View source for Japanese garden

{{short description|Type of traditional garden}}
[[File:Saihouji-kokedera01.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|The [[moss garden]] at the [[Saihō-ji]] temple in [[Kyoto]], started in 1339]]
{{nihongo|'''Japanese gardens'''|日本庭園|nihon teien}} are traditional [[garden]]s whose designs are accompanied by [[Japanese aesthetics]] and philosophical ideas, avoid artificial ornamentation, and highlight the natural landscape. Plants and worn, aged materials are generally used by Japanese [[garden designer]]s to suggest a natural landscape, and to express the fragility of existence as well as time's unstoppable advance.<ref name=Suga>{{cite book |last=Suga |first=Hirofumi |date=2015 |title=Japanese Garden |publisher=The Images Publishing Group Pty Ltd |isbn=978-1-86470-648-2 }}</ref>{{rp|6}} Ancient [[Japanese art]] inspired past garden designers.<ref name=Suga/>{{rp|6}} Water is an important feature of many gardens, as are rocks and often gravel. Despite there being many attractive Japanese flowering plants, herbaceous flowers generally play much less of a role in Japanese gardens than in the West, though seasonally flowering [[shrub]]s and trees are important, all the more dramatic because of the contrast with the usual predominant green. Evergreen plants are "the bones of the garden" in Japan.<ref>Johnson, 30–31, (30 quoted)</ref> Though a natural-seeming appearance is the aim, Japanese gardeners often shape their plants, including trees, with great rigour.
[[File:Korakuen 31.JPG|thumb|An island in [[Kōraku-en]] gardens, [[Okayama]], with [[azalea]]s in flower]]

Japanese literature on gardening goes back almost a thousand years, and several different styles of garden have developed, some with religious or philosophical implications. A characteristic of Japanese gardens is that they are designed to be seen from specific points. Some of the most significant different traditional styles of '''Japanese garden''' are the {{transliteration|ja|chisen-shoyū-teien}} ("lake-spring-boat excursion garden"), which was imported from China during the [[Heian period]] (794–1185). These were designed to be seen from small boats on the central lake. No original examples of these survive, but they were replaced by the "paradise garden" associated with [[Pure Land Buddhism]], with a Buddha shrine on an island in the lake. Later large gardens are often in the {{transliteration|ja|kaiyū-shiki-teien}}, or promenade garden style, designed to be seen from a path circulating around the garden, with fixed stopping points for viewing. Specialized styles, often small sections in a larger garden, include the [[moss garden]], the [[Japanese dry garden|dry garden]] with gravel and rocks, associated with [[Zen Buddhism]], the {{Transliteration|ja|[[roji]]}} or teahouse garden, designed to be seen only from a short pathway, and the {{transliteration|ja|[[tsubo-niwa]]}}, a very small urban garden.
 
Most modern Japanese homes have little space for a garden, though the {{transliteration|ja|tsubo-niwa}} style of tiny gardens in passages and other spaces, as well as [[bonsai]] (in Japan always grown outside) and [[houseplant]]s mitigates this, and domestic [[garden tourism]] is very important. The Japanese tradition has long been to keep a well-designed garden as near as possible to its original condition,<ref>Johnson, 30</ref> and many famous gardens appear to have changed little over several centuries, apart from the inevitable turnover of plants, in a way that is extremely rare in the West.
[[File:Ritsurin park15s3200.jpg|thumb|Carefully positioned stones around the pond in [[Ritsurin Garden]]]]
[[File:Japanese Garden, Tatton Park, wide view.jpg|upright=1.8|thumb|Japanese Garden in the [[Tatton Park Gardens]], England]]

Awareness of the Japanese style of gardening reached the West near the end of the 19th century, and was enthusiastically received as part of the fashion for [[Japonisme]], and as Western gardening taste had by then turned away from rigid geometry to a more naturalistic style, of which the Japanese style was an attractive variant. They were immediately popular in the UK, where the climate was similar and Japanese plants grew well. Japanese gardens, typically a section of a larger garden, continue to be popular in the West, and many typical Japanese garden plants, such as [[Prunus serrulata|cherry trees]] and the many varieties of ''[[Acer palmatum]]'' or Japanese maple, are also used in all types of garden, giving a faint hint of the style to very many gardens.

==History==
===Origins===
The ideas central to Japanese gardens were first introduced to Japan during the [[Asuka period]] ({{circa|6th to 7th century}}).

[[File:IseShrine.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ise Jingu]], a [[Shinto shrine]] begun in the 7th century, surrounded by white gravel]]
Japanese gardens first appeared on the island of [[Honshu]], the large central island of Japan. Their aesthetic was influenced by the distinct characteristics of the Honshu landscape: rugged volcanic peaks, narrow valleys, mountain streams with waterfalls and cascades, lakes, and beaches of small stones. They were also influenced by the rich variety of flowers and different species of trees, particularly evergreen trees, on the islands, and by the four distinct seasons in Japan, including hot, wet summers and snowy winters.<ref>Nitschke, ''Le Jardin japonais'', pp. 14–15</ref>

Japanese gardens have their roots in the national religion of [[Shinto]], with its story of the creation of eight perfect islands, and of the {{transliteration|ja|shinchi}}, the lakes of the gods. Prehistoric [[Shinto shrine]]s to the {{transliteration|ja|[[kami]]}}, the gods and spirits, are found on beaches and in forests all over the island. They often took the form of unusual rocks or trees marked with cords of rice fiber ({{transliteration|ja|[[shimenawa]]}}) and surrounded with white stones or pebbles, a symbol of purity.<ref>Nitschke, ''Le Jardin japonais'', pp. 14–15, and Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden''.</ref> The white gravel courtyard became a distinctive feature of Shinto shrines, Imperial Palaces, Buddhist temples, and [[Zen garden]]s. Although its original meaning is somewhat obscure, one of the Japanese words for garden—{{transliteration|ja|niwa}}—came to mean a place that had been cleansed and purified in anticipation of the arrival of {{transliteration|ja|kami}}, and the Shinto reverence for great rocks, lakes, ancient trees, and other "dignitaries of nature" would exert an enduring influence on Japanese garden design.<ref name="Kuitert 2002">{{Cite book|last=Kuitert|first=Wybe|title=Themes in the history of Japanese garden art|date=2002|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2312-2|location=Honolulu|language=English|oclc=48390767}}</ref>

Japanese gardens were also strongly influenced by the Chinese philosophy of [[Daoism]] and [[Amitābha|Amida]] Buddhism, imported from China in or around 552 CE. Daoist legends spoke of five mountainous islands inhabited by the [[Eight Immortals]], who lived in perfect harmony with nature. Each Immortal flew from his mountain home on the back of a [[crane (bird)|crane]]. The islands themselves were located on the back of an enormous [[sea turtle]]. In Japan, the five islands of the Chinese legend became one island, called Horai-zen, or Mount [[Horai]]. Replicas of this legendary mountain, the symbol of a perfect world, are a common feature of Japanese gardens, as are rocks representing turtles and cranes.<ref>Nitschke, ''Le Jardin japonais'', pp. 22–23</ref>

===In antiquity===
The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were the [[pleasure garden]]s of the emperors and nobles. They are mentioned in several brief passages of the {{transliteration|ja|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}, the first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 CE. In spring 74 CE, the chronicle recorded: "The [[Emperor Keikō]] put a few carp into a pond, and rejoiced to see them morning and evening". The following year, "The Emperor launched a double-hulled boat in the pond of Ijishi at Ihare, and went aboard with his imperial concubine, and they feasted sumptuously together". In 486, the chronicle recorded that "The [[Emperor Kenzō]] went into the garden and feasted at the edge of a winding stream".<ref>Nitschke, ''Le Jardin Japonais'', p. 30.</ref>

Chinese gardens had a very strong influence on early Japanese gardens. In or around 552 CE, Buddhism was officially installed from China, via Korea, into Japan. Between 600 and 612 CE, the Japanese emperor sent four legations to the court of the Chinese [[Sui dynasty]]. Between 630 and 838 CE, the Japanese court sent fifteen more legations to the court of the [[Tang dynasty]]. These legations, with more than five hundred members each, included diplomats, scholars, students, Buddhist monks, and translators. They brought back Chinese writing, art objects, and detailed descriptions of Chinese gardens.

