M/x8dOWOX6O7Q4k plate 15]}}]]
In July, two marines deserted by taking local wives and going into hiding, intending to remain on the island. In response, Cook detained a Tahitian chief as a hostage to compel the local community to locate and return the deserters.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=77–78}} Cook then sailed from Tahiti to the nearby island of [[Huahine]], then to [[Raiatea]] where he claimed Raiatea-[[Tahaʻa|Taha'a]] and the islands of Huahine, [[Bora Bora|Borabora]], [[Tupai]], and [[Maupiti]] for Britain, naming them the [[Society Islands]].{{Sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=193-194}}

===New Zealand===
As directed by his secret orders, Cook began his search for the postulated southern continent of ''Terra Australis''.{{sfn|"Secret Instructions to Captain Cook". ''Museum of Australian Democracy''}} He sailed to New Zealand and{{snd}}in October 1769{{snd}}landed at [[Poverty Bay]] near the [[Tūranganui River (Gisborne)|Tūranganui River]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=114–118}} With the aid of [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]], a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the [[Māori people|Māori]].{{sfn|Salmond|1991|pp=123–134,145-146,252}} However, encounters with them on the first two days turned violent, the British shooting several dead.<ref>{{Multiref|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=114–118}}.|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=86–91}}.|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=198–201}}.}}</ref> Cook's approach to interactions with the Māori was to offer greetings and exchange gifts, in an attempt to establish friendly relations. But if his crew was threatened, he often ordered a quick and decisive use of force, despite his instructions from the Royal Society.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=92–93}}

Sailing north, ''Endeavour'' anchored at [[Mercury Bay]] on 9 November where Cook observed the [[transit of Mercury]] and claimed the bay for Britain.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=205–207}} In January 1770, Cook arrived in [[Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui|Queen Charlotte Sound]], on the north coast of New Zealand's [[South Island]]. He claimed the location for Britain and it became a favourite base for his future voyages. While there, Cook came upon Māori eating the flesh of enemies they had recently killed, which confirmed stories of [[Cannibalism in Oceania|cannibalism]] his crew had heard in Poverty Bay.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=136–137, 141–145}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=104–108}}.
}}</ref> Cook established that a [[strait]] separated the [[North Island]] from the South Island and then completed the circumnavigation of New Zealand's main islands, mapping almost the complete coastline.<ref>{{Multiref|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=119–138}}.|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=202–225}}.}}</ref><!--{{efn|Cook also witnessed Māori cannibalism on his second voyage.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=209-211}}
}}-->

===Australia===
{{see also|European maritime exploration of Australia}}
[[File:Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770 (painting by E Phillips Fox).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4
|alt=Cook and several crew members landing on a beach, where two Australian Aborigines are standing
|Cook's first landing in Australia, at [[Botany Bay]], was opposed by the [[Gweagal]] people.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=152–155}}{{efn|According to Nicholas Thomas, this painting by [[E. Phillips Fox]] is misleading because it shows Cook holding up his hand to restrain his men; when, in reality, Cook was the first of his crew to shoot at the Aboriginal men.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=412}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=154}}.
}}</ref> }}]]
Convinced that no unknown southern continent existed in those latitudes, Cook continued west.{{Sfn|Blainey|2020|pp=127-129}} On 19 April 1770,<!--{{efn|At this time, the [[International Date Line]] had yet to be established, so the dates in Cook's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today.}}--> [[Point Hicks]] was sighted, and the crew became the first Europeans to encounter Australia's eastern coastline.<ref name=firstAus>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=152}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=226–228}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Earlier explorers had encountered the northern ([[Willem Janszoon]]) and southern ([[François Thijssen]] and [[Abel Tasman]]) coasts of Australia.}} ''Endeavour'' continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight, while Cook charted and named landmarks along the way.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=137–140}}  During this stretch, Cook saw several [[Aboriginal Australians]] on shore, but was unable to draw close enough to make contact.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=111-112}}<!--{{efn|Cook noted in his journal: "and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not."{{sfn|Cook|1770}}
}}-->

On 29 April they made their first landfall on the continent in [[Botany Bay]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=113–114}}<!--{{efn|The landing location is within the modern [[Kamay Botany Bay National Park]]. Cook initially named the bay Sting-Ray Harbour, after the many stingrays found there,{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=142}} but later changed it to Botany Bay, in recognition of the unique specimens retrieved by expedition botanists Banks and Solander.<ref>{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=230.}}</ref>}}--> In the expedition's first direct encounter with Aboriginal Australians, two [[Gweagal]] men opposed the landing and in the following confrontation one warrior was wounded with small shot.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=154}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=113,412}}.
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=141–143}}.
}}</ref> Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, exploring the surrounding area and collecting water, timber, fodder, and botanical specimens.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=140–144}} Cook attempted to establish relations with the Aboriginal people but concluded that they only wanted the British to leave.<ref>{{Multiref|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=113}}.|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=146–157}}.}}</ref>{{efn|name=jbnsw|
After the first expedition was completed, [[Joseph Banks]] promoted [[Botany Bay]] (the location of Cook's first landing in Australia) as a candidate for a settlement and [[British colony|British colonial]] outpost. This led to the establishment of [[New South Wales]] as [[History of New South Wales#1788: Establishment of the colony|a penal settlement in 1788]]. Cook had no role in promoting the colonisation of Australia.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=142}}.
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|p=287}}.
|{{harvnb|"Sir Joseph Banks". ''BBC''}}.
|{{harvnb|Gilbert|1967}}.
}}</ref>
}}

[[File:HMS Endeavour careened for repairs, 1770 Australia.png|thumb|upright=1.6
|alt=A large wooden ship, resting on its side on a beach
|Cook deliberately beached ''Endeavour'' to repair damage received when running aground on the [[Great Barrier Reef]] in 1770.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=157–159}}<!--{{efn|This artwork is based on a drawing by ship artist [[Sydney Parkinson]], who died near the end of the voyage in 1771.<ref name=deaths/>}}-->]]
After departing Botany Bay they continued northwards, hugging the coast and charting it.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=114–115}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=142–144}}.
}}</ref> They stopped at [[Bustard Bay]] in May 1770, then proceeded north through the shallow and extremely dangerous [[Great Barrier Reef]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=156}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=115–116}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=145–147}}.
}}</ref> On 11 June ''Endeavour'' ran aground on the reef at high tide.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=115–118}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=148–151}}.
}}</ref> The ship was stuck fast, so Cook ordered all excess weight thrown overboard, including six cannons. She was eventually hauled off after 27 hours.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=237–239}} The ship was leaking badly, so the crew [[Fothering|fothered]] the damage (hauling a spare sail under the ship to cover and slow the leak).{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=148–151}} Cook then careened the ship on a beach at the mouth of the [[Endeavour River]] for seven weeks while repairs were made.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=157–159}}.
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=195–197, 227}}.
}}</ref>

The crew explored the surrounding area, where Cook observed a [[Eastern grey kangaroo|kangaroo]] for the first time. One was killed and the species was documented by Banks.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=122–124}}<!--{{efn|Banks asked the Aboriginal people what the name of the animal was, and transcribed it as "kanguru". An [[wikt:apocryphal|apocryphal]] story later arose that kangaroo means "I don't know", but that has been debunked.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=124}}}}--> The local [[Guugu Yimithirr people|Guugu Yimithirr]] people generally avoided the British, although following a dispute over green turtles Cook ordered shots to be fired and one local was lightly wounded.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=220–221}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=120–122}}.
}}</ref>

The expedition continued northward until they reached the north-east tip of Australia: [[Cape York Peninsula|Cape York]]. Cook proceeded to a nearby island where he scanned the surrounding waters for a route forward. There he claimed the entire Australian coast that he had surveyed as British territory and named the island [[Possession Island (Queensland)|Possession Island]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=127–128}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=157–158}}.
}}</ref> The expedition then turned west and continued homewards through the shallow and dangerous waters of the [[Torres Strait]].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=252-254}}

===Return to England===
In October 1770, Cook stopped in [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (modern [[Jakarta]], Indonesia), where the Dutch dockyard facilities were used to inspect and repair the damage from running aground on the Great Barrier Reef.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=253}}
After departing Batavia in late December 1770, the expedition sailed to the [[Cape of Good Hope]], then to the island of [[Saint Helena]], arriving on 30 April 1771.{{sfn|Cook|1968|p=468.}}

The stay in Batavia marked the onset of the most severe outbreak of illness and death endured during any of Cook's voyages: seven crew members died in Batavia, and a further 23 perished on the return journey to England.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp= 163-164}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp= 134-135}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp= 264 -265}}.
}}</ref> The majority of the deaths were caused by [[dysentery]] (with some attributed to [[tuberculosis]] and possibly [[typhoid fever]]) often worsened by [[malaria]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp= 163-164}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp= 134-135}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp= 264 -265}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Deaths included [[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]] (astronomer), [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]] (guest and translator), [[Sydney Parkinson]] (artist), [[Herman Spöring]] (naturalist), [[Robert Molyneux]] (ship's master), [[Zachary Hicks]] (lieutenant), Jonathan Monkhouse (midshipman), John Satterly (carpenter), and John Ravenhill (sail maker).<ref name=deaths>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp= 163-164}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp= 134-135}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp= 264 -265}}.
}}</ref>
}}

The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in [[The Downs (ship anchorage)|the Downs]].{{sfn|"The First Voyage (1768–1771)". ''Captain Cook Society''}}<!--{{efn|The duration of the first voyage was 1,050 days, from 26 August 1768 to 12 July 1771.}}--> In August, Cook was promoted  to the rank of [[Commander (Royal Navy)|commander]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=180}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=167}}.
}}</ref> [[#CITEREFHawkesworth|A book about the voyage]], based on the journals of Cook and Banks, was published in 1773.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=152–157}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=439–40}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|The journals of Cook and Banks were edited and rewritten by [[John Hawkesworth (book editor)|John Hawkesworth]], and were combined journals of several other British naval expeditions to the Pacific to [[#CITEREFHawkesworth|produce a single work]].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=439–40}} }}-->

==Second voyage (1772{{nbnd}}1775)==
{{Main|Second voyage of James Cook}}
[[File:Cook'sSecondVoyage53.png|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A map of the entire globe, with lines showing the track of Cook's second voyage|Cook's second voyage travelled west-to-east to take advantage of the [[Roaring Forties]] winds, while searching for ''[[Terra  Australis]]''.<ref name=maptrack/><ref  name=terraaus/>{{efn|name=roaring}}
]]
In 1772, Cook was commissioned to lead a second scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, with the objective of determining the existence of the hypothetical continent ''Terra Australis''.<ref  name=terraaus>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=169–170}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=182–183}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=143–144}}.
}}</ref> Cook created a plan to probe southward in the southern summer, then retreat to more northerly, warmer, regions in the frigid southern winter.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=286–287}}

This voyage would have two ships and, unlike the first voyage, Cook selected them himself: {{HMS|Resolution|1771|6}} commanded by him, and {{HMS|Adventure|1771|6}}, commanded by [[Tobias Furneaux]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=181}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=256}}.
}}</ref> ''Resolution'' began her career as the [[North Sea]] [[Collier (ship type)|collier]] ''Marquis of Granby'', launched at [[Whitby]] in 1770. She was fitted out at  Deptford with some of the most advanced equipment available, including an [[azimuth compass]], ice anchors, and an apparatus for distilling fresh water from sea water.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=282,441}}

Banks planned to travel with Cook in the second voyage, but Banks' excessive demands for modifications to the ship conflicted with the Admiralty's constraints, so he withdrew from the voyage before it departed.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=147-150}} Banks was replaced by the German naturalist [[Johann Reinhold Forster]] and his son, [[Georg Forster]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=150–151}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|pp=264–266}}.
}}</ref> The crew also included the astronomer [[William Wales (astronomer)|William Wales]] (responsible for the new [[Larcum Kendall#K1|K1 chronometer]] carried on ''Resolution''), lieutenant [[Charles Clerke]], and the artist [[William Hodges]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=147}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|pp=264–266}}.
}}</ref>

===Search for ''Terra Australis''===
[[File:The Resolution and Adventure taking in ice for water 4 January 1773.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3
|alt=Two large wooden ships at rest in the ocean, next to icebergs
|HMS ''Resolution'' and ''Adventure'' retrieved ice to melt for drinking water.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=202–204}} Watercolour by expedition artist [[William Hodges]], 1773.]]
After departing England, the ships travelled south to South Africa and stopped at [[Cape Town]] in November 1772.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=197–204}} From there they sailed eastwards, planning to circumnavigate the globe roughly between latitude 50°S and 70°S.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=178–180}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=197–204}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|name=roaring|
South of latitude 40°S, the strong prevailing westerly winds of the [[Roaring Forties]] gave a much faster eastward journey. Sailing this far south was established as a [[Brouwer Route|route to the East Indies]] by the Dutch seafarer [[Hendrick Brouwer]] early in the 17th century. Unlike Cook, Dutch ships had to make a well-timed northward turn to reach the bases of the [[Dutch East India Company]]. Those ships that turned late on this route were among the early wrecks of European ships on the western coast of Australia, with rescue parties and survivors contributing to the initial knowledge of this part of the world.{{sfn|van Duivenvoorde|2015|p=2}}}} In late November 1772, the ships sighted their first icebergs and Cook performed an experiment: his crew retrieved blocks of ice and melted them on board the ships, producing good quality fresh water, proving that drinking water could be obtained from sea ice.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=202–204}}<!--{{efn|Ice from frozen snow (icebergs) has no salt, but ice from frozen sea water begins salty (though the saltiness diminishes over time). Cook describes the ice they melted as "sweet" so it was probably from icebergs.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=250}}.
|{{harvnb|Herdman|1959}}.
}}</ref>
}}--> On 17 January 1773 the crews became the first recorded Europeans to cross the [[Antarctic Circle]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=168}} Despite his mission to find ''Terra Australis'', Cook never sighted Antarctica in any of his voyages, but on 18 January{{snd}}unbeknownst to him{{snd}}the ships approached within {{convert|75|mi|km}} of that continent.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=202–204}}

In February 1773, in dense Antarctic fog, ''Resolution'' and ''Adventure'' became separated.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=205}} Furneaux made his way{{snd}}via [[Tasmania]]<!--{{efn|At the time, Tasmania was named [[Van Diemen's Land]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=291}}}}-->{{snd}}to a pre-arranged rendezvous point to be used in the event of separation: [[Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui|Queen Charlotte Sound]] in New Zealand. Cook joined Furneaux there in May.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=205,213–214}} The crews traded with the Māori people, and in his journal, Cook expressed concern that crew members might be transmitting diseases to the Māori people and encouraging prostitution.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=218}}

===Tahiti and New Zealand===
[[File:James Cook's portrait by William Hodges.jpg|thumb
|Portrait of James Cook {{circa|1775}}, painted by [[William Hodges]], who accompanied Cook on the second voyage{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=xxviii}}]]
The ships departed New Zealand in June{{snd}}the southern winter{{snd}}to resume their eastward search for ''Terra Australis''.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=219}} About a month after leaving New Zealand, twenty crewmen aboard ''Adventure'' contracted [[scurvy]]{{snd}}one of whom died{{snd}}because Furneaux had failed to follow Cook's dietary instructions.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=186}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=219–220}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Unlike his first voyage, which saw no cases of scurvy, several crew members of Cook's own ship contracted the disease during his second expedition.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=169}}}}--> The ships proceeded in a small anti-clockwise loop, visiting Tahiti and [[Tonga]], planning to return to New Zealand together.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=220–228}} Before reaching New Zealand, in the night of 29–30 October, the ships became separated for a second time{{snd}}this time due to a storm.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=220–221}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=230–233}}.
}}</ref> Cook proceeded to the rendezvous point, and waited three weeks, then departed to continue the voyage alone.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=230–233}}

Delayed by storms, Furneaux arrived at the designated rendezvous point in Queen Charlotte Sound five weeks after they separated, missing Cook by four days.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=230–233}} In December 1773, while ten members of ''Adventure''{{'}}s crew were ashore gathering provisions, a violent altercation occurred with a group of Māori, resulting in the deaths of all the crewmen and two Māori.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=2–4, 228–230}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=251–254}}.
}}</ref> Furneaux discovered the bodies of the crew members, partially burned in preparation for [[Cannibalism in Oceania|cannibalism]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=230–233}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=251–254}}.
}}</ref> Many members of ''Adventure''{{'}}s crew wanted to exact revenge on the Māori, but Furneaux thought it prudent to avoid additional violence, so they left New Zealand and returned to Britain without Cook.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=230–231}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=258}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Furneaux reached England on 14 July 1774. HMS ''Adventure'' was the first ship to circumnavigate the globe west-to-east, and Furneaux became the first person to circumnavigate the globe in both directions.{{sfn|David|2008}}
}} When learning about the deaths much later,{{efn|name=learn|Cook did not learn of the deaths of ''Adventure's'' boat crew until March 1775, when he reached South Africa.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=251}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=290}}.
}}</ref>
}} Cook wondered if Furneaux's crew was at fault, writing "I must ... observe in favour of the New Zealanders that I have always found them of a brave, noble, open and benevolent disposition".{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=255}}

===Circuit around the South Pacific===
[[File:Hodges easter-island.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Cook visited [[Easter Island]] in 1774, where he viewed the ''[[moai]]'' (large stone statues) and theorised how they could have been transported and erected.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=222-225}}|alt=A mountainous island, with four large stone statues]]
After the missed rendezvous, ''Resolution'' made a large anti-clockwise loop in the south Pacific: heading far south, then visiting [[Easter Island]], [[Tonga]], and finally returning to New Zealand.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=238–245}} In the first stretch of this large loop, ''Resolution'' continued her search for ''Terra Australis'' by heading south-east, reaching her most southern latitude of 71°10′S in January 1774.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=231–234}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=236}}.
}}</ref> At this point, the ship's progress was blocked by impenetrable [[Drift ice|pack ice]], and Cook wrote in his private diary: "I will not say it was impossible anywhere to get in among this Ice, but I will assert that the bare attempting of it would be a very dangerous enterprise and what I believe no man in my situation would have thought of. I whose ambition leads me not only farther than any other man has been before me, but as far as I think it possible for man to go..."{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=234}}

In early 1774, Cook experienced a severe gastrointestinal illness, marked by prolonged abdominal pain and constipation. By February, his condition had worsened to the point where he became bedridden, causing considerable distress among the crew. The ship was out of fresh provisions and meat, so the Forsters offered their pet dog to be made into a soup, which Cook consumed. His bowel movements resumed in late February, but he remained weak for another month.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=234-235}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas| 2003|p=222}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=370-371}}.
}}</ref>