In 612 CE, the [[Empress Suiko]] had a garden built with an artificial mountain, representing Shumi-Sen, or [[Mount Sumeru]], reputed in Hindu and Buddhist legends to be located at the centre of the world. During the reign of the same empress, one of her ministers, Soga no Umako, had a garden built at his palace featuring a lake with several small islands, representing the islands of the Eight Immortals famous in Chinese legends and [[Daoist]] philosophy. This palace became the property of the Japanese emperors, was named "The Palace of the Isles", and was mentioned several times in the {{transliteration|ja|[[Man'yōshū]]}}, the "Collection of Countless Leaves", the oldest known collection of Japanese poetry.

===Nara period (710–794)===
[[File:Heijyokyo Tointeien3.jpg|thumb|A view of the {{nihongo|Eastern Palace gardens|東院庭園}} main pavilion]]
The [[Nara period]] is named after its capital city [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]. The first authentically Japanese gardens were built in this city at the end of the 8th century. Shorelines and stone settings were naturalistic, different from the heavier, earlier continental mode of constructing pond edges. Two such gardens have been found at excavations, both of which were used for poetry-writing festivities.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Wybe Kuitert|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/274049284/Two-Early-Japanese-Gardens-by-Wybe-Kuitert|title=Two Early Japanese Gardens &#124; Korea &#124; Japan|website=Scribd}}</ref> One of these gardens, the East Palace garden at [[Heijō Palace]], Nara, has been faithfully reconstructed using the same location and even the original [[garden feature]]s that had been excavated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nabunken.go.jp/org/bunka/jgd/pages/GardenAtNaraPalace.html|title=garden at the Eastern Palace, Nara palace site 平城宮東院庭園|website=www.nabunken.go.jp|access-date=2019-09-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kkr.mlit.go.jp/asuka/heijo/english/about.html|title=Nara Palace Site Historical Park – About|website=www.kkr.mlit.go.jp|access-date=2019-09-26}}</ref> It appears from the small amount of literary and archaeological evidence available that the Japanese gardens of this time were modest versions of the Imperial gardens of the Tang dynasty, with large lakes scattered with artificial islands and artificial mountains. Pond edges were constructed with heavy rocks as embankment. While these gardens had some Buddhist and Daoist symbolism, they were meant to be pleasure gardens, and places for festivals and celebrations.

Recent archaeological excavations in the ancient capital of Nara have brought to light the remains of two 8th-century gardens associated with the Imperial Court, a pond and stream garden – the To-in – located within the precinct of the Imperial Palace and a stream garden – Kyuseki – found within the modern city. They may be modeled after Chinese gardens, but the rock formations found in the To-in would appear to have more in common with prehistoric Japanese stone monuments than with Chinese antecedents, and the natural, serpentine course of the Kyuseki stream garden may be far less formal than what existed in Tang China. Whatever their origins, both the To-in and Kyuseki clearly anticipate certain developments in later Japanese gardens.<ref name="Kuitert 2002"/><ref name="C. E. Tuttle">{{Cite book|last1=Young|first1=David E|title=The art of the Japanese garden: history, culture, design|last2=Young|first2=Michiko|last3=Tan|first3=Yew Hong|date=2019|publisher=C. E. Tuttle |isbn=978-4-8053-1497-5|language=English|oclc=1158966819}}</ref>

===Heian period (794–1185)===

In 794 CE, at the beginning of the [[Heian period]] (794–1185 CE), the Japanese court moved its capital to [[Heian-kyō]] (present-day [[Kyoto]]). During this period, there were three different kinds of gardens: palace gardens and the gardens of nobles in the capital, the gardens of villas at the edge of the city, and the gardens of temples.

The architecture of the palaces, residences and gardens in the Heian period followed Chinese practice. Houses and gardens were aligned on a north-south axis, with the residence to the north and the ceremonial buildings and main garden to the south, there were two long wings to the south, like the arms of an armchair, with the garden between them. The gardens featured one or more lakes connected by bridges and winding streams. The south garden of the imperial residences had a uniquely Japanese feature: a large empty area of white sand or gravel. The emperor was the chief priest of Japan, and the white sand represented purity, and was a place where the gods could be invited to visit. The area was used for religious ceremonies and dances for the welcoming of the gods.<ref>Nitschke, ''Le Jardin japonais'', p. 36.</ref>

The layout of the garden itself was strictly determined according to the principles of traditional Chinese [[geomancy]], or [[Feng Shui]]. The first known book on the art of the Japanese garden, the {{transliteration|ja|[[Sakuteiki]]}} (''Records of Garden Keeping''), written in the 11th century, said:

{{blockquote|It is a good omen to make the stream arrive from the east, to enter the garden, pass under the house, and then leave from the southeast. In this way, the water of the blue dragon will carry away all the bad spirits from the house toward the white tiger.<ref>See on the manual Kuitert, ''Themes in the History of Japanese Garden Art'', pp. 30–52. The quote is from Nitschke, ''Le Jardin japonais'', p. 36.</ref>}}

The Imperial gardens of the Heian period were [[water garden]]s, where visitors promenaded in elegant lacquered boats, listening to music, viewing the distant mountains, singing, reading poetry, painting, and admiring the scenery. The social life in the gardens was memorably described in the classic Japanese novel ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'', written in about 1005 by [[Murasaki Shikibu]], a lady-in-waiting to the empress. The traces of one such artificial lake, Osawa no ike, near the [[Daikaku-ji]] temple in Kyoto, still can be seen. It was built by the [[Emperor Saga]], who ruled from 809 to 823, and was said to be inspired by [[Dongting Lake]] in China.<ref name="Danielle Ellisseeff p. 16">Danielle Ellisseeff, ''Jardins japonais'', p. 16</ref>

A scaled-down replica of the [[Kyoto Imperial Palace]] of 794, the [[Heian Shrine|Heian-jingū]], was built in Kyoto in 1895 to celebrate the 1100th birthday of the city. The south garden is famous for its [[cherry blossom]] in spring, and for azaleas in the early summer. The west garden is known for its irises in June, and the large east garden lake recalls the leisurely boating parties of the 8th century.<ref name="Danielle Ellisseeff p. 16"/> Near the end of the Heian period, a new garden architecture style appeared, created by the followers of [[Pure Land Buddhism]]. These were called "Paradise Gardens", built to represent the legendary Paradise of the West, where the Amida Buddha ruled. These were built by noblemen who wanted to assert their power and independence from the Imperial household, which was growing weaker.

[[File:Byodo-in in Uji.jpg|thumb|left|[[Byōdō-in]]: {{transliteration|ja|Jōdo-shiki}} garden]]
The best surviving example of a Paradise Garden is [[Byōdō-in]] in [[Uji]], near Kyoto. It was originally the villa of [[Fujiwara Michinaga]] (966–1028), who married his daughters to the sons of the Emperor. After his death, his son transformed the villa into a temple, and in 1053 built the Hall of Phoenix, which still stands.

The Hall is built in the traditional style of a Chinese [[Song dynasty]] temple, on an island in the lake. It houses a gilded statue of the [[Amitābha]] Buddha, looking to the west. In the lake in front of the temple is a small island of white stones, representing Mount Horai, the home of the Eight Immortals of the Daoists, connected to the temple by a bridge, which symbolized the way to paradise. It was designed for mediation and contemplation, not as a pleasure garden. It was a lesson in Daoist and Buddhist philosophy created with landscape and architecture, and a prototype for future Japanese gardens.<ref>Danielle Elisseeff, ''Jardins japonais'', pp. 22–23.</ref>
{{clear}}

Notable existing or recreated Heian gardens include:
* [[Daikaku-ji]]
* [[Byōdō-in]]
* [[Kyoto Imperial Palace]]
* [[Jōruri-ji]]

<gallery class="center">
File:Osawaike spring Kyoto 001 JPN.jpg|Osawa lake in Kyoto was part of the old imperial gardens of the [[Emperor Saga]] (809–823).
File:Miniature Model of HigashiSanjoDono.jpg|Model of a residence and garden at Heian-kyō (Kyoto), around 1000
Heian-jingu shinen09bs3216.jpg|A 19th-century scaled-down reconstruction of the Heian-jingū, the first [[Kyoto Imperial Palace]] garden, as it was in 794
File:Heian-jingu shinen IMG 5748 0-25.JPG|Stepping stones in the garden of the first Kyoto Imperial Palace. These stones were originally part of a 16th-century bridge over the [[Kamo River]], which was destroyed by an earthquake.<ref>Daniele Eilisseeff, ''Jardins Japonais'', p. 20</ref>
File:Oike-Niwa.JPG|Recreated garden of the old [[Kyoto Imperial Palace]]
</gallery>

===Kamakura and Muromachi periods (1185–1573)===
[[File:Temple of The Golden Pavilion.jpg|thumb|[[Kinkaku-ji]], the Golden Pavilion (1398)]]
[[File:250201 Ryoan-ji Kyoto Japan06s3.jpg|thumb|The zen rock garden of Ryōan-ji (late 15th century)]]

The weakness of the emperors and the rivalry of feudal warlords resulted in two civil wars (1156 and 1159), which destroyed most of Kyoto and its gardens. The capital moved to [[Kamakura]], and then in 1336 back to the Muromachi quarter of Kyoto. The emperors ruled in name only; real power was held by a military governor, the {{transliteration|ja|[[shōgun]]}}. During this period, the government reopened relations with China, which had been broken off almost three hundred years earlier. Japanese monks went again to study in China, and Chinese monks came to Japan, fleeing the Mongol invasions. The monks brought with them a new form of Buddhism, called simply [[Zen]], or "meditation". Japan enjoyed a renaissance in religion, in the arts, and particularly in gardens.<ref>Miyeko Murase, ''L'Art du Japon'', pp. 173–177</ref> The term ''Zen garden'' appears in English writing in the 1930s for the first time, in Japan {{transliteration|ja|zen teien}}, or {{transliteration|ja|zenteki teien}} comes up even later, from the 1950s. It applies to a [[Sung China|Song China]]-inspired composition technique derived from ink-painting. The composition or construction of such small, scenic gardens have no relation to religious Zen.<ref name="C. E. Tuttle"/>

Many famous temple gardens were built early in this period, including [[Kinkaku-ji|Kinkaku-ji, the Golden Pavilion]], built in 1398, and [[Ginkaku-ji|Ginkaku-ji, the Silver Pavilion]], built in 1482. In some ways they followed Zen principles of spontaneity, extreme simplicity and moderation, but in other ways they were traditional Chinese Song-dynasty temples; the upper floors of the Golden Pavilion were covered with gold leaf, and they were surrounded by traditional water gardens.

The most notable garden style invented in this period was the Zen garden, [[dry garden]], or Japanese [[rock garden]]. One of the finest examples, and one of the best-known of all Japanese gardens is [[Ryōan-ji]] in Kyoto. This garden is just {{convert|9|m}} wide and {{convert|24|m}} long, composed of white sand carefully raked to suggest water, and fifteen rocks carefully arranged, like small islands. It is meant to be seen from a seated position on the porch of the residence the abbot of the monastery. There have been many debates about what the rocks are supposed to represent, but, as garden historian Gunter Nitschke wrote, "The garden at Ryōan-ji does not symbolize. It does not have the value of representing any natural beauty that can be found in the world, real or mythical. I consider it as an abstract composition of "natural" objects in space, a composition whose function is to incite mediation."<ref>Gunter Nitschke, ''Le Jardin japonais'', p. 92. English translation of excerpt by D. R. Siefkin.</ref>

Several of the famous Zen gardens of Kyoto were the work of one man, [[Musō Soseki]] (1275–1351). He was a monk, a ninth-generation descendant of the [[Emperor Uda]] and a formidable court politician, writer and organizer, who armed and financed ships to open trade with China, and founded an organization called the Five Mountains, made up of the most powerful Zen monasteries in Kyoto. He was responsible for the building of the zen gardens of [[Nanzen-ji]], [[Saihō-ji]] (the Moss Garden), and [[Tenryū-ji]].

Notable gardens of the Kamakura and Muromachi periods include:
* [[Kinkaku-ji]] (the Golden Pavilion)
* [[Ginkaku-ji]] (the Silver Pavilion)
* [[Nanzen-ji]]
* [[Saihō-ji]] (the Moss Garden)
* [[Tenryū-ji]]
* [[Daisen-in]]

<gallery class="center">
Ginkaku-ji after being restored in 2008.jpg|[[Ginkaku-ji]], or the Silver Pavilion, in Kyoto, a Zen Buddhist temple (1482)
File:Zen garden at Ginkaku-ji (90).jpg|The Zen rock garden of Ginkaku-ji features a miniature mountain shaped like Mount Fuji.
Daisen-in1.jpg|The garden of [[Daisen-in]] Kyoto (1513)
NanzenjiNanzenin teien.jpg|[[Nanzen-ji]] garden, Kyoto, built by [[Musō Soseki]]. Not all Zen gardens were made of rock and sand; monks here contemplated a forest scene.
File:Tenryuji Kyoto05s3s4592.jpg|[[Tenryū-ji]] garden in Kyoto. The Sogen pond, created by Musō Soseki, is one of the few surviving features of the original garden.
</gallery>

===Momoyama period (1568–1600)===
[[File:Tokushima Castle lordly Front Palace Garden01s3200.jpg|thumb|left|The garden at Tokushima Castle (1592) on the island of Shikoku features water and enormous rocks. It was meant to be seen from above, from a viewing pavilion.]]
The [[Momoyama period]] was short, just 32 years, and was largely occupied with the wars between the {{transliteration|ja|[[daimyō]]}}, the leaders of the feudal Japanese clans. The new centers of power and culture in Japan were the fortified castles of the {{transliteration|ja|daimyō}}, around which new cities and gardens appeared. The characteristic garden of the period featured one or more ponds or lakes next to the main residence, or {{transliteration|ja|[[shoin]]}}, not far from the castle. These gardens were meant to be seen from above, from the castle or residence. The {{transliteration|ja|daimyō}} had developed the skills of cutting and lifting large rocks to build their castles, and they had armies of soldiers to move them. The artificial lakes were surrounded by beaches of small stones and decorated with arrangements of boulders, with natural stone bridges and [[stepping stones]]. The gardens of this period combined elements of a promenade garden, meant to be seen from the winding garden paths, with elements of the Zen garden, such as artificial mountains, meant to be contemplated from a distance.<ref name="Nitschke, p. 120">Nitschke, ''Le jardin japonais'', p. 120.</ref>

The most famous garden of this kind, built in 1592, is situated near the Tokushima castle on the island of [[Shikoku]]. Its notable features include a bridge {{convert|10.5|m}} long made of two natural stones.