In June 1774, the ship stopped to resupply at the island of [[Nomuka]] in Tonga, where most of the crew engaged in intimate relations with women. Cook was berated by an older woman after he declined{{snd}}consistent with his usual conduct{{snd}}to engage in sexual relations with a young woman who had been offered to him.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=xxiv,237}} Cook was the first European to set foot on [[New Caledonia]], in September 1774, and he claimed the land in the name of his king.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=244}} While there, Cook{{snd}}despite warnings from Georg Forster{{snd}}ate the liver of a [[Lagocephalus sceleratus|poisonous pufferfish]], and became numb and unable to walk without assistance; he recovered after taking [[emetics]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=244}}.
|{{harvnb|Doherty|2005}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=280-281}}.
}}</ref>

When Cook completed the large anti-clockwise circuit and returned to Queen Charlotte Sound, the Māori welcomed his arrival. In conversations with them, Cook heard confusing stories about a conflict with the crew of a ship. Upon making inquiries, Cook learned that ''Adventure'' had visited the area approximately eleven months earlier, but he remained unaware of the violent encounter that had led to the deaths of ten of its crew.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=245}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=283–285}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|name=learn}}

===Return to England===
[[File:Cook-1777.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|This [[South-up map orientation|south-up map]] of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands#South Georgia|South Georgia]] was prepared in 1777 by Cook.{{sfn|Cook|1777a}} ]]
Leaving New Zealand, ''Resolution'' proceeded home, sailing south of [[Tierra del Fuego]], and stopping at [[South Georgia Island]] in January 1775, where Cook charted the coast and claimed the island group in the name of his king.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=251}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=249}}.
}}</ref> From there they continued eastward and discovered the [[South Sandwich Islands]],{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=252–253}} then stopped in South Africa, and{{snd}}finally{{snd}}sailed north back to Britain.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=251–263}}<!--{{efn|The duration of the second voyage was 1,112 days, from 13 July 1772 to 30 July 1775.}}-->

Based on Cook's observations made during the second voyage, the general consensus was that ''Terra Australis'' did not exist.  If the continent did exist, it should have extended into the temperate latitudes{{snd}}yet Cook had demonstrated that no polar landmass reached beyond about 50°S.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=39–42}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=255,263}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Based on the existence of fresh-water icebergs, Cook hypothesised that there was a southern landmass, but placed it nearer to the pole.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=250}}}}-->

Cook was promoted to the rank of [[post-captain]] and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the [[Greenwich Hospital, London|Greenwich Hospital]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=263}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=300–301}}.
}}</ref> He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=444}} His fame extended beyond the Admiralty: he was made a [[Royal Society|Fellow of the Royal Society]] and awarded the [[Copley Medal|Copley Gold Medal]] for a paper he wrote describing methods to prevent scurvy.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=506-507}} [[Nathaniel Dance-Holland]] painted his portrait; he was described as "the first navigator in Europe", and he met with noted author [[James Boswell]].{{sfn|Williams|2011}}  Two books were published in 1777 about the expedition: [[#CITEREFCook1777|one by Cook]], and [[A Voyage Round the World|another by the Forsters]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=265–267}}

==Third voyage (1776{{nbnd}}1779)==
{{Main|Third voyage of James Cook}}
[[File:Cook'sThirdVoyage58.png|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A map of the entire globe, with lines showing the track of Cook's third voyage|The third voyage searched for a [[North-West Passage]] connecting the northern Pacific to the northern Atlantic.<ref name=nwpassage/>  The dotted line represents the portion of voyage after Cook's death.<ref name=maptrack/>
]]
The primary objective of Cook's third expedition was to search for a [[North-West Passage]] connecting the north Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic.<ref name=nwpassage>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=274–275}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=327}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=273}}.
}}</ref> Simultaneously, the Admiralty was organising a second expedition{{snd}}commanded by [[Richard Pickersgill]], who had accompanied Cook on his first two voyages{{snd}}to search for the North-West Passage from the Atlantic side.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=268,280–282}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=274}}.
}}</ref> To keep the goal of the mission secret, the Admiralty publicly declared that its aim was to return Polynesian native [[Omai|Mai]] to his home in Tahiti.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=270}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=327}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|name=mai|When Cook visited Tahiti during his second voyage, Mai (originally from [[Raʻiātea]]) asked Furneaux for passage to England, and Furneaux obliged. Mai spent two years in England, where he was very popular.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=207, 295–301}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=226, 267}}.
}}</ref>
}}

On this voyage, Cook again commanded ''Resolution'', while Captain [[Charles Clerke]] commanded {{HMS|Discovery|1774|6}}.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=274–280}}<!--{{efn|HMS ''Discovery'' was also a Whitby-built collier.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=265}}}}--> Cook's lieutenants included [[John Gore (Royal Navy officer, died 1790)|John Gore]] and [[James King (Royal Navy officer)|James King]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=274–280}} [[William Bligh]] was the master.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=274–280}}<!--{{efn|[[William Bligh]] would later be given command of {{HMS|Bounty||6}} in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with [[breadfruit]]. Bligh's [[Mutiny on the Bounty|crew mutinied]], and placed him and 18 others into an open boat 23 feet (7 m) long. Bligh successfully navigated 3618 miles (5822 km) to [[Timor]], arriving with all men alive.{{sfn|Shaw|1966}} He later became [[Governor of New South Wales]].{{sfn|"Biography: William Bligh". ''Royal Naval Museum at Portsmouth''}}}}--> [[William Anderson (naturalist)|William Anderson]] was the surgeon (and also served as the voyage's botanist), [[William Bayly (astronomer)|William Bayly]] was the astronomer, and the official artist was [[John Webber]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=274–280}} Among the midshipmen was [[George Vancouver]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=274–280}}<!--{{efn|Vancouver, one of Cook's [[Midshipman|midshipmen]], later commanded a [[Vancouver Expedition|voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America]] from 1791 to 1794.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=367}}.
|{{harvnb|Lamb}}.
}}</ref>
}}--> Welshman [[David Samwell]] served as the [[Naval surgeon|surgeon's mate]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=277}}<!-- {{efn|[[David Samwell]], a Welsh [[Naval surgeon|surgeon]] who accompanied Cook on the third voyage, described him as "above six feet high, and though a good looking man, he was plain both in address and appearance. His head was small, his hair, which was dark brown, he wore tied behind. His face was full of expression, his nose exceedingly well shaped, his eyes which were of a brown cast, were quick and piercing: his eyebrows prominent, which gave his countenance altogether an air of austerity."{{sfn|Samwell|1786|pp=20–21}}}}-->

===Tahiti and Hawaii===
[[File:Captain James Cook in Matavai Bay, Tahiti; by John Cleveley the Younger.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3
|alt=Two large wooden ships in a bay of Tahiti, with several Tahitian canoes
|This watercolour of ''Resolution'' and ''Discovery'' in [[Matavai Bay]] was painted by [[John Cleveley the Younger]], based on drawings by his brother James, who was a carpenter on the third voyage.{{sfn|Cust|1887}}]]
The third expedition began by sailing south from England, around South Africa into the [[Indian Ocean]], where they stopped, in December 1776, at the desolate [[Kerguelen Island]].<ref name=kerg>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=288–290}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=513-515}}.
}}</ref> On the shore, the crew discovered a message in a bottle that had been left in 1774 by the French explorer [[Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec]]. Cook appended details of his own visit to the note, raised the British flag, and gave the island its current name.<ref name=kerg/>

Continuing eastward to New Zealand, they anchored in February 1777 near the location where ten crew members of ''Adventure'' had been killed during the second voyage. Despite knowledge of the deaths, Cook treated the Māori with respect, even inviting them into his cabin. Some members of Cook's crew were confused and angered by their leader's failure to take revenge.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=2–4,314–316}}

The expedition then completed its first objective by returning Mai to his homeland of Tahiti.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=335–342}}<!--{{efn|While in Tahiti, Captain Cook received a therapeutic massage from local women, which helped to relieve the leg pain he had been experiencing.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=342}}}}--> While on Tahiti, Cook was allowed to observe a multi-day ritual involving a human sacrifice.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=358–361}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=338–341}}.
}}</ref> In October 1777, on the Tahitian island of [[Mo'orea]], a goat belonging to the expedition was stolen by a local inhabitant. Cook organised a large search party and spent two days conducting an intensive search, destroying a large number of canoes and huts, until the goat was returned. Although several members of his crew considered the retaliation excessive, Cook did not record his reasoning for the destruction.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=344–347}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=366–369}}.
}}</ref>

They continued northward and{{snd}}after a brief stop at [[Kiritimati]]{{snd}}became the first recorded Europeans to see the [[Hawaiian Islands]], on 18 January 1778.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=309–311}}{{efn|Some historians speculate that [[Manila galleon|Spanish trading ships]] may have seen or even visited the Hawaiian islands before Cook, but kept the discovery secret to protect their lucrative trade route between [[Acapulco]] and [[Manila]].{{sfn|Kane|1996}}
}} During this first visit to Hawaii they made landfall at two locations: [[Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii|Waimea]] harbour on the island of [[Kauaʻi]], and the nearby island of [[Niʻihau]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=314–315}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=380–385}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Cook did not encounter the large island on this visit.}}--> When he first stepped ashore, the Hawaiians prostrated themselves in front of Cook.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=355-356}} One of Cook's crew, John Williamson, shot and killed a Hawaiian man while ashore collecting provisions, infuriating Cook.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=359–361}} On Niʻihau, Cook left a pair of pigs for breeding, and pumpkin, melon, and onion seeds{{snd}}continuing a practice he had followed on various islands throughout his voyages.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=275,286,347,358}} Cook observed remarkable similarities between the cultures of Hawaii and Tahiti, including language, [[marae]] structures, religion, and treatment of the dead.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=314–315}} He named the [[archipelago]] the "Sandwich Islands" after the [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich|fourth Earl of Sandwich]]{{snd}}the [[Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty|First Lord of the Admiralty]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=358}}

===North America===
[[File:A View of the Habitations in Nootka Sound - drawn by John Webber, during Cook's third voyage.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|alt=A forested coastline with several buildings, and two boats pulled up on the beach|''A View of the Habitations in Nootka Sound'' was drawn by [[John Webber]], artist of the third voyage.{{sfn|"A View of the Habitations in Nootka Sound". ''Library of Congress''}}]]
From Hawaii, Cook sailed north-east to reach the west coast of North America and begin his search for a North-West Passage.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=316–321}} He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately latitude 44°30′N, naming it [[Cape Foulweather]], after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about [[43rd parallel north|43°N]] before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=316–321}} He unwittingly sailed past the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]] and soon after entered [[Nootka Sound]] on [[Vancouver Island]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=261–269}} Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in a cove at the south end of [[Bligh Island (Canada)|Bligh Island]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=261–269}}.
|{{harvnb|Robson|2004|pp=164–165}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Relations between Cook's crew and the people of [[Yuquot]] were cordial but sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had been acceptable in Hawaii.{{sfn|Fisher|1979|pp=87–97}}}}--> After leaving Nootka Sound, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the [[Bering Strait]], on the way identifying what came to be known as [[Cook Inlet]] in Alaska.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=370–372}}

By the second week of August 1778, Cook had sailed through the Bering Strait, crossed the [[Arctic Circle]], and sailed into the [[Chukchi Sea]].{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=325–327}} He headed north-east up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at latitude 70°41′N.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=623}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=373–374}}.
}}</ref> Cook then sailed west to the [[Siberia]]n coast, and then south-east down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=328–329}} During this voyage, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gap between earlier explorations of the north Pacific: Russian from the west, and Spanish from the south.{{sfn|Williams|2011}} By early September 1778 he was back in the [[Bering Sea]] on his way to return to Hawaii.{{sfn|Beaglehole |1968|pp=615–623}}

Cook became increasingly tired, harsh and volatile during his final voyage.<ref name=harsh>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=368–369, 392–394}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=8–10, 159}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole |1974 |pp=710-712}}.
}}</ref> Tensions between Cook and his crew increased, his reprisals against crew members and indigenous people were more severe, and some officers began to question his judgement.<ref name=harsh/>{{efn|Nicholas Thomas argues that Cook's temperament on his final voyage was no different than on earlier voyages; yet Thomas concedes that most scholars conclude the opposite: "Beaglehole's view [that Cook grew more irritable] has become an orthodoxy. It is widely repeated, perhaps most surprisingly by postcolonial scholars".{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=332–333,376–377}}}}

===Return to Hawaii===
Cook returned to Hawaii in late November 1778, stopping first in [[Maui]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=378–381}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=330–331}}.
}}</ref> The ships sailed around the eastern portion of the archipelago for seven weeks, surveying and trading.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=638–648}} Cook made landfall at [[Kealakekua Bay]] on [[Hawai{{okina}}i (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i Island]]{{snd}}the largest island in the archipelago{{snd}}where the ships were met by 10,000 Hawaiians and 1,000 canoes.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=378–381}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=389–394}}.
}}</ref> On Hawai{{okina}}i Island, Cook met with the Hawaiian king [[Kalaniʻōpuʻu]], who treated Cook with respect, and invited him to participate in several ceremonies. The king and Cook exchanged gifts and names, and the king presented Cook with a [[ʻAhu ʻula|feathered cloak]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=387}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=403–405}}.
|{{harvnb|Robson|2004|pp=69–70}}.
}}</ref> Several members of the expedition speculated that Hawaiians thought Cook was a deity.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=381–389,395–400}} Later scholars confirmed the suspicions, and concluded that Hawaiians considered Cook to be the Polynesian god [[Lono]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=380–383,390–91,396–397,403–404,426–429}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=381–389,395–400}}.
|{{harvnb|Sahlins|1985|pp=110-131}}.
}}</ref> Cook's arrival coincided with the ''[[Makahiki]]'', a Hawaiian [[harvest festival]] of worship for Lono.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=282,284,286}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=383,390–396, 403–406,413,417,421,431}}.
}}</ref> Some scholars believe that the form of HMS ''Resolution''{{snd}}specifically, the mast formation, sails and rigging{{snd}}resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=380–383,390–91,396–397,426–429}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=382–389,395–400}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Some academics state that Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by [[Marshall Sahlins]]) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's initial [[Apotheosis|deification]] as Lono by some Hawaiians.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=159-161}}.
|{{harvnb|Sahlins|1985|pp=93-94}}.
}}</ref>
}}-->{{efn|The anthropologist [[Gananath Obeyesekere]] contends that the Hawaiians did not consider Cook to be a god, in the European sense. He writes: "my central thesis [is] that the apotheosis of Captain Cook is a European myth of imperialism, civilization, and conquest."{{sfn|Obeyesekere|1997|pp=3, 7-8, 20, 120, 142, 163-164, 187, 194}}  See [[Sahlins–Obeyesekere debate]].
}}

===Death===
{{Main|Death of James Cook}}
[[File:Zoffany Death of Captain Cook.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3
|alt=A beach with a dozen Maori warriors fighting against Cook and several of his marines
|''The Death of Captain Cook'' by [[Johan Zoffany]] ({{circa|1795}}) is one of [[Death of Cook|several paintings of this event]].{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=71–82}}]]

After a month on Hawai{{okina}}i Island, Cook set sail to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific, but shortly after departure a strong gale caused ''Resolution''{{'}}s foremast to break, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=389}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=408}}.
}}</ref> Relations between the crew and the Hawaiians were already strained before the departure, and they grew worse when the ship returned for repairs.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=389–391}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=409–411}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Before departure, Cook offered to purchase the wood from a fence surrounding a sacred [[marae]]; when the offer was refused, Cook ordered his men to take the wood regardless.{{sfn|Sparks|1847|pp=135–139}} }}--> Numerous quarrels broke out and petty thefts were common.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=389–391}} On 13 February 1779, a group of Hawaiians stole one of Cook's [[Cutter (boat)|cutters]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=391–392}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=347–348}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=412}}.
}}</ref>

The following day, Cook attempted to recover the cutter by kidnapping and [[ransom]]ing the king, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=412}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=35–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=391–393}} .
}}</ref> Cook and a small party marched through the village to retrieve the king.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Obeyesekere|1997|p=107}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=412–413}}.
}}</ref> Cook led Kalaniʻōpuʻu away; as they got to the boats, one of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, [[Kānekapōlei]], and two chiefs approached the group. They pleaded with the king not to go and a large crowd began to form at the shore.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=412–414}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=35–40}}.
}}</ref> News reached the Hawaiians that a high-ranking Hawaiian chief had been shot (on the other side of the bay) while trying to break through a British blockade – this exacerbated the already tense situation.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=398}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=669–672}}.
|{{harvnb|Samwell|1893|p=457}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=351–352}}.
}}</ref> Hawaiian warriors confronted the landing party and threatened them with stones, clubs, and daggers.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=35–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=351–352}}.
}}</ref> Cook fired a warning shot, then shot one of the Hawaiians dead.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=394–397}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=35–40}}.
}}</ref> The Hawaiians continued to attack and the British fired more shots before retreating to the boats.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=35–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=351–352}}.
}}</ref> Cook and four marines were killed in the affray and left on the shore.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=35–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=413–414}}.
|{{harvnb|Samwell|1893|p=459}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|During the confrontation, four marines were killed: Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett, and Private John Allen. Two others were wounded.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Samwell|1786|p=16}}.
|{{harvnb|"Muster for HMS ''Resolution'' during the third Pacific voyage, 1776–1780". ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
}}</ref>
}} Seventeen Hawaiians were killed.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=41}}{{
efn|
Accounts of the final moments of Cook's life are confusing and contradictory. Two recent scholarly accounts of the death are [[#CITEREFThomas2003|Thomas (2003)]] and [[#CITEREFWilliams2008|Williams (2008)]]. Williams discusses inconsistencies such as whether boats or marines on shore fired first, and whether Cook was clubbed before being stabbed. Salmond discusses the various motivations for the Hawaiians' anger toward Cook and his crew.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=414–415}}
}}

===Aftermath===
[[File:James Cook Death Plaque Hawaii.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3
|alt=Plaque reading "Near this spot Captain James Cook met his death, February 14, 1779"
|A marker was placed at the shoreline of [[Kealakekua Bay]], near the spot where Captain Cook was slain.{{sfn|"Plaque to Cook at Kaawaloa". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
]]
Hawaiians took the bodies of Cook and the marines inland to a village.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=355–360}} James King took a boat to the opposite side of the bay, and was approached by a priest who offered to intercede and ask for Cook's remains to be returned; King consented.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=399–400}} Some crewmen returned to the shore to collect water, and skirmishes broke out, resulting in the death of several Hawaiians.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=400–401}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=355–360}}.
}}</ref> On 19 February, a truce was arranged, and some of Cook's remains were returned to ''Resolution'', including several bones, the skull, some charred flesh, and the hands with the skin still attached.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=400–401}}.
|{{harvnb|Samwell|1893|p=476}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Most of Cook's bones were kept by the Hawaiians and distributed to chiefs.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=121–122}}}}--> A large scar on the right hand{{snd}}from his 1764 powder horn injury{{snd}}confirmed that the remains belonged to Cook.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=423}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=401}}.
}}</ref> The crew placed the remains in a weighted box, and [[burial at sea|buried their captain at sea]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=401}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=355–360}}.
}}</ref>