Another notable garden of the period still existing is [[Sanbō-in]], rebuilt by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] in 1598 to celebrate the festival of the cherry blossom and to recreate the splendor of an ancient garden. Three hundred garden-builders worked on the project, digging the lakes and installing seven hundred boulders in a space of {{convert|540|sqm}}. The garden was designed to be seen from the veranda of the main pavilion, or from the "Hall of the Pure View", located on a higher elevation in the garden.

In the east of the garden, on a peninsula, is an arrangement of stones designed to represent the mythical Mount Horai. A wooden bridge leads to an island representing a crane, and a stone bridge connects this island to another representing a tortoise, which is connected by an earth-covered bridge back to the peninsula. The garden also includes a waterfall at the foot of a wooded hill. One characteristic of the Momoyama period garden visible at Sanbō-in is the close proximity of the buildings to the water.<ref name="Nitschke, p. 120"/>

The Momoyama period also saw the development of {{transliteration|ja|[[Japanese tea ceremony|chanoyu]]}} (tea ceremony), the {{transliteration|ja|[[chashitsu]]}} (teahouse), and the {{transliteration|ja|[[roji]]}} (tea garden). Tea had been introduced to Japan from China by Buddhist monks, who used it as a stimulant to keep awake during long periods of meditation. The first great tea master, [[Sen no Rikyū]] (1522–1591), defined in the most minute detail the appearance and rules of the tea house and tea garden, following the principle of {{Nihongo3|"sober refinement and calm"|侘び|wabi}}.<ref>Miyeko Murase, ''l'Art du Japon'', pp. 213–215.</ref>

Following Sen no Rikyū's rules, the teahouse was supposed to suggest the cottage of a hermit-monk. It was a small and very plain wooden structure, often with a thatched roof, with just enough room inside for two [[tatami]] mats. The only decoration allowed inside a scroll with an inscription and a branch of a tree. It did not have a view of the garden.

The garden was also small, and constantly watered to be damp and green. It usually had a cherry tree or elm to bring color in the spring, but otherwise did not have bright flowers or exotic plants that would distract the attention of the visitor. A path led to the entrance of the teahouse. Along the path was waiting bench for guests and a privy, and a stone water-basin near the teahouse, where the guests rinsed their hands and mouths before entering the tea room through a small, square door called {{transliteration|ja|nijiri-guchi}}, or "crawling-in entrance", which requires bending low to pass through. Sen no Rikyū decreed that the garden should be left unswept for several hours before the ceremony, so that leaves would be scattered in a natural way on the path.<ref>Nitschke, ''Le jardin japonais'', pp. 160–162.</ref>

Notable gardens of the period include:
* Tokushima Castle garden on the island of [[Shikoku]].
* Tai-an tea house at Myōki-an Temple in [[Kyoto]], built in 1582 by [[Sen no Rikyū]].
* [[Sanbō-in]] at [[Daigo-ji]], in [[Kyoto Prefecture]] (1598)

<gallery class="center">
File:Tokushima Castle lordly Front Palace Garden02s3872.jpg|Garden at the Tokushima Castle, dominated by rocks
File:Momiji Daigoji4.JPG|The garden at [[Daigo-ji]] (1598) is famous for its cherry blossoms.
</gallery>

===Edo period (1615–1867)===
[[File:Katsurarikyu01.jpg|thumb|The garden of [[Katsura Imperial Villa]] in Kyoto (1641–1662), the prototype for the promenade, or stroll garden]]
[[File:Geppa-ro.jpg|thumb|The interior of the Geppa Pavilion of the [[Katsura Imperial Villa]], perfectly integrated into the garden]]

During the [[Edo period]], power was won and consolidated by the [[Tokugawa clan]], who became the {{transliteration|ja|shōgun}}, and moved the capital to [[Edo]], which became [[Tokyo]]. The emperor remained in Kyoto as a figurehead leader, with authority only over cultural and religious affairs. While the political center of Japan was now Tokyo, Kyoto remained the cultural capital, the center for religion and art. The {{transliteration|ja|shōgun}} provided the emperors with little power, but with generous subsidies for building gardens.<ref>Miyeko Murase, ''L'Art du Japon'', pp. 277–281</ref>

The Edo period saw the widespread use of a new kind of Japanese architecture, called {{transliteration|ja|[[sukiya-zukuri]]}}, which means literally "building according to chosen taste". The term first appeared at the end of the 16th century referring to isolated tea houses. It originally applied to the simple country houses of samurai warriors and Buddhist monks, but in the Edo period it was used in every kind of building, from houses to palaces.

The {{transliteration|ja|sukiya}} style was used in the most famous garden of the period, the [[Katsura Imperial Villa]] in Kyoto. The buildings were built in a very simple, undecorated style, a prototype for future Japanese architecture. They opened up onto the garden, so that the garden seemed entirely part of the building; whether the visitor was inside or outside of the building, they would ideally always feel they were in the center of nature. The garden buildings were arranged so that were always seen from a diagonal, rather than straight on. This arrangement had the poetic name {{transliteration|ja|ganko}}, which meant literally "a formation of wild geese in flight".<ref>Nitschke, ''Le jardin Japonais'', p. 158.</ref>

Most of the gardens of the Edo period were either promenade gardens or dry rock Zen gardens, and they were usually much larger than earlier gardens. The promenade gardens of the period made extensive use of [[borrowed scenery]] ({{transliteration|ja|shakkei}}). Vistas of distant mountains are integrated in the design of the garden; or, even better, building the garden on the side of a mountain and using the different elevations to attain views over landscapes outside the garden. Edo promenade gardens were often composed of a series of {{transliteration|ja|[[meisho]]}}, or "famous views", similar to postcards. These could be imitations of famous natural landscapes, like [[Mount Fuji]], or scenes from Taoist or Buddhist legends, or landscapes illustrating verses of poetry. Unlike Zen gardens, they were designed to portray nature as it appeared, not the internal rules of nature.<ref>Nitschke, ''Le jardin japonais'', pp. 169–172</ref>

Well-known Edo-period gardens include:

* [[Shugakuin Imperial Villa]]
* [[Shisen-dō]] (1641)
* [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en|Suizen-ji]]
* [[Hama Rikyu]]
* [[Kōraku-en]] ([[Okayama]])
* [[Ritsurin Garden]] ([[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]])
* [[Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden|Koishikawa Kōraku-en]] ([[Tokyo]]) (1629)
* [[Ninna-ji]], Kyoto
* [[Enman-in]], Otsu
* [[Sanzen-in]], north of Kyoto
* [[Sengan-en]], Kagoshima (1658)
* [[Chishaku-in]], southeast of Kyoto
* [[Jōju-in]], in the temple of [[Kiyomizu]], southeast of Kyoto (1688–1703)
* [[Manshu-in]], northeast of Kyoto (1656)
* [[Nanzen-ji]], east of Kyoto (1688–1703)

<gallery class="center">
File:160319 Korakuen Okayama Japan04s3.jpg|[[Kōraku-en]] in Okayama, begun in 1700
File:150504 Ritsurin Park Takamatsu Kagawa pref Japan01s3.jpg|[[Ritsurin Garden]] in Takamatsu, begun in 1625
File:Shisendo DSC0480.jpg|The hermitage garden of the poet and scholar Ishikawa Jozan at [[Shisen-dō]], built in 1641. It later became a temple.
File:Ninnaji Kyoto16s3s4592.jpg|The north garden at [[Ninna-ji]] in Kyoto, a classic promenade garden
File:Ninnaji Kyoto18s3s4320.jpg|The south garden at Ninna-ji, a Zen rock garden
File:Koishikawa Korakuen 060607.jpg|[[Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden]] in Tokyo, begun in 1629, is now surrounded by office buildings.
File:TofukujiReiunin1.jpg|The most famous view of Suizen-ji is a miniature mountain resembling Mount Fuji.
</gallery>