Clerke had assumed leadership of the expedition{{Sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=675}} and the ships left the bay on 23 February 1779. They spent five weeks charting the coasts of the islands{{snd}}in accordance with a plan set out by Cook before his death.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=401}} They travelled through the archipelago, stopping at [[Lanai]], [[Molokai]], [[Oahu]], and Kauai.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=401}} On 1 April they departed the Hawaiian islands and sailed north to again try to locate the North-West Passage.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=360–361}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=412}}.
}}</ref> Clerke stopped in [[Kamchatka]] and entrusted Cook's journal, with a cover letter describing Cook's death, to the local military commander, [[Magnus von Behm]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=402}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=679–680}}.
}}</ref> Behm had the package delivered, overland, from Siberia to England.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=679–680}} The Admiralty, and all of England, learned of Cook's death when the package arrived in London{{snd}}eleven months after he died.  The package had arrived in England before the surviving crew.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=402}}.
|{{harvnb|"Captain Cook's Third voyage (Jul 1776 – Oct 1780)". ''Museum of New Zealand''}}.
}}
</ref>{{efn|It took seven months for the package containing news of Cook's death to travel overland from Kamchatka to England.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=679–680}}}}

Continuing north, the expedition returned to the Bering Strait, but was again blocked by pack ice, and they were unable to discover a North-West Passage.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=402}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=681–682}}.
}}</ref> Clerke died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and [[John Gore (Royal Navy captain)|John Gore]], a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of ''Resolution'' and the expedition. James King replaced Gore in command of ''Discovery''.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=403}} The ships returned home, reaching England on 4 October 1780.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=686}}<!--{{efn|The duration of the third voyage was 1,545 days, from 12 July 1776 to 4 October 1780.}}-->

==Science, technology, and seamanship==
{{main|Navigation and seamanship of James Cook}}
[[File:Larcum Kendall chronometer K1.jpg|thumb
|alt=A large pocket watch, about 13 centimetres in diameter
|The accuracy of the [[Larcum Kendall#K1|K1 chronometer]] enabled accurate computation of longitude on the second and third voyages. The cost was £500, {{Inflation|UK|500|1769|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Betts|2018|p=186}}.
|{{harvnb|Clark|2017}}.
}}</ref>
]]<!-- The British government paid Kendall £450 plus a £50 bonus-->

Cook's [[seamanship]] and navigation skills enabled him to lead three expeditions which travelled tens of thousands of miles across mostly uncharted oceans and successfully gathered vast amounts of scientific and geographic knowledge, without the loss of a single ship.<ref name=knowledge>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=169,219, 235, 248, 417-418, 608, 699}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=292}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|p=1}}.
}}</ref> His three voyages vastly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the Pacific Ocean, and revealed the existence of several lands and cultures previously unknown to Europeans, including the Hawaiian archipelago.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=699}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=xx}}.
|{{harvnb|Deacon|Deacon |1969}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Beaglehole notes that, despite Cook's wide-ranging and significant achievements, he ultimately did not succeed in attaining important goals the Admiralty had hoped for: "If we contemplate these voyages of Cook against the background of geographical thought, or as exercises in the strategy of empire, we may consider their results as primarily negative. There was no [Southern] continent. There was no north-west passage. There was to be no grand struggle for the domination of the lakes and forests and fertile plains of the Terra Australis, no deployment there of armies or the corruptions of a massive trade or the disembowelment of gold mines, or the campaigning of humane men for the first decencies."{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|pp=cxx-cxxi}}}}-->

Significant observations and discoveries were made by the scientists that Cook carried on each of his voyages: naturalists on the first voyage collected over 3,000 plant species;{{sfn|"The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations". ''Natural History Museum''}} and those on the second voyage published ''[[Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World]]'', one of the first works which utilised a modern, interdisciplinary approach to geography.{{sfn|Forster|1982|p=107}} Cook and Banks were among the first Europeans to interact with a wide variety of cultures in the Pacific. They identified similarities between peoples and languages across many Pacific Islands, leading them to suggest that the populations shared a common origin in Asia.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=314–315}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=699}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=136–137, 224–225}}.
|{{harvnb|"Linguistic Evidence/Oral Traditions". PBS}}.
}}</ref>

Cook was an expert [[surveyor]], [[cartographer]], and [[hydrographer]], and was well-versed in the use of instruments such as the [[theodolite]], [[plane table]], and [[sextant]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Skelton|1954|pp=106,119}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp= 33, 50, 60, 67, 69-70, 80, 99, 136}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=24, 28, 30, 33, 134 }}.
}}</ref> The charts of Newfoundland compiled by Cook were more accurate than new charts produced by the Royal Navy one hundred years later.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=33}} The charting skills he displayed in Newfoundland were a significant factor in his selection to lead the first Pacific voyage.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Skelton|1954|p=92}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=7-8}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=38}}.
}}</ref>

Cook's naval career coincided with the advent of practical methods of determining [[longitude]].  On his first voyage, Cook took with him the 1768 and 1769 editions of the recently developed ''[[The Nautical Almanac|Nautical Almanac]]'',{{efn|The first edition of the ''Nautical Almanac'', prepared by [[Nevil Maskelyne]], covered 1767. It is possible that the tables that Cook used for 1769 were advance copies or manuscript versions, instead of the final printed edition for that year. Cook commented on the need for these tables to be prepared a long time in advance, as navigators on long voyages were those most in need of them.<ref name=almanac/>
}} which significantly reduced the time taken to calculate longitude from [[Lunar distance (navigation)|lunar distance observations]].<ref name=almanac>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Cock|1999}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=116}}.
|{{harvnb|Skelton|1954|pp=111,118}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|p=clxvii}}.
|{{harvnb|Cook|1968|p=392}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|
Before the advent of lunar distance tables (such as those in the ''Nautical Almanac''),  computing longitude took about four hours.  This cumbersome technique was used on [[Samuel Wallis]]'s 1766{{nbnd}}1768 voyage to Tahiti.  On Cook's first voyage, with the aid of the almanac, this was reduced to one hour.<ref name=almanac/>}}  The data in the almanacs only reached a few years into the future, and each of Cook's voyages lasted longer than the data in the almanac{{snd}}so the crew had to revert to using slower calculations near the end of the voyages.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Howse|1989|pp=86-87}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=192–193, 197, 236}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Cook's ''Endeavour'' voyage was the first major expedition to adopt [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|Greenwich]] as the [[prime meridian]].  This was a consequence of using the  ''Nautical Almanac'', which was compiled under the supervision of a Greenwich-based astronomer.{{sfn|Skelton|1954|p=118}}}}

On his second and third voyages, Cook carried [[Larcum Kendall#K1|Larcum Kendall's K1 chronometer]]{{snd}}a copy of [[John Harrison#H4|John Harrison's H4]]{{snd}}to test if it could accurately keep time for extended periods while withstanding the violent motions of a ship and the temperature changes of different climates. It performed well and thus made a key contribution to solving the [[History of longitude|longitude problem]] that had plagued mariners for centuries.{{sfn|Hough|1994| pp=192–193, 197, 236}} Cook praised the timepiece profusely.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=197,236}}.
|{{harvnb|Sobel|2011 |p=150}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|The crew continued to use the almanacs  even after they began carrying chronometers, because they used the lunar distance computations to evaluate the accuracy of the chronometers. On his second voyage, Cook also tested three chronometers made by  [[John Arnold (watchmaker)|James Arnold]]. These did not perform well, but Cook's report led Arnold to make the key improvements to his design.{{sfn|Sobel|2011 |p=157}}
}}

===Health and disease===

Cook was among the pioneers in the early efforts to prevent scurvy, implementing various strategies including the provision of [[wort]] to the crew and the regular resupply of fresh food during voyages.<ref>{{Multiref
| {{harvnb|Stubbs|2003}}.
| {{harvnb|Cook|1776}}.
| {{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=703–704}}.
| {{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=62–63, 192, 235, 244, 386–387}}.
}}</ref> During his first circumnavigation of the globe he did not lose a single crew member to the disease{{snd}}an uncommon outcome at the time.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=164}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=703–704}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=266–267}}.
}}</ref> In addition to diet, Cook also promoted general hygiene by having the crew wash themselves frequently and air out their bedding, clothes, and quarters.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=161, 176, 185}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|pp=200, 207, 219}}.
}}</ref> He presented a paper on scurvy prevention to the [[Royal Society]], and he was awarded their prestigious [[Copley Medal]] for contributions to medical and naval science.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=506-507}}.
|{{harvnb|Cook|1776}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Cook's paper on scurvy incorrectly concluded that sweet wort and malt were important to preventing scurvy. In fact, scurvy is prevented by eating foods that contain [[vitamin C]], such as citrus fruits.{{sfn|Stubbs|2003}} Prior to Cook's first voyage, some British physicians, such as [[James Lind]] and [[Nathaniel Hulme]], had concluded that citrus fruits were a solution, but Cook did not adopt that recommendation.{{sfn|Stubbs|2003}} The wort and malt identified by Cook did not contain vitamin C. Cook's success with scurvy was due to frequent replenishment of fresh food, and to various plant materials sometimes brewed into the beer prepared on ship. Cook's erroneous conclusion delayed the adoption of successful [[antiscorbutic]] measures by the Royal Navy.{{sfn|Stubbs|2003}}}}

==Indigenous peoples==
{{main|James Cook and indigenous peoples}}

=== Conflict and cooperation ===
[[File:Sydney Parkinson Maori War Canoe, 1769, Cook's first voyage.jpg|upright=1.6|thumb|These Māori warriors in a [[Waka (canoe)|war canoe]],  with [[Gable End Foreland]] in the background, were drawn by [[Sydney Parkinson|the artist of the first expedition]].{{sfn|"Representation of a war canoe" ''National Library of New Zealand''}} 
|alt=Māori warriors in a war canoe]]
In his three Pacific voyages, Cook encountered numerous indigenous peoples, many with little or no previous contact with Europeans.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=xx, 222}} Cook's instructions from the Admiralty required him to cultivate friendships with indigenous peoples, treat them with civility, trade with them for provisions, and to report on the natural products of their lands and the "genius, temper, disposition and number" of the people.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=32}}.
|{{harvnb|Perrin|1928|pp=347-348, 352-355, 361-362}}.
}}</ref> Before the first voyage the Royal Society advised Cook that he should avoid violence against indigenous people, use lethal force only as a last resort, and{{snd}}after tempers had calmed{{snd}}explain to them that the British considered them the "Lords of the Country".<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=57, 117-118}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=88}}.
|{{harvnb|Douglas|1768}}.
}}</ref>
<!-- [[File:H000104- Feather Cape.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=A cloak constructed of brown, yellow, and red feathers|When Cook arrived in Hawaii in 1778, Hawaiian king [[Kalaniʻōpuʻu]] gave him several gifts, including this [[ʻAhu ʻula]] (feather cloak).{{sfn|Cork|2023}}
]] --> 
Upon initial contact with an indigenous people, Cook usually sought to establish amicable relations by engaging in local friendship rituals such as gift-giving, exchanging names,<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=xxiii, 97-98}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=62, 66, 88, 92, 113, 129, 181}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=111-112}}.
}}</ref> presenting green boughs,{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=64, 266, 267}} or ''[[hongi]]'' (rubbing noses).<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=116-117, 182, 215, 219, 283}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=89, 97, 171}}.
}}</ref> He also relied on his Polynesian ship guests{{snd}}Tupaia, Hitihiti,<!--{{efn|Hitihiti, (also known as Mahine) was a relative of a chief of [[Bora Bora]], and asked to join the expedition during the second voyage.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=212}}}}--> and Mai{{snd}}to act as interpreters, advisers, and cultural intermediaries.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=3-4, 97-112, 116-123, 217, 236, 241-245}}

The anthropologist [[Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)|Nicholas Thomas]] argues that despite Cook's peaceful intentions, violence was sometimes inevitable when indigenous people resisted contact by the British.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=153-154}} Following a violent encounter in 1774, Cook wrote, "we attempt to land in a peaceable manner, if this succeeds it's well, if not we land nevertheless and maintain the footing we thus got by the Superiority of our fire arms, in what other light can they than at first look upon us but as invaders of their Country".{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|p=241}}

When conflict was likely, Cook implemented measures to minimise harm, such as instructing his crew to first fire warning shots, and to load their firearms with [[small shot]], which was generally non-lethal. When Cook was not present, his crew sometimes disobeyed his orders and changed their weapons to use more fatal [[musket ball]]s.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=165}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=38–40}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=243,360, 394–395}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|One of Cook's crew members stated that Cook's use of small shot (in his own firearm) may have contributed to his death, since it failed to injure Cook's assailant.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=394–395}}}}-->

The level of violence fluctuated throughout the three voyages. Many encounters were almost entirely peaceful while in other cases generally friendly relations were punctuated by sporadic violence.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=66, 80, 95, 376-377}} Overall, at least 45 indigenous people were killed by Cook's crew, including two killed by Cook.{{efn|[[Glyndwr Williams]] states that on the day of Cook's death, seventeen islanders were killed on or near the shore (Kaawaloa), and eight killed elsewhere on that day.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=41}}
Beaglehole states that the Hawaiians lost "four chiefs...and thirteen others" in "the wretched affray".{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=674–675}} According to Williams and Beaglehole other Hawaiians were killed in revenge attacks in days immediately following Cook's death, but they do not give a number.
[[Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)|Nicholas Thomas]] quotes Captain Clerke as saying that "5 or 6" Hawaiians were killed by the British in revenge attacks (on the days following the day of Cook's death), but Thomas adds that he suspects this was an underestimate.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=401}}
Cook and his crew killed a total of nine (perhaps thirteen) Māori.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=100}}.
|{{harvnb|Katz|2019}}.
}}</ref> Thomas suggests that the total number of Hawaiians killed is "at least thirty", and that the number of non-Hawaiians killed (in all voyages) was fifteen, for a total of 45 indigenous deaths.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=401}}
Among those deaths, Cook was responsible for killing a Māori man and a Hawaiian.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=134-136, 413}}|name=deaths}} Fifteen of the crew were killed by indigenous people, [[Death of James Cook|including Cook himself]].{{efn|Ten crew from ''Adventure'' were killed in December 1773,{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=446}} and Cook and four marines on the day of Cook's death.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=414}}}} The worst incidents of deadly violence occurred in New Zealand during the first and second voyages, and in Hawaii during the third voyage.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=100, 251-254, 401}}

The British often resorted to violence when they felt threatened or believed that indigenous people were engaging in theft or dishonest trade.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=xxxii, 92}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=129-130}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Tahitians viewed the British as stingy and ungenerous, partially explaining why thefts were common.  Salmond writes: "[The British] often failed to make an adequate return for gifts and hospitality.... The daring and stealth of Hiro, the god of theft, were also often emulated in Tahiti. Above all, European goods were irresistibly tempting..."{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=68,78-79}}}} Cook generally overlooked minor thefts, but punished thefts of official property{{snd}}especially essential equipment{{snd}}more severely.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=66-67, 325}} To avoid excessive bloodshed he usually responded to thefts with warning shots, floggings, the seizure of canoes, or by holding indigenous leaders hostage until the stolen items were returned.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=73, 94-95; 117; 211; 254; 328; 330; 333; 338; 342-343}}[[File:Hodges, Resolution and Adventure in Matavai Bay.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb
|alt=Two large wooden ships entering a bay near a tropical island, surrounded by several Tahitians in canoes
|Expedition artist [[William Hodges]] painted ''[[HMS Resolution (1771)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[HMS Adventure (1771)|Adventure]]'' in [[Matavai Bay]] during the second voyage.{{sfn|"[A] View of Maitavie Bay, [in the Island of] Otaheite [Tahiti]". ''Royal Museums Greenwich''}}]] Cook was criticised by various crew members for being too lenient in his punishment of indigenous people for violence, theft, and defiance.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=198, 242-243, 325, 359-361}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=214, 315-316}}.
}}</ref> Local indigenous people and Cook's Polynesian advisers sometimes encouraged him to impose more severe punishments on other indigenous groups or commoners.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=330, 339, 359, 367, 372}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=344}}.
}}</ref>

These advisers were dismayed when{{snd}}during the third voyage{{snd}}he refused to punish the Māori group that killed ten crew members of ''Adventure''.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=300-306}}{{efn|Cook declined to seek retribution because he felt that the killings were not premeditated, and that the crew members may have provoked the Māori.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=300-306}}}} Cook's handling of the incident also caused resentment among crew members.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=305-306}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=315-316}}.
}}</ref> Subsequently he increasingly resorted to harsher non-lethal punishments against indigenous people{{snd}}which some crew members considered excessive.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=322}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=xxiii, 338}}.
}}</ref> These measures included the destruction of canoes and dwellings,<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=344-347}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=367-9}}.
}}</ref> extreme floggings,<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=322}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=165, 289, 328, 338, 344, 372, 394, 433-7}}.
}}</ref> and cropping their ears.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=322}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|p=8}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=369, 372 }}.
}}</ref>

Cook's ceremonial friendships with Polynesian high chiefs sometimes caused tensions. While they brought Cook prestige among the local population and a place in their culture, they involved cultural obligations{{snd}}such as generous gift-giving, defending local customs, avenging insults, and acting as an ally against the chief's enemies{{snd}}which Cook did not always fully understand and which embroiled him in internal politics.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=78-79, 82-84, 366-369, 426, 430-431}} Cook's need to gather supplies of food, water and timber during his stays caused tension with the local population when he arrived during seasonal scarcity, or in areas ravaged by wars, or when chiefs withheld supplies for political reasons.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=78-79,146, 193-198, 205-206, 253-255}}

Cook and his crew caused offence when they inadvertently or deliberately violated customs involving rituals, shrines, high chiefs, and sacred wildlife.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=70, 81, 100, 205, 208, 226, 345-349}} Cook's actions in taking high chiefs hostage for the return of stolen goods caused particular offence and almost resulted in violence in Tonga and Tahiti before the deadly violence in Hawaii.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=396-397}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=xxiii, 414-415}}.
}}</ref>

=== Cook as chief or deity ===<!-- In an example of misunderstanding, in Tonga, Cook failed to appreciate the importance of rank, and engaged in a name-exchange ceremony with a lower-level chief, resulting the a loss of status for Cook.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=402}} -->