===Meiji period (1868–1912)===
The [[Meiji period]] saw the modernization of Japan, and the re-opening of Japan to the West. Many of the old private gardens had been abandoned and left to ruin. In 1871, a new law transformed many gardens from the earlier Edo period into public parks, preserving them. Garden designers, confronted with ideas from the West experimented with western styles, leading to such gardens as [[Kyu-Furukawa Gardens]], or [[Shinjuku Gyoen]]. Others, more in the north of Japan kept to Edo period blueprint design. A third wave was the naturalistic style of gardens, invented by captains of industry and powerful politicians like [[Aritomo Yamagata]]. Many gardeners soon were designing and constructing gardens catering to this taste. One of the gardens well-known for his technical perfection in this style was [[Ogawa Jihei VII]], also known as Ueji.<ref>Wybe Kuitert, ''Japanese Gardens and Landscapes, 1650–1950'', pp. 187–246</ref>

Notable gardens of this period include:
* [[Kyu-Furukawa Gardens]]
* [[Kenroku-en]], 18th and 19th centuries, finished in 1874.
* [[Chinzan-so]] in Tokyo in 1877.
* [[Murin-an]] in Kyoto, finished 1898.

<gallery class="center">
File:Kenrokuen10-r.jpg|Kenroku-en in Kanazawa
File:Chinzan-so4.jpg|Chinzan-so in Tokyo
File:Murin-an, Kyoto - IMG 5104.JPG|Murin-an in Kyoto
</gallery>

===Modern Japanese gardens (1912 to present)===
During the [[Shōwa period]] (1926–1989), many traditional gardens were built by businessmen and politicians. After World War II, the principal builders of gardens were no longer private individuals, but banks, hotels, universities and government agencies. The Japanese garden became an extension of the landscape architecture with the building. New gardens were designed by [[landscape architects]], and often used modern building materials such as concrete.

Some modern Japanese gardens, such as [[Tōfuku-ji]], designed by [[Mirei Shigemori]], were inspired by classical models. Other modern gardens have taken a much more radical approach to the traditions. One example is [[Awaji Yumebutai]], a garden on the island of [[Awaji Island|Awaji]], in the [[Seto Inland Sea]] of Japan, designed by [[Tadao Ando]]. It was built as part of a resort and conference center on a steep slope, where land had been stripped away to make an island for an airport.

<gallery class="center">
File:TofukujiGarden1.jpg|[[Tōfuku-ji]], a modern Japanese garden from 1934, designed by [[Mirei Shigemori]], built on grounds of a 13th-century Zen temple in Kyoto
File:Toufuku-ji hojyo7.JPG|The moss garden at Tōfuku-ji, Kyoto
File:The Museum of Art Kochi06s3872.jpg|A contemporary Japanese garden at the [[Kochi]] Museum of Art
File:Naoshima05.jpg|The garden at the [[Naoshima Fukutake Art Museum]], using sculpture to imitate the form of island on the horizon
File:Adachi Museum of Art Garden 02.jpg|Garden of the Adachi Museum of Art
File:Awaji yumebutai01s3872.jpg|[[Awaji Yumebutai]], a contemporary garden on the island of [[Awaji, Hyōgo]] (2000)
File:Awaji yumebutai04s3200.jpg|Shell beach garden, part of the Awaji Yumebutai on the island of [[Awaji, Hyōgo]] (2000)
File:Jissoin-Temple-Stone-Garden.JPG|[[Jissō-in]] rock garden in Iwakura (Kyoto), reformed in 2013
</gallery>

==Garden elements==
Japanese gardens are distinctive in their symbolism of nature, with traditional Japanese gardens being very different in style from occidental gardens: "Western gardens are typically optimised for visual appeal while Japanese gardens are modelled with spiritual and philosophical ideas in mind."<ref>Iwatsuki, Zennoske, and Tsutomu Kodama. ''Economic Botany''. 3rd ed. Vol. 15. New York: Springer, 1961. Print. Mosses in Japanese Gardens</ref> Japanese gardens are conceived as a representation of a natural setting, tying in to Japanese connections between the land and [[Shinto]] spiritualism, where spirits are commonly found in nature; as such, Japanese gardens tend to incorporate natural materials, with the aim of creating a space that captures the beauties of nature in a realistic manner.

Traditional Japanese gardens can be categorized into three types: {{transliteration|ja|[[tsukiyama]]}} (hill gardens), {{transliteration|ja|[[karesansui]]}} (dry gardens) and {{transliteration|ja|[[chaniwa]]}} gardens (tea gardens).

The small space given to create these gardens usually poses a challenge for the gardeners. Due to the absolute importance of the arrangement of natural rocks and trees, finding the right material becomes highly selective. The serenity of a Japanese landscape and the simple but deliberate structures of the Japanese gardens are a unique quality, with the two most important principles of garden design being "scaled reduction and symbolization".<ref>Roberts, Jeremy. ''Japanese Mythology A to Z''. New York, NY: Chelsea House, 2010. Print.</ref>

===Water===
[[File:Nanzen-in - Nanzenji - IMG 5393.JPG|thumb|upright|Cascade at [[Nanzen-ji]] garden in Kyoto]]
Japanese gardens always feature water, either physically with a pond or stream, or symbolically, represented by white sand in a dry rock garden. In [[Buddhist]] symbolism, water and stone are thought of as [[yin and yang]], two opposites that complement and complete each other. A traditional garden will usually have an irregular-shaped pond or, in larger gardens, two or more ponds connected by a channel or stream, and a cascade, a miniature version of Japan's famous mountain waterfalls.

In traditional gardens, the ponds and streams are carefully placed according to Buddhist [[geomancy]], the art of putting things in the place most likely to attract good fortune. The rules for the placement of water were laid out in the first manual of Japanese gardens, the {{nihongo3|"Records of Garden Making"||[[Sakuteiki]]}}, in the 11th century. According to the {{transliteration|ja|Sakuteiki}}, water should enter the garden from the east or southeast and flow toward the west, because the east is the home of the Green Dragon ({{transliteration|ja|seiryu}}), an ancient Chinese divinity adopted in Japan, and the west is the home of the White Tiger, the divinity of the east. Water flowing from east to west will carry away evil, and the owner of the garden will be healthy and have a long life. According to the {{transliteration|ja|Sakuteiki}}, another favorable arrangement is for the water to flow from north, which represents water in Buddhist cosmology, to the south, which represents fire, which are opposites ([[yin and yang]]) and therefore will bring good luck.<ref>Michel Baridon, ''Les Jardins'', p. 492.</ref>

The {{transliteration|ja|Sakuteiki}} recommends several possible miniature landscapes using lakes and streams: the "ocean style", which features rocks that appear to have been eroded by waves, a sandy beach, and pine trees; the "broad river style", recreating the course of a large river, winding like a serpent; the "marsh pond" style, a large still pond with aquatic plants; the "mountain torrent style", with many rocks and cascades; and the "rose letters" style, an austere landscape with small, low plants, gentle relief and many scattered flat rocks.

Traditional Japanese gardens have small islands in the lakes. In sacred temple gardens, there is usually an island which represents [[Mount Penglai]] or Mount [[Hōrai]], the traditional home of the [[Eight Immortals]].

The {{transliteration|ja|Sakuteiki}} describes different kinds of artificial island which can be created in lakes, including the "mountainous island", made up of jagged vertical rocks mixed with pine trees, surrounded by a sandy beach; the "rocky island", composed of "tormented" rocks appearing to have been battered by sea waves, along with small, ancient pine trees with unusual shapes; the "cloud island", made of white sand in the rounded white forms of a cumulus cloud; and the "misty island", a low island of sand, without rocks or trees.

A cascade or waterfall is an important element in Japanese gardens, a miniature version of the waterfalls of Japanese mountain streams. The {{transliteration|ja|Sakuteiki}} describes seven kinds of cascades. It notes that if possible, a cascade should face toward the moon and should be designed to capture the moon's reflection in the water.<ref>Michel Baridon, ''Les Jardins'', p. 490</ref> It is also mentioned in {{transliteration|ja|Sakuteiki}} that cascades benefit from being located in such a manner that they are half-hidden in shadows.

<gallery class="center">
File:Enjo-ji Garden 05.jpg|Lotus pond at Enjo-ji, a Heian period paradise garden (12th century)
File:Motsuji yarimizu2.jpg|A winding stream at [[Mōtsū-ji]] garden in Hiraisumi
File:697 Suizenji Pond.JPG|The spring-fed pond at [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en]] garden (1636), whose water was reputed to be excellent for making tea
File:Youkoukan03s4592.jpg|Youkoukan Garden in [[Fukui Prefecture]] recreates a miniature beach and a mountain.
File:Horaijima-2.JPG|An island of weathered rocks and a single pine tree in [[Rikugi-en]] garden in Tokyo represents Mount [[Hōrai]], the legendary home of the Eight Immortals.
</gallery>

===Rocks and sand===
Rock, sand and gravel are an essential feature of the Japanese garden. A vertical rock may represent Mount Horai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals, or [[Mount Sumeru]] of Buddhist teaching, or a carp jumping from the water. A flat rock might represent the earth. Sand or gravel can represent a beach, or a flowing river. Rocks and water also symbolize yin and yang ({{transliteration|ja|in}} and {{transliteration|ja|yō}} in Japanese) in Buddhist philosophy; the hard rock and soft water complement each other, and water, though soft, can wear away rock.

Rough volcanic rocks ({{transliteration|ja|kasei-gan}}) are usually used to represent mountains or as stepping stones. Smooth and round [[sedimentary]] rocks ({{transliteration|ja|suisei-gan}}) are used around lakes or as stepping stones. Hard [[metamorphic]] rocks are usually placed by waterfalls or streams. Rocks are traditionally classified as tall vertical, low vertical, arching, reclining, or flat. Rocks should vary in size and color but from each other, but not have bright colors, which would lack subtlety. Rocks with strata or veins should have the veins all going in the same direction, and the rocks should all be firmly planted in the earth, giving an appearance of firmness and permanence. Rocks are arranged in careful compositions of two, three, five or seven rocks, with three being the most common. In a three-arrangement, a tallest rock usually represents heaven, the shortest rock is the earth, and the medium-sized rock is humanity, the bridge between heaven and earth. Sometimes one or more rocks, called {{transliteration|ja|suteishi}} ("nameless" or "discarded"), are placed in seemingly random locations in the garden, to suggest spontaneity, though their placement is carefully chosen.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 24.</ref>

In ancient Japan, sand ({{transliteration|ja|suna}}) and gravel ({{transliteration|ja|jari}}) were used around Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Later it was used in the [[Japanese rock garden]] or Zen Buddhist gardens to represent water or clouds. White sand represented purity, but sand could also be gray, brown or bluish-black.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', pp. 24–25</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:Daitokuji-Zuihoin-Zuihotei-M1827.jpg|Rocks in the Garden of the Blissful Mountain at [[Daitoku-ji]]
File:Toufuku-ji kaizandou3.JPG|Sand in checkerboard pattern at [[Tōfuku-ji]], in Kyoto
File:Toufuku-ji hojyo3.JPG|[[Tōfuku-ji]] garden in Kyoto
File:MyoshinjiTaizoin3.jpg|[[Myōshin-ji]] garden
File:Shitennoj honbo garden06s3200.jpg|Shitenno-ji garden. Note the three-rock composition in the center.
File:Ankokuji04 960.jpg|Ankokuji garden in [[Hiroshima]] features rocks of different but harmonious sizes and colors.
File:Toufuku-ji hojyo5.JPG|Rock composition at [[Tōfuku-ji]] (1934)
File:KoishikawaKorakuen8981.jpg|A large flat rock on an island in [[Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden|Korakuen]] garden in Tokyo, which represents a turtle's head
File:Rock-garden-Negoro-temple-Japan.jpg|Combination of checkerboard pattern and water patterns at the [[Negoro-ji]] Temple, Prefecture Wakayama
</gallery>

Selection and subsequent placement of rocks was and still is a central concept in creating an aesthetically pleasing garden by the Japanese. During the Heian period, the concept of placing stones as symbolic representations of islands – whether physically existent or nonexistent – began to take hold, and can be seen in the Japanese word {{transliteration|ja|shima}}, which is of "particular importance{{nbsp}}[...] because the word contained the meaning 'island{{'"}}. Furthermore, the principle of {{transliteration|ja|kowan ni shitagau}}, or "obeying (or following) the request of an object", was, and still is, a guiding principle of Japanese rock design that suggests "the arrangement of rocks be dictated by their innate characteristics". The specific placement of stones in Japanese gardens to symbolically represent islands (and later to include mountains), is found to be an aesthetically pleasing property of traditional Japanese gardens.

Thomas Heyd outlines some of the aesthetic principles of Japanese gardens in ''Encountering Nature'':

{{blockquote|Stones, which constitute a fundamental part of Japanese gardens, are carefully selected for their weathering and are placed in such a way that they give viewers the sense that they 'naturally' belong where they are, and in combinations in which the viewers [sic] find them. As such, this form of gardening attempts to emblematically represent (or present) the processes and spaces found in wild nature, away from city and practical concerns of human life.|Thomas Heyd, ''Encountering Nature''<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Heyd|first=Thomas|title=Encountering Nature|year=2008|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Group|location=Abingdon, Oxen|page=156}}</ref>}}

Rock placement is a general "aim to portray nature in its essential characteristics"<ref name="auto"/> – the essential goal of all Japanese gardens. Furthermore, Heyd states:

{{blockquote|[...]while the cult of stones is also central to Japanese gardening{{nbsp}}[...] as stones were part of an aesthetic design and had to be placed so that their positions appeared natural and their relationships harmonious. The concentration of the interest on such detail as the shape of a rock or the moss on a stone lantern led at times to an overemphatic picturesqueness and accumulation of minor features that, to Western eyes accustomed to a more general survey, may seem cluttered and restless.|Thomas Heyd, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', Garden and Landscape Design: Japanese<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Garden and Landscape Design: Japanese |edition=15th}}</ref>}}

Such attention to detail can be seen at places such as Midori Falls in [[Kenroku-en]] Garden in Kanazawa, Ishikawa Prefecture, as the rocks at the waterfall's base were changed at various times by six different {{transliteration|ja|daimyō}}.