Cook was considered by some indigenous peoples to be an ''[[ariki]]'' (high chief), and therefore the embodiment of the powers and attributes of certain ''[[atua]]'' (Polynesian gods).<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=xxiii, 393, 403}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=109, 162}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|In Hawaii the word for gods is "''akua''".{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=109, 119}}}}-->{{efn|name=ThomGod|Regarding the differences between ''atua'' and Western gods, Thomas writes: "Cook was not taken to be a god, not if a god is a supreme being, of a supernatural or transcendental nature, categorically distinct from any humans. Polynesians recognised no such gulf between the beings they called ''atua'' or in Hawaii ''akua'' and living men and women. Gods themselves had varied natures, ranging from the abstract and elemental, in the case of the original creatorbeings, to the essentially human and historical, in that of deified ancestors of chiefs. But divinity and humanity always shaded together. From the perspective of a common person, a chief was so superior as to be divine, and certain priests were not just representatives of gods but embodiments of them"{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=384}} <br>Williams writes: "Much attention focused on the cultural and linguistic problems involved in the crude translation of the Hawaiian ''akua'' or Tahitian ''atua'' as 'god' in a Judaic/Christian sense. Greg Dening pointed out that in Polynesia ''akua/atua'' could refer to wooden statues, birds, sharks, chiefs and sorcerers. To incorporate a powerful visitor into this pantheon would not be surprising,{{nbsp}}..."{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=162}} }}<!-- In New Zealand, some of the indigenous people considered Cook's ship itself, ''Endeavour'', to be an ''atua''.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=123}} --> Cook's status as a ''ariki'' in much of Polynesia was due to his leadership role when making contact with indigenous people, the deference crew members displayed towards him, the power of the weapons he commanded, and the respect he gained by becoming ceremonial friends with local chiefs.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=110-113}} Ceremonial friendships typically involved Cook and a chief exchanging genealogies, names, and symbols of their status (for example, uniforms and weapons), by which their ancestries and ''[[Mana (Oceanian cultures)|mana]]'' (life force) would be merged.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=204, 402–403}}<!-- One of the midshipmen described Cook's process as "[he] would land alone unarm'd, or lay aside his Arms, and sit down, when they threaten'd with theirs, throwing them Beads, Knives, and other little presents, then by degrees advancing nearer, till by Patience, and forbearance, he gain'd their friendship."{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=110}} --> In Hawaii, Cook's status as an ''akua'' (the Hawaiian version of ''atua'') derived partly from the time and manner of his arrival during his second visit in late 1778. Many Hawaiians thought Cook was an embodiment of the Polynesian god [[Lono]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=380–383,390–91,396–397,403–404,426–429}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=381–389,395–400}}.
|{{harvnb|Sahlins|1985|pp=110-131}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Both Cook and the Hawaiian king [[Kalani'opu'u]] were sometimes referred to as Lono.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=403}}}}--><!-- One of the reasons was that Cook's arrival coincided with the ''[[Makahiki]]'', a Hawaiian [[harvest festival]] of worship for Lono.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=282,284,286}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=383,390-396, 403-406,413,417,421,431}}.
}}</ref> Some scholars believe that the form of HMS ''Resolution''{{snd}}specifically, the mast formation, sails and rigging{{snd}}resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|p=109}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=380–383,390–91,396–397,426–429}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=382–389,395–400}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|Some academics (most notably [[Marshall Sahlins]]) argue that Cook's ships' clockwise route around the island of Hawaii resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals, and that this coincidence was one of the reasons for Cook's initial [[Apotheosis|deification]] as Lono by some Hawaiians.{{sfn|Sahlins|1985}}}}{{efn|The academic [[Gananath Obeyesekere]] contends that [[Sahlins–Obeyesekere debate|the Hawaiians did not consider Cook to be a deity]].{{sfn|Obeyesekere|1997|pp=197–250}}}} During the second visit, several members of Cook's expedition realised that the Hawaiians thought Cook was a deity.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=381–389,395–400}} According to historian [[Glyndwr Williams]], there is still scholarly debate over the extent to which Cook was considered a akiri (high chief) or ''akua'' (god) in Hawaii.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=119}}
|{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=403.}}
}}</ref>

In Polynesia the role of akiri carried significant ramifications for relationships and power. It is unlikely that Cook understood the expectations and responsibilities associated with the role. [[Anne Salmond]] writes: "Over the past ten years he had exchanged gifts, including his own clothing, and sometimes his name, with a series of Polynesian leaders. In the course of these exchanges, according to Pacific understandings, something of the life force of those people had entered his being. Such relationships, especially between ''ariki'', were often turbulent and dangerous. When high chiefs came together, their ancestor gods also met. ''Ariki'' were the living representatives of the gods, and imbued with their power. A man caught between two sets of gods was 'two-sided', and could be torn in contradictory directions".{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=393}}

The anthropologist [[Anne Salmond]] theorises that Cook's treatment as a akiri (high chief) gave Cook an elevated sense of power, and may have contributed to his more aggressive behaviour on the third voyage.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=xxiii }}

The perception of Cook could change over time, for example, if the indigenous peoples witnessed behaviour that did not conform to their expectations: such as in New Zealand, were Cook failed to take revenge for the deaths of ten crew members.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=125}}

In Hawaii, during the second visit, Cook was viewed as a ''akua'' (god). Cook departed the islands on 4 February 1779, consistent with the cycle of the [[Makahiki]] season.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=389}} But a mast on one of the ships broke, and Cook was forced to return to the island, which confused the Hawaiians, because Lono was not supposed to return for another year.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=389}} The ship received a chilly greeting; the historian Thomas theorised that the Hawaiians viewed the timing of Cook's return as a challenge to king [[Kalaniʻōpuʻu]].{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=389}} The Hawaiian's perception of Cook further evolved when he died, an event which was consistent with a normal human.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

In Tahiti, after Cook's death, he was venerated as an ''atua'' with rituals and offerings{{snd}}but over time the rituals ceased and the memory of Cook diminished.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=429}} -->

=== Trading and commerce ===
[[File:A Maori man and Joseph Banks exchanging a crayfish for a piece of cloth, c. 1769.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2
|alt=A Māori man and an English man, trading a lobster for a piece of cloth.
|
Polynesian priest [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]] drew [[A Māori and Pākehā man trading a crayfish|this illustration]] of a Māori man and [[Joseph Banks]] trading a lobster and cloth during the first voyage, {{circa|1769}}.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Druett|2017}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=75–77}}.
}}</ref>
]]
<!--
====Instructions regarding commerce====

Commerce was an important underlying goal of all of Cook's voyages.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=184-185}}{{sfn|Beaglehole |1974| pp=475-481}} Cook's official orders included instructions to find new lands to trade with, and (for the third voyage) to locate new passages to shorten travel distances.{{sfn|Perrin|1928|p=347, 348, 357, 360–361}} The instructions also requested that he find and bring back "metals, minerals, or valuable stones, or any extraneous fossils, you are to bring home specimens of each, as also of the seeds of such trees, shrubs, plants, fruits and grains".{{sfn|Perrin|1928|pp=352–353, 361–362}}
-->
<!--
==== Bartering for provisions ====
-->
Cook's orders instructed him to barter with indigenous peoples to replenish his ship's provisions.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974| pp=148, 177}}.
|{{harvnb|Perrin|1928|pp=345,349, 343, 362}}.
}}</ref> When bartering, Cook primarily received food from the indigenous peoples, including fish, pigs, plantains, bananas, coconuts, and breadfruit.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=241}} In return Cook gave items such as iron nails, beads, copper, knives, and cloth.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=63–64}} The crew also bartered individually with indigenous peoples, often to purchase "curiosities", hatchets, and other souvenirs, and also for sex.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|p=114}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=49, 100–101, 222}}.
}}</ref>
<!-- Several times, Cook depleted the available foodstuffs of the place they were visiting.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=146}} In some places the desires of the locals evolved over time: on an early visit to [[Huahine]], Cook was able to buy provisions with coloured feathers, but on a later visit, the Tahitians required axes as payment.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=253}} -->

<!--
====Introduction of animals and plants====
-->
Cook carried a wide variety of livestock on his ships including pigs, goats, cattle, horses, rabbits, turkeys, and sheep.<ref name=animals>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=275,286–287,347,358}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=312–3,336, 352–353,366}}.
|{{harvnb|Sutherland|2019}}.
}}</ref> The ships also carried cats and dogs as pets.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=42}} The livestock were used for a variety of purposes: for consumption by the crew, to place onto lands they visited to establish breeding pairs, and to give to indigenous individuals as gifts.<ref name=animals/>
<!--
The ships also carried vermin, such as the house mouse (''[[Mus musculus]]'') and Norway rat (''[[Rattus norvegicus]]'').{{sfn|Sutherland|2019}} Norway rats were introduced into Polynesia in the late 1700s, although it is not certain if Cook was the first to introduce them.{{sfn|King |2023 }}<ref name=HIan/> Cook was the first European to introduce the house mouse into Hawaii, in 1778.<ref name=HIan>{{cite web
 |title= Ecology and impacts of introduced rodents (Rattus spp. and Mus musculus) in the Hawaiian Islands
 |first=Aaron
 |last=Shiels
 |url =https://manoa.hawaii.edu/hpicesu/DPW/AS_THESIS/AS_2010.pdf
 |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa
 |website= PhD Dissertation
}}</ref>

In 1777, in Tahiti, Cook felt that ''Resolution'' had too many rats, so he pulled the ship close to shore and had the crew rig a large rope from the ship leading to the land, hoping some of the rats would leave the ship.<ref name=ccs_od77>{{cite web
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/cooks-voyages/third-pacific-voyage/october-december-1777
 |title=October – December 1777
 |website=Captain Cook Society
}}</ref>
-->

Cook also brought plants and seeds on his ships, and planted gardens on several islands. The plants included wheat, carrots, peas, mustard, cabbages, strawberry, parsley, potatoes, oranges, lemons, pomelo, limes, watermelons, turnips, onions, beans, and parsnip.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp= xxi–xxiv, 208}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=93, 184, 186, 283, 349, 357}}.
}}</ref> The crops were intended for the benefit of the indigenous peoples, and also to feed future British visitors.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp= xxi–xxiv, 208}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=93, 184, 186, 283, 349, 357}}.
}}</ref> The crew also planted pineapple and grape (from vines planted earlier by Spaniards) that were obtained from Pacific islands.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p= 357}}
<!--
In New Zealand, when he encountered some men that appeared to be important, he gave them a variety of seeds and plants, as well as breeding pairs of pigs and chickens, hoping the animals would propagate and stock the island over time.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=208}}
-->

=== Cross-cultural exchanges ===
Cook's expeditions resulted in considerable cultural exchanges with the indigenous peoples of the Pacific region. Several members of his crew learnt to speak Polynesian languages, and Polynesian words such as ''[[Tapu (Polynesian culture)|tabu]]'' ([[taboo]])<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=148, 348, 430}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=194}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Also spelled ''tapu''. Similar concept in Hawaii is ''[[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]]''.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=148, 348, 430}}}}--> and ''tatu'' ([[tattoo]]) entered the English language.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=3, 28}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=87, 236, 321}}.
}}</ref> Crew members called Cook's fits of anger ''"[[:fr:Heiva i Tahiti|heivas]]"'' (the Tahitian word for a public performance), and they called Cook "Toote" (the Tahitian transliteration of his name).{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=392-393}} Many Polynesians also learnt some English, Tupaia and Mai becoming fairly proficient.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=xxiii, 97, 110, 111, 297-298, 301}} "Cookees" became a Tahitian word for Europeans.{{Sfn|Williams|2008|p=111}}

Polynesians adopted some European foods and Cook's crew also developed a taste for local foods. Dog was a common food in Polynesia and Cook's crew came to eat it with enjoyment.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=7-9}} The Māori enjoyed the ship's salted meat and Mai tried to produce wine on his island.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=135, 357, 372}} Cook brought European livestock and crops to the Pacific and brought exotic plants back to England.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=xxii, 275, 287}}
[[File:MaoriChief1784.jpg|thumb|right|alt=portrait of a Maori man, with a facial tattoo|The traditional Polynesian artform of tattooing, exemplified by this Māori chief with a ''[[tā moko]]'' (Māori tattoo), inspired many of Cook's crew to get tattoos.<ref name=tattoo/><!--{{efn|This 1784 etching is based on a portrait drawn during the first voyage by [[Sydney Parkinson]].{{sfn|"Parkinson, Sydney, 1745-1771: The Head of a Chief of New Zealand". ''National Library of New Zealand''}}}}--> ]]
Cook's crew embraced the practice of tattooing, which later became a tradition among sailors worldwide.<ref name=tattoo>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=78-80}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=214}}.
}}</ref> Tahitians extended the meaning of their word ''tatau'' to include European writing.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|p=236}} Polynesians admired the work of the crew's artists and Tupaia learnt to draw and paint in the English style.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=69, 74-75}} Tahitians, Tongans and Hawaiians staged boxing and wrestling matches in which crew members sometimes participated, and they often exchanged musical performances and dancing.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=104, 197, 201, 330, 340-341, 346-349, 383, 404-407}}

Several Polynesians joined Cook's expeditions as ship guests. Tupaia advised Banks on Polynesian culture and explained Polynesian navigational methods to Cook, helping him make a chart of South Pacific islands.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=108-112}} Mai, in his two years in England, became a celebrity and an unofficial cultural ambassador for his homeland. On his return to the Tahitian islands he attempted to spread knowledge of England.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=295-301, 369-374}}{{efn|name=mai}}

Cook and his officers attended Polynesian ceremonies and sacred rituals while Polynesians, in turn, occasionally observed and participated in the British religious services and burials.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=76-77, 80, 345-349, 358-362, 406}} When one crew member died in Hawaii the Hawaiian priests agreed that he should be buried in their local shrine and they turned the funeral into as cross-cultural ritual.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|p=388}} After Cook's death, his memory and physical remains were incorporated into Hawaiian rituals for decades.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|pp=426-428}}

Many Polynesians became friends or lovers with their visitors, and some crew members attempted desertion to be with their Polynesian lovers.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=8, 94, 375}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=77-78, 348}}.
}}</ref> Cook entered into ceremonial friendships with Polynesian chiefs for practical reasons but also developed emotional attachments to some of them.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=200-201}}

European knowledge of the indigenous cultures of the Pacific region increased with the publication of accounts of the voyages. These accounts were popular but spread some misconceptions about indigenous peoples.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=xxvii, 152-153, 155-157, 193-194, 267}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=45-46}}.
}}</ref>{{Efn|The official account of the first voyage was one of the ten most borrowed books in British libraries in the late 18th century.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|p=153}} The official account of the third voyage sold out within three days and was followed by numerous cheap and abridged editions.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=409}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=22-23}}.
}}</ref>
}} The art of the voyages also proved popular, many works being reproduced in cheap editions and as book illustrations.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=296}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=71-80}}.
}}</ref> The artists strove for scientific accuracy but sometimes distorted actual events and fostered a particularly European vision of the Pacific and its cultures.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=191-192, 296-297, 300, 351, 395-396}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=71-80}}.
}}</ref>

===Health and sexual relations===
[[File:Sydney Parkinson Tahitian adult male in the dress of his country.jpg|thumb|alt=A Tahitian man wearing a shawl and a head wrap.| This Tahitian man was drawn by [[Sydney Parkinson]] during the first voyage.  The [[tapa cloth]] used in Polynesian clothing was made from the [[Bast fibre|inner bark]] of certain trees.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"A Native of Otaheite" ''Museum of New Zealand''}}.
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=176}}.
}}</ref>]]
Many European explorers{{snd}}including members of Cook's crews{{snd}}carried communicable diseases such as [[syphilis]],<!--{{efn|There is scientific debate about the origins of syphilis. It was present in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. It is not certain if it was transmitted from the Americas to Europe.{{sfn|Igler|2013|p=53}}}}--> [[gonorrhea]], [[tuberculosis]], [[malaria]], [[dysentery]], [[smallpox]], [[influenza]], and [[hepatitis]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Igler|2013|pp=43–47}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=53}}.
}}</ref>  These diseases caused a significant decline in some local populations, who often had no natural resistance.{{sfn|Igler|2013|p=45}} Cook's crews transmitted some of these diseases to indigenous peoples in Tahiti, Hawaii, British Columbia, and New Zealand.{{sfn|Igler|2013|p=44}} In Hawaii, Cook's crews were the first Europeans to introduce some diseases to the local population.{{sfn|Igler|2013|pp=54–56}}{{efn|In the 1800s, missionaries in Hawaii sought to undermine Cook's reputation by blaming him for the initial introduction of STDs to the islands.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=428}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=142-145}}.
}}</ref>
}}
<!--
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, [[yaws]] was endemic across Polynesia. Yaws had symptoms very similar to syphilis, and confused Cook's naturalists when they attempted to determine if and how syphilis was spreading.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=331}}{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=145}}
-->

Sexual mores differed greatly between Britain and the places visited by Cook.  Of Hawaii, the anthropologist [[Marshall Sahlins]] writes: "We can see why Hawaiians are so interested in sex. Sex was everything: rank, power, wealth, land, and the security of all these."{{sfn|Sahlins|1985|p=26}} Most sexual encounters were consensual, but they often involved payment in the form of trinkets, feathers, or iron nails.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Igler| 2013|p=50}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=49}}.
}}</ref> In Hawaii, some women believed that sex with white men would increase their ''[[Mana (Oceanian cultures)|mana]]'' (spiritual power).{{sfn|Igler| 2013|p=50}} In New Zealand during the second voyage, Māori men forced women to have sex with the crewmen.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Igler| 2013|pp= 45, 50–51}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas |2003| pp= xxiv, 184}}.
}}</ref>

<!--
==== Sexually transmitted diseases ====
-->
Cook took measures to mitigate the spread of [[sexually transmitted diseases]] (STDs), including issuing orders that prohibited women from boarding his ships and instructing his crew to refrain from sexual relations with indigenous women.{{sfn|Igler|2013|pp=54–56}} In Hawaii he specifically ordered that "no woman was to board either of the ships" and that any crew member known to have an STD was forbidden from engaging in sexual activity, stating these directives were intended "to prevent as much as possible the communicating [of] this fatal disease to a set of innocent people". However, Cook's orders were frequently disregarded by members of his crew.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=638–639}}.
|{{harvnb|Igler|2013|pp=54–56}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|p=145}}.
}}</ref>
<!--
On Cook's third voyage, when they returned to Hawaii after nine months searching for the [[North-West Passage]], Cook was saddened to discover that syphilis had apparently travelled to additional islands since their first visit nine months earlier.{{sfn|Igler|2013|pp=56}}
-->

=== Cook's observations ===
<div class=floatright id=JournalPage>[[File:James Cook journal 23 August 1770 "...in reality they are far happier than we Europeans".jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=A page from the original manuscript journal of the first voyage|Cook kept journals during his voyages. In this manuscript page from his first voyage he wrote of [[Aboriginal Australians]]: "they are far more happier than we Europeans; being wholy unacquainted not only with the superfluous but the necessary conveniences so much sought after in Europe, they are happy in not knowing the use of them. They live in a Tranquility which is not disturbed by the Inequality of Condition..."<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"23 August, 1770 - They Live in a Tranqulity". National Library of New Zealand}}.
|{{harvnb|Cook|1968|p=399}}.
}}</ref>]]</div>

Cook's instructions required him to report on the indigenous peoples he encountered.{{Sfn|Salmond|2004|p=32}} Over time he developed an interest in their cultures and his observations became more sophisticated as he attempted to understand cultural differences and describe them in a detached manner.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=144}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=59, 81-82, 99, 114}}.
}}</ref>