In Heian-period Japanese gardens, built in the Chinese model, buildings occupied as much or more space than the garden. The garden was designed to be seen from the main building and its verandas, or from small pavilions built for that purpose. In later gardens, the buildings were less visible. Rustic teahouses were hidden in their own little gardens, and small benches and open pavilions along the garden paths provided places for rest and contemplation. In later garden architecture, walls of houses and teahouses could be opened to provide carefully framed views of the garden. The garden and the house became one.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 40</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:Byodo-in Uji01pbs2640.jpg|The symmetrical and highly ornamental architecture of the Phoenix Hall in [[Byōdō-in]] Garden, Kyoto (1052) was inspired by Chinese [[Song dynasty]] architecture.
File:Stone lantern Kenrokuen.jpg|The {{transliteration|ja|Kotoji Tōrō}}, a two-legged stone lantern that is one of the most well-known symbols of the [[Kenroku-en]] garden
File:Joan in Urakuen, Gomonsaki Inuyama Inuyama City 2023.jpg|A ''[[chashitsu]]'' or teahouse in Jo-an garden in [[Inuyama, Aichi|Inuyama]], from 1618. The simple and unadorned zen teahouse style began to be used on all Japanese buildings, from garden pavilions to palaces. This teahouse was declared a [[National Treasure of Japan]] in 1951.
File:Shoin.jpg|The architecture of the main house of the [[Katsura Imperial Villa]] (1619–1662) was inspired by the simplicity of the tea house.
</gallery>

===Garden bridges===
Bridges first appeared in the Japanese garden during the Heian period. At the [[Byōdō-in]] garden in Kyoto, a wooden bridge connects the Phoenix pavilion with a small island of stones, representing the [[Mount Penglai]] or Mount Horai, the island home of the Eight Immortals of [[Daoist]] teaching, The bridge symbolized the path to paradise and immortality.<ref>Danielle Elisseeff, ''Jardins japonais'', p. 24.</ref>

Bridges could be made of stone ({{transliteration|ja|ishibashi}}), or of wood, or made of logs with earth on top, covered with moss ({{transliteration|ja|dobashi}}); they could be either arched ({{transliteration|ja|soribashi}}) or flat ({{transliteration|ja|hirabashi}}). Sometimes if they were part of a temple garden, they were painted red, following the Chinese tradition, but for the most part they were unpainted.<ref>Young and Young, the ''Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 33.</ref>

During the Edo period, when large promenade gardens became popular, streams and winding paths were constructed, with a series of bridges, usually in a rustic stone or wood style, to take visitors on a tour of the scenic views of the garden.

<gallery class="center">
File:Pawilon Feniksa3.JPG|The bridge at [[Byōdō-in]] temple (1052) represented the way to the island of the immortals, and paradise.
File:Tokushima Castle lordly Front Palace Garden04s3872.jpg|A bridge at [[Tokushima]] castle made of two stones resting on a third stone (1592)
File:Kumamoto Suizenji-jojuen05n4272.jpg|Wood and stone bridge at [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en|Suizen-ji]] garden. The garden was begun in 1636.
File:Ritsurin.JPG|Wooden bridge in [[Ritsurin Garden]] (between 1642 and 1745)
File:Kenrokuen1.jpg|The Flying Geese Bridge in [[Kenroku-en]] garden (between 1822 and 1874)
File:Korakuen 24.JPG|[[Zig-zag bridge|Zig-zag stone bridge]] in [[Koishikawa Kōrakuen]]
File:Tenshaen.jpg|Rustic bridge at [[Tensha-en]] garden in Uwajima (1866)
File:Sorakuen09n3200.jpg|A wooden bridge covered with earth and moss (dobashi) at [[Sorakuen]]
File:Sankeien Rinshukaku and Teisha Bridge.jpg|A rare covered bridge from the [[Sankeien]] Garden in [[Yokohama]]
</gallery>

===Stone lanterns and water basins===
{{main|Tōrō}}

Japanese {{Nihongo|stone lanterns|台灯籠|dai-dōrō|"platform lamp"}} date back to the [[Nara period]] and the [[Heian period]]. Originally they were located only at Buddhist temples, where they lined the paths and approaches to the temple, but in the Heian period they began to be used at Shinto shrines as well. According to tradition, during the [[Momoyama period]] they were introduced to the tea garden by the first great tea masters, and in later gardens they were used purely for decoration.

In its complete and original form, a {{transliteration|ja|dai-dōrō}}, like the [[pagoda]], represents the five elements of Buddhist cosmology. The piece touching the ground represents {{transliteration|ja|chi}}, the earth; the next section represents {{transliteration|ja|sui}}, or water; {{transliteration|ja|ka}} or fire, is represented by the section encasing the lantern's light or flame, while {{transliteration|ja|fū}} (air) and {{transliteration|ja|kū}} (void or spirit) are represented by the last two sections, top-most and pointing towards the sky. The segments express the idea that after death our physical bodies will go back to their original, elemental form.<ref name="OMP">{{cite web|url=http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/5-elements-pagoda-gravestone.html|title=Five Element Pagodas, Stupas, Steles, Gravestones|publisher=Onmark Productions|access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref>

Stone water basins ({{transliteration|ja|[[tsukubai]]}}) were originally placed in gardens for visitors to wash their hands and mouth before the tea ceremony. The water is provided to the basin by a bamboo pipe, or {{transliteration|ja|kakei}}, and they usually have a wooden ladle for drinking the water. In tea gardens, the basin was placed low to the ground, so the drinker had to bend over to get water.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 35</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:HiroshimaShukkeienLantern7324.jpg|Lantern in [[Shukkei-en]] garden in [[Hiroshima]].
File:Korakuen 26.JPG|Lantern in [[Kōraku-en]] garden
File:Tsukubai2.JPG|Water basin at [[Ryōan-ji]], Kyoto
File:Kenrokuen05-r.jpg|Stone water basin in [[Kenroku-en]] garden.
File:Saikyoji26s4592.jpg|Stone water basin in Sakamotu, [[Ōtsu]], Shiga
File:Font at Tenryuji Temple.jpg|Water basin at [[Tenryū-ji]] Temple in Kyoto
File:Kenroku-en-winter-lantern.jpg|Snow lanterns, like this one in [[Kenroku-en]] garden, have wide brims which catch the snow, to create picturesque scenes.
File:Japanese Garden Stone Cistern Fountain NBG 6 LR.jpg|Stone water fountain and cistern at the Japanese Garden at Norfolk Botanical Garden, Norfolk, Virginia
</gallery>

===Garden fences, gates, and devices===
<gallery class="center">
File:Exterior wall katsura.jpg|The exterior wall of [[Katsura Imperial Villa]], designed, like all the garden, for purity and simplicity
File:Adachi Museum of Art05s4592.jpg|The traditional garden gate of the Adachi Museum of Art
File:Shishiodoshi.gif|A {{transliteration|ja|[[shishi-odoshi]]}} is garden device, made of bamboo and wood, designed to scare away birds. As the bamboo tube fills with water, it clacks against a stone, empties, then fills with water again.
File:Suikinkutsu in Enkoji.jpg|The {{transliteration|ja|[[suikinkutsu]]}} is a subtle garden instrument hidden beneath the gravel in some water basins.
</gallery>

===Trees and flowers===
{{see also|Cloud tree}}
[[File:Momiji in Ginkaku-ji.jpg|thumb|[[Japanese maple]] in the temple of [[Ginkaku-ji]], Kyoto]]
Nothing in a Japanese garden is natural or left to chance; each plant is chosen according to aesthetic principles, either to hide undesirable sights, to serve as a backdrop to certain garden features, or to create a picturesque scene. Trees are carefully chosen and arranged for their autumn colors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staveley |first=Elaine |date=September 2024 |title=Planting Schemes |url=https://www.plantplanner.ie/post/plantingstyles |access-date=4 October 2024 |website=Plant Planner}}</ref> [[Moss]] is often used to suggest that the garden is ancient. Flowers are also carefully chosen by their season of flowering. Formal [[flowerbed]]s are rare in older gardens, but more common in modern gardens. Some plants are chosen for their religious symbolism, such as the [[Indian lotus|lotus]], sacred in Buddhist teachings, or the [[pine]], which represents longevity.