Cook described the Māori as brave, noble, open, benevolent, devoid of treachery, and having few vices.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=107}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=151, 290}}.
}}</ref> He believed that Aboriginal Australians were happier than Europeans because they enjoyed social equality in a warm climate and were provided with all the necessities of life, and therefore had no need of trade with Britain{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=128-129}} (see the [[#JournalPage|manuscript page]]). While such views partly reflected Enlightenment ideas of the [[noble savage]] living in a [[state of nature]], they were contrary to the popular notion in Britain and among Cook's crew members that indigenous people were savages living in societies inferior to British civilisation.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=Thomas xxiii-xxiv, 128-129, 225}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=Salmond 11, 127-128}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Thomas states that Cook's depiction of Aboriginal Australians was an implied critique of Cook's mission to open up trade with new lands.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=128-129}}}}-->

Cook sometimes questioned the idea that contact with Europeans would benefit indigenous people. In 1773 he wrote: "we debauch their Morals already too prone to vice and we introduce among them wants and perhaps diseases which they never before knew and which serves only to disturb that happy tranquility they and their fore Fathers had enjoyed. If any one denies the truth of this assertion let him tell me what the Natives of the whole extent of America have gained by the commerce they have had with Europeans."{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|p=xxvi}}

Whereas his crew saw the cannibalism of the Māori as a sign of their savagery, Cook viewed it as merely a custom that they would discard when they became more united and less prone to internal wars.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=128, 224}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=107, 211-212}}.
}}</ref> He reported that the Polynesian peoples shared a common ancestry, a tradition of long sea voyages, and had developed into different nations over time. According to Thomas, his comments reflect a more historical and less idealised approach to understanding indigenous cultures than was common in this period.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|p=225}}

Cook sought to refute misconceptions about indigenous peoples. His comments on Aboriginal Australians were a rebuttal of [[William Dampier]]'s disparaging account.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|pp=152,159-160}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=114}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Thomas argues that Cook was indirectly responding to accounts by explorer [[William Dampier]], whose descriptions of Aboriginal Australians had led some Europeans to speculate on a supposed close relation to black Africans.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=114}} At the time, apologists for slavery often argued that people of African descent were not of the same species as white Europeans, using such claims to justify the slave trade.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=114}}
}}--> He corrected [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville|Bougainville]]'s implication that  all property on Tahiti was communally owned, noting that fruit trees belonged to individuals.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=203}}  He countered the British belief in the promiscuity of Tahitian women, arguing that while they had a different attitude to sex, married women and many unmarried women did not provide sex for gifts.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=203-204}} Nevertheless, Cook himself sometimes used derogatory terms for indigenous people and made adverse judgements without observing their cultures closely and questioning them on their practices and beliefs.{{Sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=51-53, 247-248}}

==Personal life and character==
[[File:James_Cook_Coat_of_Arms.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|The [[coat of arms]] of James Cook was created after his death, at the request of his widow{{snd}} the only known instance of a posthumously granted coat of arms.{{sfn|"Cook's Coat of Arms". ''Captain Cook Society''}}|alt=A globe of the earth, drawn on a blue shield. Above it, a knight's helmet, and an arm holding a British flag.  Below it, cannons.]]

On 21 December 1762, Cook married [[Elizabeth Batts Cook|Elizabeth Batts]] at [[St Margaret's Church, Barking]], Essex. She was the daughter of Samuel Batts, [[Public house#Inns|keeper]] of the Bell Inn in Wapping and one of Cook's mentors.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robson|2009|pp=120–121}}.
|{{harvnb|"Famous 18th century People in Barking and Dagenham: James Cook and Dick Turpin". ''London Borough of Barking and Dagenham''}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|At time of the marriage, Cook was 34 and Elizabeth was 20.}}--> When not at sea, Cook lived in the [[East End of London]] and attended [[St Paul's Church, Shadwell]].<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=75}}.
}}</ref>

The couple had six children.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|pp=424–426}}.
|{{harvnb|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
}}</ref> Four were born before the first voyage:  James (1763{{nbnd}}1794),  Nathaniel (1764{{nbnd}}1780), Elizabeth (1767{{nbnd}}1771), and Joseph (1768{{nbnd}}1768).  George (1772{{nbnd}}1772) was born before the second voyage, and Hugh (1776{{nbnd}}1793) was born before the third voyage.<!--{{efn|Hugh died of scarlet fever while a student at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]].{{sfn|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}}}}--> Cook has no direct descendants – all of his children died before having children of their own.{{sfn|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}}{{efn|Son Nathaniel was lost aboard {{HMS|Thunderer|1760|6}} which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the [[West Indies]]. Son James was appointed commander of the sloop ''Spitfire'' in January 1794, and died in an open boat incident near the [[Isle of Wight]].{{sfn|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
}}  
 
Six years after Cook's death, his widow petitioned for a [[English heraldry|coat of arms]] to preserve the memory of her late husband and to be placed on monuments and memorials.{{sfn|"Cook's Coat of Arms". ''Captain Cook Society''}} The coat of arms was granted in September 1785 and is the only known example of a posthumously granted coat of arms.{{sfn|Robson|2004|pp=63–64}}<!-- {{
efn|The crest is: On a Wreath of the Colours, An Arm embowed, vested in the Uniform of a Captain of the Royal Navy, in the Hand the Union-Jack on a Staff proper; the Arm encircled by a Wreath of Palm and Laurel.{{sfn|Robson|2004|pp=63–64}} The escutcheon is: Azure, between the two Polar Stars Or, a Sphere on the plane of the Meridian, North Pole elevated, Circles of Latitude for every ten degrees and of Longitude for fifteen, showing the Pacific Ocean between fifty and two hundred and forty West, bounded on one side by America, on the other by Asia and [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], in memory of his having explored and made Discoveries in that Ocean so very far beyond all former Navigators; His Track thereon marked with red Lines.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robson|2004|pp=63–64}}.
|{{harvnb|"Grant of Arms Made to Mrs Cook and to Cook's Descendants in 1785". ''The State Library of New South Wales''}}.
}}</ref> The motto is ''Nil Intentatum Reliquit'' (He left nothing unattempted) and ''Circa Orbem'' (Around the world).{{sfn|Robson|2004|pp=63–64}}}}-->

The historian [[John Beaglehole]] characterises Cook as profoundly competent, a man of action, obedient, patient, persistent, ambitious (but not overly so), and hot tempered when confronted with incompetence or disobedience. Cook did not often confide in fellow officers about his private thoughts or plans; nor did he make major decisions by consensus. Cook was not religious,  mystical, romantic, or dramatic.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=698–699, 706–712}} The anthropologist [[Anne Salmond]], based on the journals of [[Heinrich Zimmermann]], describes Cook as chaste with regard to women, strict, and frugal. He did not swear or get drunk, and did not tolerate priests aboard his ships. He was fearless and calm in times of danger.{{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=424}} Nicholas Thomas writes that Cook could demonstrate self-denial when needed, and he practised celibacy on voyages. He  could sense the mood of his crew, but he could also be obstinate, even when flexibility was called for.{{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=221, 237, 335, 346}}

==Legacy==
===Commemorations===
{{main|List of commemorations of Captain James Cook|List of places named after Captain James Cook}}
[[File:Hyde_Park Captain Cook.JPG|thumb
|alt=A bronze statue of Cook, mounted atop a large granite base
|This [[Statue of James Cook, Hyde Park|statue of Cook]] in [[Hyde Park, Sydney|Hyde Park]], Sydney,  bears an inscription that has been the subject of controversy:  "Discovered this territory, 1770".<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"Statue to Cook at Hyde Park". ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
|{{harvnb|"Australia Debates Captain Cook 'Discovery' Statue" ''BBC''}}.
}}</ref>
]]

Important monuments to Cook include one in the church of [[St Andrew the Great]] in [[Cambridge]], where his wife and two of his sons are buried,{{sfn|"St Andrew the Great Church". ''Captain Cook Society''}} and [[Statue of James Cook, Hyde Park|statues]] of Cook in [[Hyde Park, Sydney|Hyde Park]] in Sydney, and at [[St Kilda, Victoria|St Kilda]] in Melbourne.{{sfn|Sum|2024}} 

The Royal Research Ship [[RRS James Cook|RRS ''James Cook'']] was built in 2006, and serves in the UK's [[Royal Research Ship|Royal Research Fleet]].{{sfn|"RRS James Cook". ''Nautical Environment Research Council''}} [[NASA]] named several spacecraft after Cook's ships.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|"Call Signs". NASA}}.
|{{harvnb|"Space Shuttle Endeavour". NASA}}.
|{{harvnb|"Space Shuttle Discovery". NASA}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|NASA craft named after Cook's ships include the [[Apollo 15]] [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] ''Endeavour'', the {{ship|Space Shuttle|Endeavour||6}}, and the {{ship|Space Shuttle|Discovery||6}}.
}}--> Cook has appeared on many stamps and coins: Over four hundred stamps have been issued in his honour,<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robson|2004|pp=146–147}}.
|{{harvnb|"Stamps". ''Captain Cook Society''}}.
}}</ref> and dozens of coins have been issued with Cook's image.{{sfn|"Coins". ''Captain Cook Society''}}  Many institutions are named after him, including [[James Cook University]] in [[Townsville]], Australia,{{sfn|"About James Cook University". James Cook University}} and [[James Cook University Hospital]], in [[Middlesbrough]], England.{{sfn|"New Name for Hospital"  ''The Northern Echo''}}

Since 1959, an annual reenactment of Cook's 1770 landing has been held near the site of the original event in [[Cooktown]], with the support and participation of many of the local [[Guugu Yimithirr people]].{{sfn|Kim|2020}} The reenactments celebrate an act of [[Reconciliation in Australia|reconciliation]] when a local elder presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, after a conflict over sharing [[green turtle]]s which Cook's men had taken in violation of local custom.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Ward|2020|pp=3-9,13-14,17-18}}.
|{{harvnb|Kim|2020}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=119–122}}.
}}</ref>

In the years surrounding the 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage of exploration, various memorials to Cook in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Hawaii were vandalised,<ref name=CommVandalism>{{Multiref
|News reports describing vandalism of Cook monuments in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Hawaii:
|{{harvnb| "Captain James Cook Statue Defaced in Gisborne". ''The New Zealand Herald''}}.
| {{harvnb|"Capt. James Cook Statue Recovered from Victoria Harbour". ''Times Colonist''}}.
| {{harvnb|"Melbourne Statues of Queen Victoria and Captain Cook Vandalised". ''ABC News Online''}}.
| {{harvnb|Egan-Elliot|2022}}.
|{{harvnb|Dickson |2021 }}.
| {{harvnb|"Investigation Underway: State Probing Vandalism of Captain Cook Monument". ''West Hawaii Today''}}.
}}
</ref> and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their perceived association with British colonialism.<ref name=CommDebate>{{Multiref
|Discussions of commemorations and memorials to Cook in relation to 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage:
|{{harvnb|"Australia Debates Captain Cook 'Discovery' Statue" ''BBC''}}.
|{{harvnb|"250th Anniversary of Captain Cook's Voyage to Australia". ''Australian Government, Office for the Arts''}}.
|{{harvnb|"TUIA 250 Report". ''NZ Ministry of Culture & Heritage''}}.
}}
</ref>

===Ethnographic collections===
{{see also|James Cook Collection: Australian Museum}}
<!-- [[File:H000105- Breast Ornament.jpg|thumb|This breast ornament{{snd}}held at the Australian Museum{{snd}}was collected from the [[Society Islands]] during one of Cook's voyages. The ornament is made of plaited coconut fibre,  pigeon feathers, shark teeth, shell discs, and fringed with dog hair.{{sfn|Thomsett}}]] -->
The largest collection of artefacts from Cook's voyages is the [[Sammlung für Völkerkunde|Cook-Forster Collection]] held at the [[University of Göttingen]] in Germany.{{sfn|Hauser-Schäublin }}<!--{{efn|The collection is managed by the Göttingen Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology. The collection is in Germany because the artefacts originated from the collections of German naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and his son, Georg Forster, who were on Cook's second voyage. [https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster A photo gallery displaying some of the items].}}--> The [[Australian Museum]] in Sydney holds over 250 objects associated with Cook's voyages. The objects are mostly from Polynesia, although there are also artefacts from the Solomon Islands, North America and South America.<ref  name=collect>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Florek |2014}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomsett}}.
}}</ref><!--{{efn|Many of the artefacts in the museum collection were collected during the time of first contact between Europeans and indigenous peoples of the Pacific.{{sfn|Thomsett}}}}-->

Indigenous people have campaigned for the return of indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages.{{sfn|"Shots Fired". ''ABC Radio National''}}<!--{{efn|An example of an artefact that has been the subject of requests for return is the [[Gweagal shield]].{{sfn|Thomas|2018}}}}--> The art historian Alice Proctor argues that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over resistance to colonialist narratives and the [[Indigenous decolonization|decolonisation]] of museums and public spaces.{{sfn|Proctor|2020|pp=243, 255–262}}

===Reputation and influence===

{{seealso|James Cook and indigenous peoples#Perception of Cook by indigenous peoples in the modern era|l1=James Cook and indigenous peoples|Indigenous response to colonialism}}

When news of Cook's death reached Britain and continental Europe, obituaries, poems and tributes emphasised his humble birth, technical skills, leadership qualities, contributions to science and trade, and his concern for the well-being of his crew and indigenous people.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=67-81}}.
|{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=364}}.
}}</ref>   [[William Cowper]] and [[Goethe]] wrote tributes, and there were many theatrical and [[Death of Cook|artistic representations of his death]].{{Sfn|Williams|2008|pp=67-81}}

One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom was erected in 1780 at [[The Vache]] by [[Hugh Palliser]], a friend of Cook.{{sfn|"The Governor and the Navigator". ''Old Royal Naval College Greenwich''}} In 1780 [[Joseph Banks]], now president of the [[Royal Society]],  publicised Cook's legacy, and he had the society mint a commemorative medal.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=14-15,93}} Praise for Cook was almost universal in England, although [[Alexander Dalrymple]] (a rival of Cook for leadership of the first voyage) remarked on the adulation of Cook: "I cannot admit of a Pope in Geography or Navigation".{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=93-94}} There were no notable commemorations in England to mark the centenary of Cook’s death in 1879.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=137}}{{efn|In 1886 the [[Colonial and Indian Exhibition]] contained a collection of Cook memorabilia, included at the request of the government of New South Wales.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=137}}}}

Banks used the fame surrounding Cook's voyages to help promote a new colony in Australia, and in 1788 the [[First Fleet]] arrived in what is now Sydney.{{sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp= 437-440}}{{sfn|Blainey|2020|p=287}} After Britain established colonies in Australia and New Zealand, the colonists began to consider Cook as a founding father.<ref>{{Multiref|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=137-142}}.|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=290,293-294}}.}}</ref> In 1822, the [[Royal Society of New South Wales|Philosophical Society of Australia]] placed a monument at Cook’s supposed landing place in Botany Bay.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=138}}{{efn|Williams notes that "[the Australians] ignored not only [Cook's] Dutch predecessors and the country’s Aboriginal inhabitants but also the awkward fact that Cook himself had never suggested the region as a possible colony".{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=138}} }} The treatment, with overtly heroic overtones, of Cook as a founder continued in the early 1900s when the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] was established.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb| Thomas|2003| pp=411-412 }}.
|{{harvnb|  Williams|2008| pp= 137–142 }}.
|{{harvnb|  Blainey |2020|pp= 290, 293–294}} 
}}</ref>

European visitors to Hawaii in the decades following Cook's death found many Hawaiians carrying fond memories of Cook.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=99-102}} In the 1830s American missionaries in Hawaii discovered that Cook had been worshiped as a kind of deity, and embarked on a campaign to disparage his memory. An early written history of Hawaii was derived from Hawaiian oral histories by missionary [[Sheldon Dibble]]. It portrayed Cook as an idolator and spreader of STDs, and greatly influenced native Hawaiian historians.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=143-149}}{{sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=440-442}}  

The bicentennial of Cook's voyages in the 1970s brought a resurgence of interest and numerous commemorations.{{sfn|Collingridge|2003| pp=442-444}} In the late 20th century increasing attention was given to the perspectives of Indigenous peoples and public discourse began to acknowledge the detrimental impacts of European contact on Indigenous communities.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Robson|2004|p=123}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp= 143-145, 148-153}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004| p=428}}.
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|p=xxxii}}.
|{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=293-294}} 
}}</ref>

In the 21st century Cook is widely regarded as one of the greatest sea explorers.<ref>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=xx, xxv}}.
|{{harvnb|Salmond|2004|p=xxi}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=174-175}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|pp=411-412}}.
}}</ref> His voyages greatly expanded geographical knowledge and paved the way for later British engagement in the Pacific.<ref name=knowledge/> But for many people – particularly indigenous people of the lands he visited – he is a symbol of the adverse consequences of European contact and colonisation.<ref name=symbol/>  Critics, such as the Native Hawaiian scholar [[Haunani-Kay Trask]],  highlight  violent encounters, the spread of infectious diseases, and the claiming of indigenous lands without consent.<ref name=symbol>{{Multiref
|{{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=xxxii-xxxiii}}.
|{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=144–145, 148–150, 170-172}}.
|{{harvnb|Trask|1983|pp=106-113}}.
|{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|pp=414-418}}.
}}</ref>{{efn|
The historian [[Frank McLynn]] analyses Cook's effect on indigenous peoples as an aspect of the "fatal impact" concept originated by journalist [[Alan Moorehead]] in his 1966 book ''The Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840''.{{sfn|McLynn|2011|pp=414-415}}
<br>
The Native Hawaiian scholar [[Haunani-Kay Trask]] writes: "It has often been remarked that Captain Cook brought to Hawaiʻi something the Hawaiians had never before seen. Iron. But that was not all he brought. He brought vermin that would in time infest the environment. And he brought disease that would torture and destroy the people. But he also brought, in himself and the minds of his men, a view of the world that could not co-exist with that of the people who would welcome him as their guest. He brought capitalism, he brought Western political ideas, and he brought Christianity."{{sfn|Trask|1983|p=106}}
}}   The scholars [[Robert Tombs]], Nicholas Thomas, and [[Glyndwr Williams]]{{snd}}while acknowledging the negative impacts of the expeditions{{snd}}contend that Cook should not be held responsible for the consequences of colonialist policies that were initiated after his death.<ref>{{Multiref
| {{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=174-175}}.
| {{harvnb|Thomas|2003|pp=xxxii-xxxiii}}.
| {{harvnb|Tombs |2021}}.
}}</ref>

==References==

===Notes===
{{notelist|colwidth=30em}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
====Books and journals====
{{div col }}
<!--{{sfn|Beaglehole |1966|p=?}} -->
*  {{ cite book
  |  title=The Exploration of the Pacific
 |  last=Beaglehole
  | first=  John
 |author-link= John Beaglehole
 |  isbn=0804703116
 |  url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0804703116
   |access-date= 28 July 2025
 |  year=1966
 | orig-year=1934
 |  publisher=Stanford University Press
 }}  ISBN is of the 1980 printing of the 1966 third edition.

<!--{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
|title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Vol. I: The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771
 |editor-last=Beaglehole
 |editor-first=John
 |editor-link=John Cawte Beaglehole
|contributor-last =Beaglehole
 |contributor-first =John
|contributor-link =John Cawte Beaglehole
|contribution= Introduction and Appendices
|author-last1=Cook
 |author-first1=James
 |author-link1=James Cook
 |year=1968
|via=[[Hakluyt Society]]
|orig-year= 1955
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |oclc=223185477
|url=https://archive.org/details/journalsofcaptai0001jcbe
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}

<!--{{sfn|Beaglehole |1974|p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
|last=Beaglehole
|first=John
 |title=The Life of Captain James Cook
 |author-link=John Beaglehole
 |publisher=Stanford University Press
|year=1974
 |isbn=0804708487
|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofcaptainjam0000unse
|access-date=23 May 2025
}} Some editions are titled ''The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, Vol.&nbsp;IV: The Life of Captain James Cook.''

<!-- {{sfn|Bellin|1764|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |  title=Le Petit Atlas Maritime
  | last=Bellin
  | first=Jacques-Nicolas
 | author-link=Jacques-Nicolas Bellin
 | lccn=01017922
|volume=I North America and Antilles
|page=14
 |url=  https://archive.org/details/rcin.org.pl.WA51_13770_PANB662-r1764_Le-Petit-Atlas-Marit_151148/
 | access-date=30 July 2025
 | year=1764
}}

<!--{{sfn|Betts|2018|p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
   | title = Marine Chronometers at Greenwich: A Catalogue of Marine Chronometers at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich
  | last= Betts
  | first= Jonathan
 |author-link = Jonathan Betts
 |  isbn=9780191511172
  | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xL9EDwAAQBAJ
  | year=2018
  | publisher=OUP Oxford
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Bevis|Cook |1767}} -->
* {{cite journal
|first2=James
|last2=Cook
|first1=John
|last1=Bevis
|author-link1=John Bevis
 |title=An Observation of an Eclipse of the Sun at the Island of New-Found-Land, August 5, 1766, by Mr. James Cook, with the Longitude of the Place of Observation Deduced from It
|date=1 January 1767
 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
|volume=57
 |pages=215–216
|doi=10.1098/rstl.1767.0025
 |url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans04718464
 |doi-access=free
|issn=0261-0523}}

<!--{{sfn|Blainey|2020 |p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Blainey
 |first=Geoffrey
|author-link=Geoffrey Blainey
|title=Captain Cook's Epic Voyage: the Strange Quest for a Missing Continent |publisher=Viking
 |  year=2020
|isbn=9781760895099
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85S2DwAAQBAJ
|access-date=30 May 2025
}}

<!--{{sfn|Cobbe|1979|p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
  |   title=Cook's Voyages and Peoples of the Pacific
  |   last=Cobbe
  |   first=Hugh
  |   isbn=0714115509
  |   url=https://archive.org/details/cooksvoyagespeop00cobb
   | access-date=28 June 2025
  |   year=1979
  |   publisher=Trustees of the British Museum and the British Library Board
}}

* {{cite journal
 |last1=Cock
 |first1=Randolph
|title=Precursors of Cook: The Voyages of the Dolphin, 1764–8
 |journal=The Mariner's Mirror
 |year= 1999
|volume=85
|issue=1
|pages=30–52
|doi=10.1080/00253359.1999.10656726
 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00253359.1999.10656726
 |access-date=3 August 2025
 |issn=0025-3359
|url-access=subscription}}

<!--{{sfn|Collingridge|2003 |p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Collingridge
 |first=Vanessa
|author-link=Vanessa Collingridge
|url=https://archive.org/details/captaincooklifed0000coll/
|title=Captain Cook: The Life, Death and Legacy of History's Greatest Explorer
 |year=2003
|orig-year=2002
 |publisher=Ebury Press
 |isbn= 0091888980
}}

* {{cite journal
|title =The Method Taken for Preserving the Health of the Crew of His Majesty's Ship the Resolution During Her Late Voyage Round the World
|first = James
|last = Cook
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
| year = 1776
|volume=66
|pages=402–406
|doi= 10.1098/rstl.1776.0023
|publisher=Royal Society
| issn=2053-9223
|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1776.0023
|access-date=11 June 2025
|url-access=subscription
}}

<!--{{sfn|Cook|1968|p=?}} -->
* {{cite book
|title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Vol. I: The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771
 |editor-last=Beaglehole
 |editor-first=John
 |editor-link=John Cawte Beaglehole
|author-last=Cook
 |author-first=James
 |author-link=James Cook
 |year=1968
|via=[[Hakluyt Society]]
|orig-year=Composed 1768{{nbnd}}1771; first Beaglehole edition 1955
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |oclc=223185477
|url=https://archive.org/details/journalsofcaptai0001jcbe
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}

<!--{{sfn|David |2009}} -->
* {{cite journal
 |last1=David
|first1=Andrew
|title=James Cook's 1763-4 Survey of Newfoundland's Northern Peninsula Reassessed
 |journal=The Northern Mariner / Le Marin du Nord
 |year=  2009
 |volume=19
|issue=4
|pages=393–403
 |doi=10.25071/2561-5467.322 |url=https://tnm.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/default/article/view/322/304 |access-date=1 August 2025 |language=en |issn=2561-5467}}

<!--{{sfn|Deacon|Deacon |1969}} -->
* {{cite journal
 |last1=Deacon
|first1=G. E. R.
 |last2=Deacon
|first2=Margaret
 |title=Captain Cook as a Navigator
|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
 |date=1969
|volume=24
 |issue=1
 |pages=33–42
|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1969.0005
|issn=0035-9149
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Doherty|2005}} -->
* {{ cite journal
|doi= 10.1212/01.wnl.0000187128.80551.1b
|year=2005
|volume=65
|pages=1788–1791
|journal=Neurology
|first=Michael J.
|last= Doherty
|title=Captain Cook on Poison Fish
|issue=11
|pmid=16344524
|url= https://hab.whoi.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/doherty2005_captaincook.pdf
|access-date= 25 June 2025
|issn=2168-6157
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Fisher|1979}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Fisher
 |first=Robin
|author-link=Robin Fisher (historian)
|title=Captain James Cook and his times
|chapter=Cook and the Nootka
|pages=81–98
 |url=https://archive.org/details/captainjamescook00cong
|access-date=27 May 2025
 |date=1979
 |isbn=0295956542
 |publisher=University of Washington Press
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Forster|1982|p=??}} -->
* {{Cite book
|author-last=Forster
|author-first= Johann Reinhold
|author-link =Johann Reinhold Forster
|editor-last=Hoare
 |editor-first=Michael Edward
|title=The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772–1775
|year=1982
|orig-year=1778
|publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]]
|isbn=1409432548
 |language=en
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hayes |2015|p=?? }}  -->
* {{Cite book
|last=Hayes
|first=Derek
|title=Historical Atlas of Canada
|year=2015
|orig-year=2002
|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre
|isbn=9781771620796
|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000haye_q7l7
|access-date=7 August 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Herdendorf|1986}} -->
*  {{cite journal
  | doi = 10.1080/00223348608572527
  | last = Herdendorf
  | first = Charles
  | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223348608572527
  | access-date=17 June 2025
  | title = Captain James Cook and the Transits of Mercury and Venus
  | journal = Journal of Pacific History
  | issn= 1469-9605
  | volume = 21
  | issue= 1
  | pages = 39–55
  | date=January 1986
  | url-access = subscription
  }}

<!--{{sfn|Herdman|1959}}
* {{cite journal
| title=Early Discoverers XII: Some Notes on Sea Ice Observed By Captain James Cook, R.N., During his Circumnavigation of Antarctica, 1772–75
| volume=3
| doi=10.3189/S0022143000017287
| number=26
| journal=[[Journal of Glaciology]]
| issn=0022-1430
| last=Herdman
|first = H. F. P.
| year=1959
 | pages=534–541
}}
-->
<!--{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|title=Captain James Cook
 |first=Richard
 |last=Hough
|author-link=Richard Hough
 | date=1994
 |publisher=W. W. Norton
|isbn= 0393036804
 |url= https://archive.org/details/captainjamescook00rich
|access-date=30 May 2025
}} First American Edition.

* {{cite book |last1=Howse |first1=Derek |title=Nevil Maskelyne, the Seaman's Astronomer |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=052136261X |url=https://archive.org/details/nevilmaskelynese0000hows/page/86/mode/2up?q=almanac&view=theater |access-date=8 August 2025}}

<!--{{sfn|Igler|2013|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
  |  title=The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush
  |   last=Igler
  | first=David
  | author-link=David Igler
  |  isbn=9780199914951
  | url=https://archive.org/details/greatoceanpacifi0000igle_c8t6
  |   year=2013
  |  publisher=Oxford University Press
}}

<!--{{sfn|Kame'eleihiwa|1994}}
* {{cite journal
 |last=  Kame'eleihiwa
|first=  Lilikala
|author-link =Lilikalā Kameʻeleihiwa
|date=  June 1994
|title = Review of The Apotheosis of Captain Cook by Gananath Obeyesekere
|journal= Pacific Studies
|volume=17
| issue= 2
|pages=111–118
|url=https://archive.org/details/pacificstudiesjun9400poly/page/110/mode/2up
|access-date= 4 July 2025
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Kane|1996}} -->
* {{cite book
| last = Kane
| first = Herb Kawainui
| author-link = Herb Kawainui Kane
| editor = Bob Dye
| chapter = The Manila Galleons
| title = Hawaii Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine
| volume = I
| publisher = [[University of Hawaiʻi Press]]
| year = 1996
| pages = 25–32
| isbn = 0824818296
}}

<!--{{sfn|McLintock|1966|p=>>}} -->
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=McLintock
|first=Alexander Hare
|author-link=Alexander Hare McLintock
 |year=1966
|title=Endeavour
|encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
|editor=A.H. McLintock
|publisher=Ministry for Culture and Heritage/Te Manatū Taonga, Government of New Zealand
 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/ships-famous/page-2
 |access-date=15 July 2025
}}
* {{cite book
|author-link=Frank McLynn
 |last=McLynn
|first=Frank
|date=2011
|title=Captain Cook: Master of the Seas
 |publisher=Yale University Press
 |isbn=9780300114218
|url=https://archive.org/details/captaincookmaste0000mcly_e8a8
|access-date=29 May 2025
}}
* {{cite book
 |title=The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific
 |publisher=Princeton University Press
 |last=Obeyesekere
 |first=Gananath
|url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9789982012584
|access-date=22 May 2025
|author-link=Gananath Obeyesekere
 |year=1997
 |orig-year=1992
 |isbn= 0691057524
}}   A new afterword was added in the 1997 edition (pp.&nbsp;193–250) titled "On De-Sahlinization", which discusses the [[Sahlins–Obeyesekere debate|Sahlins controversy]].

<!-- {{sfn|Paine|2013|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
  |  title= The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World
  |   last = Paine
   |  first= Lincoln
  |  isbn=9780307962256
  |  url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djsi3nve26MC
  |access-date= 28 July 2025
  |  year=2013
  |  publisher=Knopf Doubleday
 }}

<!-- {{sfn|Parkinson|1784}} -->
* {{cite book
|title= A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, in His Majesty's Ship the Endeavour
 |last=Parkinson
|first=Sydney
|author-link=Sydney Parkinson
|year=1784
|publisher= [[Charles Dilly]]
|url=https://archive.org/details/b30452545/page/n7/mode/2up
|access-date=18 July 2025
|oclc=1155411923
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Perrin|1928|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|url=https://archive.org/details/the-naval-miscellany-1928-volume-3/
|access-date=3 July 2025
|title=The Naval Miscellany 1928 Volume 3
|editor-first=William Gordon
|editor-last=Perrin
|year=1928
|oclc= 59415971
|publisher=[[Navy Records Society]]
}} Text of Admiralty's orders to Cook, for all three voyages.

<!-- {{sfn|Proctor|2020|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|last=Proctor
 |first=Alice
|title=The Whole Picture: The Colonial Story of the Art in Our Museums & Why We Need to Talk About It
|publisher=Octopus
|year=2020
 |isbn=9781788402217
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfyvDwAAQBAJ
|access-date=20 June 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Rata|2022}}
* {{cite journal
 | last=Rata
 | first= Arama
 | year=2022
 | title= Dismantling Cook's legacy: Science, migration, and colonialism in Aotearoa
  |journal=New Zealand Science Review
  | volume=76
  | issue=1–2
 |  pages= 54–58
 |   doi= 10.26686/nzsr.v76i1-2.7834
 |  url= https://ojs.victoria.ac.nz/nzsr/article/view/7834
|access-date=2 July 2025
| doi-access=free}}
 -->
* {{cite book
|title=Captain Cook in the Pacific
|first1=Nigel
|last1=Rigby
|last2=van der Merwe
 |first2=Pieter
|date=2002
 |publisher=National Maritime Museum, London
 |isbn=0939154005
|url=https://archive.org/details/captaincookinpac0000rigb
|access-date=29 May 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Robson|2004|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Robson
 |first=John
|date=2004
|title=The Captain Cook Encyclopædia
|publisher=Chatham Publishing
 |isbn= 1861762259
 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5WF-AAAAMAAJ
|access-date=30 May 2025
}}

<!--{{sfn|Robson|2009|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|title=Captain Cook's War and Peace: The Royal Navy Years 1755–1768
 |first=John
|last=Robson
|date=2009
|publisher=University of New South Wales Press
 |isbn=9781591141099
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWKCAwAAQBAJ
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}
* {{cite book |title=Islands of History
 |url=https://archive.org/details/islandsofhistory00sahl
|url-access=registration
 |publisher=University of Chicago Press
|first=Marshall
|last=Sahlins
 |author-link=Marshall David Sahlins
 |date=1985
|isbn=0226733572
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Salmond|1991|p=??}} -->
* {{cite book
 |last=Salmond
|first=Anne
|author-link=Anne Salmond
 |title=Two Worlds: First Meetings Between Māori and Europeans, 1642–1772
|url=https://archive.org/details/twoworldsfirstme0000anne
|access-date=29 May 2025
 |date=1991
 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press
 |isbn=0824817656 
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Salmond|2004|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
  |  title=The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Encounters in the South Seas
  |  last=Salmond
  |  first=Anne
  |   author-link=Anne Salmond
  |   isbn= 0141021330
  |  url=https://archive.org/details/trialofcannibald0000anne
  |  year=2004
  |  orig-year=2003
  |   publisher=Penguin Books
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Samwell|1893|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|  title=Historical Records of New South Wales: Pt.1. Cook, 1762-1780
|   editor-first=Frank
|  editor-last=Bladen
|   url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kIcOAAAAIAAJ
|access-date=2 June 2025
 |  year=1893
|orig-year=1779
|oclc = 37080954
 |  publisher=C. Potter, Government Printer
|last=Samwell
|  first=David
|author-link=David Samwell
|pages=450–478
|chapter=An Account of Cook's Death (Some Account of a Voyage to South Seas in 1776, 1777, 1778 Written by David Samwell, Surgeon of the Discovery)
}}  The original journal of David Samwell, written during the third voyage.

<!-- {{sfn|Samwell|1786|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|publisher=Hawaiian Historical Society
|author-link=David Samwell
|last=Samwell
 |first=David
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USMOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76
 |title=Hawaiian Historical Society Reprints
 |editor-last=Cartwright
 |editor-first=Bruce
|chapter=A Narrative of the Death of Captain Cook
|pages=5–21
|access-date=9 November 2015
 |year=1786
|oclc=642588451
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518181233/https://books.google.com/books?id=USMOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76
 |archive-date=18 May 2016
|url-status=live
}} Book about the third voyage, written several years after the expedition.

<!-- {{sfn|Skelton|1954|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite journal
 |  last=Skelton
 |  first= R. A. (Peter)
 |  title = Captain James Cook as a Hydrographer (The Society's Annual Lecture)
 |  journal = The Mariner's Mirror
 |  volume = 40
 |  number = 2
 |  pages = 91–119
 |  year = 1954
 |  publisher = Routledge
 |  issn = 0025-3359
 |  doi = 10.1080/00253359.1954.10658197
 | url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/00253359.1954.10658197
 | access-date=20 July 2025
 |  url-access = subscription
 }} Paper was originally sponsored and published by the [[Hakluyt Society]].

<!-- {{sfn|Sobel|2011 |pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
|last1=Sobel
|first1=Dava
|author-link1=Dava Sobel
 |title=Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time
|year=2011
|orig-year=1995
|publisher=Harper Perennial
|isbn=9780007214228
|url=https://archive.org/details/longitudetruesto0000sobe_g5j6
|access-date=20 July 2025
}}

<!-- * {{cite book
 |author=Sparks
|first=Jared
|author-link=Jared Sparks
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftw5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA136
 |title=Life of John Ledyard, American Traveller
|publisher=Charles C. Little and James Brown
 |year=1847
 |access-date=12 February 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414030149/https://books.google.com/books?id=ftw5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA136 |archive-date=14 April 2021
 |url-status=live
}}
 -->
<!-- {{sfn|Stubbs|2003|pp=??}} -->
*  {{ cite journal
   | journal= Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition
   | year= 2003
   |  volume =12
   |   issue=2
   |  pages= 129–137
  |  title =Captain Cook's Beer: The Antiscorbutic Use of Malt and Beer in Late 18th Century Sea Voyages
  |  first= Brett
   |  last= Stubbs
 | pmid =12810402
|issn= 0964-7058
 }}

<!-- {{sfn|Thomas|2003|pp=??}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |url=https://archive.org/details/cookextraordinar0000thom_b8f2
|access-date=3 June 2025
|last=Thomas
|first=Nicholas
|author-link=Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)
|year=2003
|title=Cook: The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook
|publisher=Walker & Co.
 |isbn=0802777112
}} UK edition is titled ''Discoveries: The Voyages of Captain Cook''.
<!-- {{sfn|Thomas|2018}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Thomas
|first=Nicholas
|author-link=Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)
|date=2018
|title=A Case of Identity: The Artifacts of the 1770 Kamay (Botany Bay) Encounter
|url=
|journal=Australian Historical Studies
|volume=49
|issue=1
 |pages=4–27
|issn=1031-461X
|doi=10.1080/1031461X.2017.1414862
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Trask|1983|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite journal
|last= Trask
|first= Haunani-Kay
|author-link = Haunani-Kay Trask
|date= 1983
|title = Cultures in Collision: Hawai'i and England, 1778
|journal= Pacific Studies
|issn=0275-3596
|volume=7
 |pages=91–117
|url=https://lir.byuh.edu/index.php/pacific/article/download/2195/2120
|access-date=3 August 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Ward|2020|pp=??}} -->
* {{Cite journal
  |last=Ward
  |first=Charlotte
  |date=2020
  |title=Reconciling His History: How Revisiting the Memory of Cook's Visit Facilitated a Process of Reconciliation within the Cooktown Community from 1998 to 2019
  |journal=Aboriginal History
  |volume=44
  |pages=3–20
  |doi=10.22459/AH.44.2020.01
 |doi-access=free
 |jstor=27018597
 |issn=0314-8769
|hdl=1885/237940
  |hdl-access=free
  }}

<!-- {{sfn|van Duivenvoorde|2015|pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
| title=Dutch East India Company Shipbuilding: The Archaeological Study of Batavia and Other Seventeenth-Century VOC Ships
| author=van Duivenvoorde
| first= Wendy
| isbn=9781623491796
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhFDDQAAQBAJ
| access-date=26 May 2025
| year=2015
| publisher=Texas A&M University Press
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=??}} -->
* {{Cite book
 |url=https://archive.org/details/deathofcaptainco0000will
|access-date=3 June 2025
|last=Williams
|first= Glyndwr
|author-link= Glyndwr Williams
|year=2008
|title=The Death of Captain Cook: A Hero Made and Unmade
|publisher=Harvard University Press
 |isbn=9780674031944
}}
{{div col end}}

====Websites and newspapers====
{{div col}}

<!-- {{sfn|Clark|2017}} -->
* {{cite web
|first = Gregory
|last = Clark
 |year = 2017
 |url = https://measuringworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/
 |title = The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)
 |work = [[MeasuringWorth]]
|access-date= 7 May 2024
}} All inflation computations used in this article are based on this resource.

<!-- {{sfn|Cook|1770}}
* {{cite web
 |url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html
 |year=1770
 |last=Cook
 |first=James
 |author-link=James Cook
 |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 22 April 1770
 |access-date=21 September 2011
 |archive-date=27 September 2011
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927080037/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html
 |url-status=live
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Cook|1777a}} -->
* {{cite map
| title=Chart of the Discoveries Made in the South Atlantic Ocean, in His Majestys Ship Resolution, Under the Command of Captain Cook, in January 1775
|first=James
|last=Cook
|author-link=James Cook
|publisher=W. Strahan and T. Cadel
|year =1777a
|url=https://archive.org/details/dr_chart-of-the-discoveries-made-in-the-south-atlantic-ocean-in-his-majestys-00874130
|access-date=2025-07-05
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Cork|2023}} 
* {{cite web
|url=https://australian.museum/learn/cultures/pacific-collection/hawaiian-feather-cape-presented-to-captain-cook-1778/
|access-date=28 June 2025
|publisher=Australian Museum
|last=Cork
|first=Jen
|year=2023
|title=Hawaiian Feather Cape Presented to Captain Cook, 1778
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|Cust|1887}} -->
* {{cite DNB
|wstitle= Cleveley, John
|volume= 11
|last= Cust
|first= Lionel
|author-link= Lionel Cust
|page= 53
|year= 1887
|short=1
}}

<!-- {{sfn|David|2008}} -->
* {{cite ODNB
|last=David
|first= Andrew C. F.
|title=Furneaux, Tobias (1735–1781)
|url= https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-10250
|access-date=15 May 2025
|date= 3 January 2008
|doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/10250
|isbn= 978-0-19-861412-8
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Dickson |2021 }} -->
* {{cite news
|last=Dickson
|first=Courtney
 |date=2 July 2021 |title=Protesters Toss Statue of Explorer James Cook into Victoria Harbour; Totem Pole Later Burned
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/victoria-captain-cook-statue-vandalized-1.6088828
|url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703024735/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/victoria-captain-cook-statue-vandalized-1.6088828
|archive-date=3 July 2021
|access-date=3 July 2021
|publisher=[[CBC News]]
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Douglas|1768}} -->
* {{ cite web
|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-222969577/view?partId=nla.obj-223065342
|last=Douglas
|first=James (Earl of Morton)
|author-link=James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton
|year=1768
|title=Hints Offered to the Consideration of Captain Cooke, Mr. Bankes, Doctor Solander and Others
|website=National Library of Australia
|access-date=26 July 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Druett|2017}} -->
* {{Cite web
 |title=Tupaia's Painting of Joseph Banks
 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/46863/tupaias-painting-of-joseph-banks
|access-date=18 January 2024
|website=Dictionary of New Zealand Biography
|publisher=Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
|first=Joan
|last=Druett
|author-link=Joan Druett
|year=2017
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Egan-Elliot|2022}} -->
* {{cite news
|last=Egan-Elliot
 |first=Roxanne
|date=3 Feb 2022
|title=Capt. Cook Won't be Back as Inner Harbour Statue
|url=https://www.pressreader.com/canada/times-colonist/20220203/282089165173080
|access-date=30 May 2025
|newspaper=Victoria Times Colonist
|issn=0839-427X
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Florek |2014}} -->
* {{Cite web
 |last=Florek
|first=Stan
|date=29 October 2014
|title=Our Global Neighbours: Curious Cook Clubs
 |url=https://australian.museum/blog-archive/science/our-global-neighbours-curious-cook-clubs/
|access-date=4 July 2025
 |website=Australian Museum
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Gilbert|1967}} -->
* {{cite web
 |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677
 |title=Solander, Daniel (1733–1782)
|website=Australian Dictionary of Biography
 |publisher= National Centre of Biography at the Australian National University
|first=L. A.
 |last=Gilbert
|year=1967
|access-date=22 September 2011
|archive-date=19 September 2011
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919080043/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677
|url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Hauser-Schäublin }} -->
* {{Cite web
 |ref={{sfnRef|Hauser-Schäublin }}
 |last1=Hauser-Schäublin
 |first1=Brigitta
 |last2=Krüger
|first2=Gundolf
|title=Cook-Forster Collection: Pacific Cultural Heritage
|url=https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster/background/the_collection
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612021052/https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster/background/the_collection
|archive-date=12 June 2024
|access-date=5 April 2025
|website=National Museum of Australia
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Katz|2019}} -->
* {{cite magazine
|title=British Government 'Expresses Regret' for Māori Killed After James Cook's Arrival in New Zealand
|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/british-government-expresses-regret-maori-killed-after-james-cooks-arrival-new-zealand-180973270/
|website=Smithsonian Magazine
|issn=0037-7333
|date=3 October 2019
|first=Brigit
|last= Katz
|access-date=29 May 2025
}} 

<!-- {{sfn|Kim|2020}} -->
* {{cite web
|last1=Kim
 |first1=Sharnie 
 |date=19 June 2020
 |title=Cooktown's Indigenous People Help Commemorate 250 Years Since Captain Cook's Landing with Re-enactment
 |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-19/cooktown-indigenous-commemorate-captain-cook-250th-anniversary/12363526
 |url-status=live
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706200313/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-19/cooktown-indigenous-commemorate-captain-cook-250th-anniversary/12363526
|archive-date=6 July 2020
|access-date=6 July 2020
|publisher=ABC News
}}
 
<!-- {{sfn|Shaw|1966}}
* {{ cite web
 | url = https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/bligh-william-1797
 | access-date = 7 August 2025
 | first = A. G. L.
 | last= Shaw
 | author-link =A. G. L. Shaw
 | title=Bligh, William (1754–1817)
 | website=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]]
 | publisher= National Centre of Biography at the Australian National University
 | year= 1966
 | pages= 118–122
}}
 -->
<!-- {{sfn|Sum|2024}} -->
* {{cite news
|last1=Sum
|first1=Eliza
  |date=25 January 2024 |title=Second Statue Targeted After Vandals Hack Off Captain Cook Sculpture on Eve of Australia Day
|url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/victoria/captain-cook-statue-sawn-off-in-pre-australia-day-attack-20240125-p5ezw4.html
|access-date=25 January 2024
|work=Sydney Morning Herald
|issn=0312-6315
|archive-date=25 January 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125001101/https://www.smh.com.au/national/victoria/captain-cook-statue-sawn-off-in-pre-australia-day-attack-20240125-p5ezw4.html
 |url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Sutherland|2019}} -->
* {{cite web
|title=Book review: Cook's Ark: The Animals that Sailed with James Cook
|year=2019
|last=Sutherland
|first=Alison
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/remembering-cook/books/book-reviews/cook-s-ark-the-animals-that-sailed-with-james-cook-alison-sutherland-2019
|website= Captain Cook Society
|access-date=15 June 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Thomsett}} -->
* {{cite web
|last=Thomsett
 |first=Sue
|title=Cook Collection, History of Acquisition
 |url=http://collections.australianmuseum.net.au/amweb/pages/am/NarrativeDisplay.php?irn=35&QueryPage=./NarrativeQuery.php
|work=Electronic Museum Narrative
 |publisher=Australian Museum
|access-date=9 November 2021
 |archive-date=18 February 2013
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218090450/http://collections.australianmuseum.net.au/amweb/pages/am/NarrativeDisplay.php?irn=35&QueryPage=.%2FNarrativeQuery.php
 |url-status=dead
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Tombs |2021}} -->
* {{cite news
|last=Tombs
|first=Robert
 |author-link=Robert Tombs
 |date=4 February 2021
|title=Captain Cook Wasn't a 'Genocidal' Villain. He Was a True Enlightenment Man
|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/2021/02/04/captain-cook-wasnt-genocidal-villain-true-enlightenment-man/
|url-access=subscription
 |url-status=live
|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/2021/02/04/captain-cook-wasnt-genocidal-villain-true-enlightenment-man/
 |archive-date=10 January 2022
|access-date=9 December 2021
|work=[[The Daily Telegraph#Website|The Telegraph]]
 |issn=0307-1235
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Whiteley|1975}} -->
* {{cite web
 |url=https://dai.mun.ca/PDFs/cns/JamesCookInNewfoundland1762_1767.pdf
 |title=James Cook in Newfoundland 1762–1767
 |first=William
 |last=Whiteley
 |year=1975
 |page = 11
 |access-date=12 July 2025
 |work=Newfoundland Historical Society Pamphlet Number 3
}}

<!-- {{sfn|Williams|2011}} -->
* {{cite web
|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/captaincook_01.shtml
 |title=Captain Cook: Explorer, Navigator and Pioneer
|first=Glyndwr
|last=Williams
|author-link=Glyndwr Williams
|date=17 February 2011
 |access-date=5 September 2011
|publisher=BBC
|archive-date=19 August 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819202628/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/captaincook_01.shtml
 |url-status=live
}}

{{div col end}}

====Websites and newspapers (author unknown)====
{{div col}}

<!-- {{sfn|"23 August, 1770 - They Live in a Tranqulity". National Library of New Zealand}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"23 August, 1770 - They Live in a Tranqulity". National Library of New Zealand}}
|title=23 August, 1770 - 'They Live in a Tranqulity Which Is Not Disturb'd'
|website=Journal of the Voyage of the Endeavour
|publisher=National Library of New Zealand
|url=https://www.library.gov.au/learn/digital-classroom/indigenous-responses-cook-and-his-voyage/james-cooks-endeavour-journal#heading-11756
|access-date=2 August 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"250th Anniversary of Captain Cook's Voyage to Australia". ''Australian Government, Office for the Arts''}} -->
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"250th Anniversary of Captain Cook's Voyage to Australia". ''Australian Government, Office for the Arts'' }}
|title=250th Anniversary of Captain Cook's Voyage to Australia
|url=https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/cultural-heritage/250th-anniversary-captain-cooks-voyage-australia
|access-date=15 March 2021
|website=Australian Government, Office for the Arts
|archive-date=8 March 2021
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308172046/https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/cultural-heritage/250th-anniversary-captain-cooks-voyage-australia
|url-status=dead
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"A General Chart of the Island of Newfoundland with the Rocks & Soundings". ''Royal Museums Greenwich''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"A General Chart of the Island of Newfoundland with the Rocks & Soundings". ''Royal Museums Greenwich''}}
|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-540569
|access-date=28 June 2025
|year=1775
|website=Royal Museums Greenwich
|title=A General Chart of the Island of Newfoundland with the Rocks & Soundings...
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"A Native of Otaheite" ''Museum of New Zealand''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"A Native of Otaheite" ''Museum of New Zealand''}}
|url=https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/object/1495056
|access-date=20 August 2025
|title=A Native of Otaheite, in the Dress of His Country
|website=Museum of New Zealand
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"[A] View of Maitavie Bay, [in the Island of] Otaheite [Tahiti]". ''Royal Museums Greenwich''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"[A] View of Maitavie Bay, [in the Island of] Otaheite [Tahiti]". ''Royal Museums Greenwich''}}
|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-13410
|access-date=28 June 2025
|website=Royal Museums Greenwich
|title=[A] View of Maitavie Bay, [in the Island of] Otaheite [Tahiti]
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"A View of the Habitations in Nootka Sound". ''Library of Congress''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"A View of the Habitations in Nootka Sound". ''Library of Congress''}}
|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90716766/
|website= Library of Congress
|access-date=14 July 2025
|title=A View of the Habitations in Nootka Sound / Webber del. ; Birrell sc.
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"About James Cook University". James Cook University}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"About James Cook University". James Cook University}}
|url=http://www.jcu.edu.au/about
|title=About James Cook University
|publisher=James Cook University
|year=2011
|access-date=7 January 2014
 |archive-date=20 December 2013
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220112811/http://www.jcu.edu.au/about/
 |url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"April – June, 1768" ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"April – June, 1768" ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url = https://www.captaincooksociety.com/cooks-voyages/first-pacific-voyage/april-june-1768
|access-date=25 May 2025
|title=April – June, 1768
|year=2018
|website=Captain Cook Society
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Australia Debates Captain Cook 'Discovery' Statue" ''BBC''}} -->
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Australia Debates Captain Cook 'Discovery' Statue" ''BBC''}}
|date=23 August 2017
|title=Australia Debates Captain Cook 'Discovery' Statue
|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-41020363
 |url-status=live
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414030114/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-41020363
 |archive-date=14 April 2021
 |access-date=15 March 2021
 |website=BBC News
|issn=0263-550X
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Biography: William Bligh". ''Royal Naval Museum at Portsmouth''}}
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Biography: William Bligh". ''Royal Naval Museum at Portsmouth''}}
|url=http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_william_bligh.htm
 |title=Biography: William Bligh
|website=Royal Naval Museum at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard
 |year=2011
|access-date=7 August 2011
 |archive-date=9 December 2013
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209022850/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_william_bligh.htm
|url-status=dead
}}
 -->
<!-- {{sfn|"Call Signs". NASA}}  -->
* {{cite web
 |ref={{sfnRef|"Call Signs". NASA}}
 |title=Call Signs
 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-17_Call_Signs.htm
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228032512/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-17_Call_Signs.htm
 |archive-date=28 February 2020
 |access-date=21 May 2011
 |publisher=[[NASA]]
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Captain Cook's Third voyage (Jul 1776 – Oct 1780)". ''Museum of New Zealand''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Captain Cook's Third voyage (Jul 1776 – Oct 1780)". ''Museum of New Zealand''}}
|url=https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/910
|title=Captain Cook's Third voyage (Jul 1776 – Oct 1780)
|website=Museum of New Zealand
|access-date=28 May 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Captain James Cook Statue Defaced in Gisborne". ''The New Zealand Herald''}} -->
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Captain James Cook Statue Defaced in Gisborne". ''The New Zealand Herald'' }}
|date=13 June 2020
|title=Captain James Cook Statue Defaced in Gisborne
 |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/captain-james-cook-statue-defaced-in-gisborne/RH3B2TD2CNMR6D2AP3QWSBX2F4/
 |url-status=live
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309004905/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/captain-james-cook-statue-defaced-in-gisborne/RH3B2TD2CNMR6D2AP3QWSBX2F4/
|archive-date=9 March 2021
|access-date=16 March 2021
 |website=[[The New Zealand Herald]]
|issn=0112-8787
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Capt. James Cook Statue Recovered from Victoria Harbour". ''Times Colonist''}} -->
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Capt. James Cook Statue Recovered from Victoria Harbour". ''Times Colonist''}}
 |date=3 July 2021
 |title=Capt. James Cook Statue Recovered from Victoria Harbour; What's Next is Undecided
|url=https://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/capt-james-cook-statue-recovered-from-victoria-harbour-what-s-next-is-undecided-1.24337872
 |url-status=live
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703145332/https://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/capt-james-cook-statue-recovered-from-victoria-harbour-what-s-next-is-undecided-1.24337872 |archive-date=3 July 2021
 |access-date=4 July 2021
|website=Times Colonist
|issn=0839-427X
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Coins". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"Coins". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/remembering-cook/collectables/coins
|access-date=12 June 2025
|website=Captain Cook Society
|title=Coins
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Cook's Coat of Arms". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Cook's Coat of Arms". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/cooks-life/captain-cook-personally/cook-s-coat-of-arms
|access-date=29 January 2023
|website= Captain Cook Society
 |title=Cook's Coat of Arms
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630202740/https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/cook-s-coat-of-arms
 |archive-date=30 June 2022
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Famous 18th century People in Barking and Dagenham: James Cook and Dick Turpin". ''London Borough of Barking and Dagenham''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Famous 18th century People in Barking and Dagenham: James Cook and Dick Turpin". ''London Borough of Barking and Dagenham''}}
|url=http://www.lbbd.gov.uk/MuseumsAndHeritage/LocalHistoryResources/Documents/Infosheet22JamesCookDickTurpin.pdf
|title=Famous 18th Century People in Barking and Dagenham: James Cook and Dick Turpin
 |website=London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
|access-date=5 March 2013
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605124552/http://www.lbbd.gov.uk/MuseumsAndHeritage/LocalHistoryResources/Documents/Infosheet22JamesCookDickTurpin.pdf
|archive-date=5 June 2012
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Grant of Arms Made to Mrs Cook and to Cook's Descendants in 1785". ''The State Library of New South Wales''}}
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Grant of Arms Made to Mrs Cook and to Cook's Descendants in 1785". ''The State Library of New South Wales''}}
|website=The State Library of New South Wales
|url=https://collection.sl.nsw.gov.au/record/n88ElePn
 |access-date=29 January 2023
|title=Grant of Arms Made to Mrs Cook and to Cook's Descendants in 1785
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129163800/https://collection.sl.nsw.gov.au/record/n88ElePn
 |archive-date=29 January 2023
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|"Investigation Underway: State Probing Vandalism of Captain Cook Monument". ''West Hawaii Today''}} -->
* {{Cite news
|ref={{sfnRef|"Investigation Underway: State Probing Vandalism of Captain Cook Monument". ''West Hawaii Today''}}
|date=4 January 2022
|title=Investigation Underway: State Probing Vandalism of Captain Cook Monument
 |url=https://www.westhawaiitoday.com/2022/01/04/hawaii-news/investigation-underway-state-probing-vandalism-of-captain-cook-monument/
|access-date=20 June 2022
 |work=West Hawaii Today
|issn=0744-4591
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Linguistic Evidence/Oral Traditions". PBS}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Linguistic Evidence/Oral Traditions". PBS}}
|url=https://www.pbs.org/wayfinders/polynesian4.html
|title = Linguistic Evidence/Oral Traditions
|website= Wayfinders: A Pacific Odyssey
|publisher=PBS
|access-date=28 May 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Melbourne Statues of Queen Victoria and Captain Cook Vandalised". ''ABC News Online''}} -->
* {{cite news
|ref={{sfnRef|"Melbourne Statues of Queen Victoria and Captain Cook Vandalised". ''ABC News Online''}}
 |date=25 January 2024
 |title=Melbourne Statues of Queen Victoria and Captain Cook Vandalised on Australia Day Eve
|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-25/melbourne-captain-cook-queen-victoria-statues-vandalised/103386996
|url-status=live
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125000119/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-25/melbourne-captain-cook-queen-victoria-statues-vandalised/103386996
 |archive-date=25 January 2024
|access-date=25 January 2024
 |work=[[ABC News Online]]
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Monument to Captain Cook Approximately 70 metres to North of the Vache". ''Nautical Environment Research Council''}}
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"Monument to Captain Cook Approximately 70 metres to North of the Vache". ''Nautical Environment Research Council''}}
|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1124987?section=official-list-entry
|website=Historic England
|title= Monument to Captain Cook Approximately 70 metres to North of the Vache
|access-date=28 May 2025
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|"Monument to Cook at The Vache". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Monument to Cook at The Vache". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/remembering-cook/memorials/types-of-cook-memorials/monument-to-cook-at-the-vache-chalfont-st-giles-buckinghamshire-uk
|title=Monument to Cook at The Vache, Chalfont St Giles, Buckinghamshire, UK
|access-date=30 May 2025
|website=Captain Cook Society
}}
-->
<!-- {{sfn|"Muster for HMS ''Resolution'' during the third Pacific voyage, 1776–1780". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Muster for HMS ''Resolution'' during the third Pacific voyage, 1776–1780". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|title=Muster for HMS Resolution during the third Pacific voyage, 1776–1780
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/Portals/ccs/Files/Documents/Musters/3resolution3muster1.pdf
 |website=Captain Cook Society
 |access-date=3 August 2025
|page=20
|date=15 October 2012
}}

<!--  {{sfn|"New Name for Hospital"  ''The Northern Echo''}}  -->
*  {{cite news
|ref={{sfnRef|"New Name for Hospital"  ''The Northern Echo''}}
|newspaper= [[The Northern Echo]]
| issn=2049-5668
|url=  https://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/7112945.new-name-hospital/
|access-date= 8 October 2025
| title= New Name for Hospital
| date= 10 April 2001
}}
<!-- {{sfn|"Parkinson, Sydney, 1745-1771: The Head of a Chief of New Zealand". ''National Library of New Zealand''}}
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Parkinson, Sydney, 1745-1771: The Head of a Chief of New Zealand". ''National Library of New Zealand''}}
|title=Parkinson, Sydney, 1745-1771: The Head of a Chief of New Zealand, the Face Curiously Tataow'd, or Marked According to Their Manner. S. Parkinson del. T. Chambers sc. London, 1784. Plate XVI.
|website=National Library of New Zealand
|url=https://natlib.govt.nz/records/22753134
|access-date=2 August 2025
}}
 -->
<!-- {{sfn|"Plaque to Cook at Kaawaloa". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Plaque to Cook at Kaawaloa". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/remembering-cook/memorials/types-of-cook-memorials/plaque-to-cook-at-kaawaloa-kealakekua-bay-hawaii-hawaiian-islands-usa
|access-date=28 June 2025
|title=Plaque to Cook at Kaawaloa, Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii
|website=Captain Cook Society
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Representation of a war canoe" ''National Library of New Zealand''}}  -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Representation of a war canoe" ''National Library of New Zealand''}}
|url=https://natlib.govt.nz/records/22861896
|access-date=20 August 2025
|title=Representation of a War Canoe of New Zealand, with a View of Gable End Foreland
|website=National Library of New Zealand
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"RRS James Cook". ''Nautical Environment Research Council''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"RRS James Cook". ''Nautical Environment Research Council''}}
 |url=http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/sites/facilities/marine/jamescook.asp
 |title=RRS James Cook
 |website=Nautical Environment Research Council
|year=2011
|access-date=5 March 2013
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703104025/http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/sites/facilities/marine/jamescook.asp
|archive-date=3 July 2012
 |url-status=dead
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Shots Fired". ''ABC Radio National''}} -->
* {{cite web |date=13 November 2020
 |ref={{sfnRef|"Shots Fired". ''ABC Radio National''}}
 |title=Shots Fired
|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/stuff-the-british-stole/shots-fired/12868096
|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307042709/https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/stuff-the-british-stole/shots-fired/12868096
 |archive-date=7 March 2021
 |access-date=12 March 2021
 |website=ABC Radio National
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Sir Joseph Banks". ''BBC''}} -->
* {{ cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Sir Joseph Banks". ''BBC''}}
 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/banks_sir_joseph.shtml
|title=Sir Joseph Banks
 |website=BBC
|year=2011
 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=25 January 2012
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125072305/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/banks_sir_joseph.shtml
 |url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Secret Instructions to Captain Cook". ''Museum of Australian Democracy''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"Secret Instructions to Captain Cook". ''Museum of Australian Democracy''}}
|title=Secret Instructions to Captain Cook, 30 June 1768
|website=[[Museum of Australian Democracy]]
 |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf
|access-date=3 September 2011
 |archive-date=27 April 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427203030/https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf
 |url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Space Shuttle Discovery". NASA}}  -->
* {{cite web
 |ref={{sfnRef|"Space Shuttle Discovery". NASA}}
 |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Discovery.html
 |website=John F. Kennedy Space Center
|title=Space Shuttle Discovery
 |publisher=NASA
|access-date=21 May 2011
|url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610033909/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Discovery.html
 |archive-date=10 June 2011
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Space Shuttle Endeavour". NASA}}  -->
* {{cite web
 |ref={{sfnRef|"Space Shuttle Endeavour". NASA}}
 |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Endeavour.html
 |website=John F. Kennedy Space Center
 |title=Space Shuttle Endeavour
|publisher=NASA
 |access-date=21 May 2011
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521101826/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/endeavour.html
 |archive-date=21 May 2011}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Stamps". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"Stamps". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/remembering-cook/collectables/stamps
|access-date=12 June 2025
|website=Captain Cook Society
|title=Stamps
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"Statue to Cook at Hyde Park". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"Statue to Cook at Hyde Park". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/remembering-cook/memorials/types-of-cook-memorials/statue-to-cook-at-hyde-park-sydney-nsw-australia
|access-date=28 June 2025
|title=Statue to Cook at Hyde Park, Sydney, NSW, Australia
|website=Captain Cook Society
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"St Andrew the Great Church". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"St Andrew the Great Church". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|title=St Andrew the Great Church, Cambridge
|url=http://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/st-andrew-the-great-church-cambridge
|website=Captain Cook Society
|access-date=13 August 2017
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations". ''Natural History Museum''}} -->
* {{cite web
 |ref={{sfnRef|"The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations". ''Natural History Museum''}}
 |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/about2.dsml
 |title=The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations at the Natural History Museum
 |website=Natural History Museum
 |year=2011
 |access-date=8 August 2011
 |archive-date=5 July 2011
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705011718/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/about2.dsml
 |url-status=live
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"The Family of Captain James Cook". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/cooks-life/captain-cook-personally/the-family-of-captain-james-cook
|access-date=1 June 2025
|title=The Family of Captain James Cook
|website=Captain Cook Society
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"The First Voyage (1768–1771)". ''Captain Cook Society''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref= {{sfnRef|"The First Voyage (1768–1771)". ''Captain Cook Society''}}
 |url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/the-first-voyage-1768-1771
|title=The First Voyage (1768–1771)
|website=Captain Cook Society
 |access-date=24 July 2019
|archive-date=3 April 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403121441/https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/the-first-voyage-1768-1771
|url-status=live}}

<!-- {{sfn|"The Governor and the Navigator". ''Old Royal Naval College Greenwich''}} -->
* {{cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"The Governor and the Navigator". ''Old Royal Naval College Greenwich''}}
|url=https://ornc.org/news/palliser-and-cook/
|title=The Governor and the Navigator: Connecting Sir Hugh Palliser and Captain James Cook
|website=Old Royal Naval College Greenwich
|access-date=28 May 2025
}}

<!-- {{sfn|"TUIA 250 Report". ''NZ Ministry of Culture & Heritage''}} -->
* {{Cite web
|ref={{sfnRef|"TUIA 250 Report". ''NZ Ministry of Culture & Heritage''}}
|title=TUIA 250 Report
|website=NZ Ministry of Culture & Heritage
 |url=https://www.mch.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2023-12/TUIA_250_Report_English_Digital.pdf
 |access-date=18 July 2025
}}

{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
{{div col}}
* {{cite book
| ref=none
|title= The Charts and Coastal Views of Captain Cook's Voyages Volume One: The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771
|editor1-first=David
|editor1-last=Andrew
|editor2-first=Rüdiger
|editor2-last=Joppien
|editor3-first=Bernard
|editor3-last=Smith
|editor3-link=Bernard Smith (art historian)
|isbn=0904180239
|year=1988
|publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]]
}}

* {{cite book
| ref=none
|title= The Charts & Coastal Views of Captain Cook's Voyages, Volume Two: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775
|editor1-first=David
|editor1-last=Andrew
|editor2-first=Rüdiger
|editor2-last=Joppien
|editor3-first=Bernard
|editor3-last=Smith
|editor3-link=Bernard Smith (art historian)
|isbn=090418031X
|year=1992
|publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]]
}}

* {{cite book
|ref=none
|title= The Charts and Coastal Views of Captain Cook's Voyages. Volume Three: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780
|editor1-first=David
|editor1-last=Andrew
|editor2-first=Rüdiger
|editor2-last=Joppien
|editor3-first=Bernard
|editor3-last=Smith
|editor3-link=Bernard Smith (art historian)
|isbn=0904180557
|year=1997
|publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]]
}}

* {{Cite book
| ref=CITEREFHawkesworth
 |editor-last=Hawkesworth
 |editor-first=John
 |editor-link=John Hawkesworth (book editor)

 |last1=Byron
|first1=John
|author-link1=John Byron

|last2=Wallis
|first2=Samuel
 |author-link2=Samuel Wallis

 |last3=Carteret
 |first3=Philip
|author-link3=Philip Carteret

 |last4=Cook
 |first4=James
 |author-link4=James Cook

 |last5=Banks
|first5=Joseph
 |author-link5=Joseph Banks

|date=1773
 |title=An Account of the Voyages Undertaken by the Order of his Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and Successively Performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret, and Captain Cook, in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour: Drawn Up from the Journals Which Were Kept by the Several Commanders, and from the Papers of Joseph Banks, Esq.
|title-link=An Account of the Voyages
 |publisher= W. Strahan and T. Cadell
 |oclc=9299044
}} [http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/hv01/contents.html Volume I]; [http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/hv23/contents.html Volume II–III].

<!-- {{sfn|Cook|1777}} -->
* {{Cite book
<!-- | ref=none  THIS BOOK is linked to via a CITEREF, but not used as a source -->
|last=Cook
|first=James
|title= A Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round the World
 |publisher=[[William Strahan (publisher)|Strahan]] and [[Thomas Cadell (publisher)|Cadell]]
 |year=1777
}} Description of the second voyage. Two volumes: [https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_a-voyage-towards-the-sou_cook-james-the-circumn_1777_1 Volume 1], [https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_a-voyage-towards-the-sou_cook-james-the-circumn_1777_2 Volume 2]

* {{cite book
| title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Vol. II: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775
 |editor-last=Beaglehole
 |editor-first=John  
 |editor-link=John Cawte Beaglehole
|author-last=Cook
 |author-first=James
 |author-link=James Cook
| url=https://archive.org/details/voyageofresoluti0000beag
| access-date=11 August 2025
| year=1969
| orig-year=Composed 1772{{nbnd}}1775; first Beaglehole edition 1961
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
| via=[[Hakluyt Society]]
| ref=none
}}  ISBN of a later reprint is {{isbn|9781472453242|plainlink=yes}}.  Reprinted in 2017 by Taylor & Francis.

* {{cite book
| title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Vol. III: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776–1780
 |editor-last=Beaglehole
 |editor-first=John  
 |editor-link=John Cawte Beaglehole
|author-last=Cook
 |author-first=James
 |author-link=James Cook
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty4rDwAAQBAJ
|access-date=23 May 2025
| year=1967
|orig-year=Composed 1776{{nbnd}}1779 
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
 |isbn=978-1-351-54322-4
 |via=[[Hakluyt Society]]
| ref=none
}} Bound in two books: Part 1 (Cook's journal) and Part 2 (Appendices).   ISBN of a later reprint is {{isbn|9781351543224|plainlink=yes}}.  Reprinted in 2017 by Taylor & Francis.

<!--{{sfn|Fagan|1970}}-->
* {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last=Fagan
|first=Jim
|title=Captain Cook: His Artists, His Voyages
|url=https://archive.org/details/captaincookhisar0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up
 |url-access=registration
 |publisher=Australian Consolidated Press
 |year=1970
 |oclc=896726172
}} A picture book with a wide variety of works by artists that accompanied Cook.

<!--{{sfn|Gascoigne|2007}}-->
* {{Cite book
 | ref=none
 |last=Gascoigne
 |first=John
 |title=Captain Cook: Voyager Between Worlds
 |url=https://archive.org/details/captaincookvoyag0000gasc 
 |publisher=Hambledon Continuum 
 |year=2007
 |isbn=9781847250025
}}  

<!--{{sfn|Forster|2000}}-->
* {{Cite book
| ref=none
 |author-last=Forster
 |author-first=George
|editor1-last=Thomas
 |editor1-first=Nicholas
|editor1-link=Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)
|editor2-last=Berghof
 |editor2-first=Oliver
 |title=A Voyage Round the World
|title-link=A Voyage Round the World
|author-link=Georg Forster
|year=2000
|orig-year=1777
|publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]]
|isbn= 0824820916
}} First published in 1777 as ''A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5.''

* {{cite book
| ref=none
|title= The Art of Captain Cook's Voyages, Volume One: The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771
|author1-first=Rüdiger
|author1-last=Joppien
|author2-first=Bernard
|author2-last=Smith
|author2-link=Bernard Smith (art historian)
|isbn=0300034504
|year=1985
|publisher=Oxford University Press
}}

* {{cite book
| ref=none
|title= The Art of Captain Cook's Voyages, Volume Two: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, 1772-1775
|author1-first=Rüdiger
|author1-last=Joppien
|author2-first=Bernard
|author2-last=Smith
|author2-link=Bernard Smith (art historian)
|isbn=0300034512
|year=1985
|publisher=Oxford University Press
}}

* {{cite book
| ref=none
|title= The Art of Captain Cook's Voyages, Volume Three: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780
|author1-first=Rüdiger
|author1-last=Joppien
|author2-first=Bernard
|author2-last=Smith
|author2-link=Bernard Smith (art historian)
|isbn= 0300041055
|year=1987
|publisher=Oxford University Press
}}

<!--{{sfn|Kippis |1788 |pp=??}} -->
* {{cite book
| ref=none
 |title=Narrative of the Voyages Round the World, Performed by Captain James Cook; with an Account of His Life During the Previous and Intervening Periods |first=Andrew
 |last=Kippis
 |author-link=Andrew Kippis
 |date=1788
|url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/cook/james/c77n/complete.html
|access-date=16 July 2012
 |archive-date=22 March 2012
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322140625/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/cook/james/c77n/complete.html
 |url-status=dead
}}

* {{cite book
| ref=none
 |last=Moorehead
|first=Alan
 |author-link=Alan Moorehead
 |date=1966
|title=Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840
|url=https://archive.org/details/fatalimpactaccou0000moor
|url-access=registration
|publisher=Hamish Hamilton
}} ISBN of a later edition is {{isbn|0141390298|plainlink=yes}}.

* {{Cite book
| ref=none
 |url= https://archive.org/details/longitudeempireh0000rich
|access-date=20 July 2025
 |last=Richardson
 |first=Brian
|year=2005
 |title=Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World
 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press
 |isbn=0774811897
}}

* {{cite book
| ref=none
|title=How "Natives" Think: About Captain Cook, For Example
 |publisher=University of Chicago Press
|last=Sahlins
 |first=Marshall David
|author-link=Marshall Sahlins
 |date=1995
 |isbn=9780226733685
 | url=https://archive.org/details/hownativesthinka0000sahl
 | access-date=10 June 2025
}}

<!--  {{sfn|Salmond|2010|p=??}} -->
* {{ cite book
| ref=none
  |  title=Aphrodite's Island: The European Discovery of Tahiti
  |  last=Salmond
  |  first=Anne
  |   author-link=Anne Salmond
  |   isbn=9780520271326
  |  url=https://archive.org/details/aphroditesisland00salm
  |  year=2010
  |   publisher=University of California Press
}}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=yes |commonscat=yes |n=no |q=yes |s=yes |b=no |v=no}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Cook |birth=1728 |death=1779}} – Digitised books and documents
* {{Gutenberg author |id=2644}} – Digitised books and documents
* {{Librivox author |id=1650}}

===Collections and museums===
* [https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/agdm/search/searchterm/James%20cook American Geographical Society Library] – Collection of maps made by Cook
* {{UK National Archives ID}}
* [https://teesvalleymuseums.org/visit/captain-cook-museum/ Captain Cook Birthplace Museum Marton]
* [https://www.cookmuseumwhitby.co.uk/ Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby]
* [https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/10800 Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa] – Collection of items related to Cook
* [https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster National Museum of Australia – Cook-Forster] – Artefacts collected during the voyages of Cook

{{Captain James Cook}}
{{His Majesty's Naval Service}}
{{Polar exploration|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cook, James}}
[[Category:James Cook| ]]
[[Category:1728 births]]
[[Category:1779 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century English explorers]]
[[Category:18th-century English cartographers]]
[[Category:18th-century English diarists]]
[[Category:18th-century English sailors]]
[[Category:18th-century Royal Navy personnel]]
[[Category:British explorers of Antarctica]]
[[Category:British explorers of Australia]]
[[Category:British explorers of the Pacific]]
[[Category:Circumnavigators of the globe]]
[[Category:Deified men]]
[[Category:English explorers of North America]]
[[Category:English hydrographers]]
[[Category:English maritime navigators]]
[[Category:English people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Explorers of Alaska]]
[[Category:Explorers of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Explorers of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Explorers of Oregon]]
[[Category:Explorers of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Maritime writers]]
[[Category:Military personnel from North Yorkshire]]
[[Category:People from Middlesbrough]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal]]
[[Category:Royal Navy captains]]
[[Category:Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War]]
[[Category:British sea captains]]