The trees are carefully trimmed to provide attractive scenes, and to prevent them from blocking other views of the garden. Their growth is also controlled, in a technique called {{transliteration|ja|[[niwaki]]}}, to give them more picturesque shapes, and to make them look more ancient. It has been suggested that the characteristic shape of pruned Japanese garden trees resemble trees found naturally in savannah landscapes. This resemblance has been used to motivate the so-called [[Savannah hypothesis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orians |title=An ecological and evolutionary approach to landscape aesthetics |journal=Landscape Meanings and Values |date=1986}}</ref> Trees are sometimes constrained to bend, in order to provide shadows or better reflections in the water. Very old pine trees are often supported by wooden crutches called ''tsurazue'' or ''hōdzue shichū'', or their branches are held by cords, to keep them from breaking under the weight of snow.

In the late 16th century, a new art was developed in the Japanese garden; that of {{nihongo||大刈込|ōkarikomi}}, the technique of trimming bushes into balls or rounded shapes which imitate waves. According to tradition this art was developed by [[Kobori Masakazu|Kobori Enshū]] (1579–1647), and it was most frequently practiced on [[azalea]] bushes. It was similar to the [[topiary]] gardens made in Europe at the same time, except that European topiary gardens tried to make trees look like geometric solid objects, while {{transliteration|ja|ōkarikomi}} sought to make bushes look as if they were almost liquid, or in flowing natural shapes. It created an artistic play of light on the surface of the bush, and, according to garden historian Michel Baridon, "it also brought into play the sense of 'touching things' which even today succeeds so well in Japanese design."<ref>Michel Baridon. ''Les Jardins''. p. 475. excerpt translated from French by D.R. Siefkin.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Karikomi |publisher=JAANUS |url=http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/k/karikomi.htm}}</ref>

The most common trees and plants found in Japanese gardens are the ''[[rhododendron]]'', the ''[[camellia]]'', the [[oak]] (particularly ''[[Quercus dentata]]''), the [[elm]], {{Clarification needed span|text=the [[Prunus mume|Chinese flowering plum]] ({{transliteration|ja|ume}}),|reason="Ume" typically refers to "Prunus mume" but this wikilinks to "Prunus salicina".|date=June 2025}} [[sakura]], [[maple]], the [[willow]], the ''[[ginkgo]]'', the [[Japanese cypress]], the [[Japanese cedar]], [[pine]], and [[bamboo]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}

<gallery class="center">
File:Chionin23n4272.jpg|The style of [[topiary]] plant sculpture known as {{transliteration|ja|ōkarikomi}} in Chionin Garden
File:Chiran Samurai Residence02.jpg|{{transliteration|ja|Ōkarikomi}} sculpted trees and bushes at Chiran Samurai Residence
File:Sorakuen15st3200.jpg|[[Azaleas]] at Soraku-en Garden
File:TenryujiMomiji.jpg|[[Bamboo]] and [[Japanese maple]] combined at [[Tenryū-ji]] Garden in Kyoto
File:Podocarpus macrophyllus,katori-city,japan.JPG|[[Cloud tree]] at Katori
File:Yukitsuri-standalonepine-02-2006-03-03.jpg|Some ancient pine trees at [[Kenroku-en]] supported by cords in winter to keep their limbs from breaking
File:Kenroku-en.jpg|Pine trees at [[Kenroku-en]] garden supported by braces to support the weight of snow without breaking
File:Ritsurin park05s3200.jpg|Landscape in [[Ritsurin Garden]]
File:Ritsurin park02s3200.jpg|{{transliteration|ja|Ōkarikomi}}; trimmed bushes in [[Ritsurin Garden]]
</gallery>

===Fish===
{{main|Koi pond}}
The use of fish, particularly [[koi]] (colored carp), [[Japanese rice fish]] or [[goldfish]] as a decorative element in gardens was borrowed from the Chinese garden. Goldfish were developed in China more than a thousand years ago by [[selective breeding|selectively breeding]] [[Prussian carp]] for color [[mutation]]s. By the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), yellow, orange, white and red-and-white colorations had been developed. Goldfish were introduced to Japan in the 16th century. Koi were developed from [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio'') in Japan in the 1820s. Koi are domesticated common carp that are selected or [[culling|culled]] for color; they are not a different species, and will revert to the original coloration within a few generations if allowed to breed freely.<ref name="Aquatic-oasis ">{{cite web|url=http://www.aquatic-oasis.com/articles.htm |title=Aquatic-oasis articles |publisher=Aquatic-oasis |access-date=2009-02-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016024203/http://www.aquatic-oasis.com/articles.htm |archive-date=October 16, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.exoticgoldfish.net/|title=Exotic Goldfish|access-date=2012-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211211843/http://www.exoticgoldfish.net/|archive-date=2011-12-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition to fish, turtles are kept in some gardens. Natural environments in the gardens offer habitats that attract wild animals; frogs and birds are notable as they contribute with a pleasant soundscape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerwén |first1=Gunnar |title=Listening to Japanese Gardens: An Autoethnographic Study on the Soundscape Action Design Tool |journal=Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health |date=2019 |volume=16 |issue=23 |page=4648 |doi=10.3390/ijerph16234648|pmid=31766643 |pmc=6926712 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:Onkamikoi.JPG|Koi in the [[Ise Grand Shrine]] 2005
Six koi.jpg|Koi
File:Himeji Koukoen08s4592.jpg|Koi in Himeji [[Koko-en Garden]]
File:Suizenji Carp.JPG|A large carp in the [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en|garden of Suizen-ji]]
</gallery>

==Aesthetic principles==
The early Japanese gardens largely followed the Chinese model, but gradually Japanese gardens developed their own principles and aesthetics. These were spelled out by a series of landscape gardening manuals, beginning with {{nihongo3|"Records of Garden Making"||Sakuteiki}} in the Heian period (794–1185).<ref name="ReferenceA">Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 20</ref> The principles of [[sacred garden]]s, such as the gardens of Zen Buddhist temples, were different from those of pleasure or promenade gardens; for example, Zen Buddhist gardens were designed to be seen, while seated, from a platform with a view of the whole garden, without entering it, while promenade gardens were meant to be seen by walking through the garden and stopping at a series of view points. However, they often contain common elements and used the same techniques.

*Miniaturisation: The Japanese garden is a miniature and idealized view of nature. Rocks can represent mountains, and ponds can represent seas. The garden is sometimes made to appear larger by [[forced perspective]]: placing larger rocks and trees in the foreground, and smaller ones in the background.
* Concealment {{nihongo3|"hide and reveal"||miegakure}}: The Zen Buddhist garden is meant to be seen all at once, but the promenade garden is meant to be seen one landscape at a time, like a scroll of painted landscapes unrolling. Features are hidden behind hills, trees groves or bamboo, walls or structures, to be discovered when the visitor follows the winding path.
* {{nihongo|Borrowed scenery||shakkei}}: Smaller gardens are often designed to incorporate [[borrowed scenery]], the view of features outside the garden such as hills, trees or temples, as part of the view. This makes the garden seem larger than it really is.
* Asymmetry: Japanese gardens are not laid on straight axes, or with a single feature dominating the view. Buildings and garden features are usually placed to be seen from a diagonal, and are carefully composed into scenes that contrast right angles, such as buildings with natural features, and vertical features, such as rocks, bamboo or trees, with horizontal features, such as water.<ref name="Young, p. 20">Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 20.</ref>

According to garden historians David and Michigo Young, at the heart of the Japanese garden is the principle that a garden is a work of art. "Though inspired by nature, it is an interpretation rather than a copy; it should appear to be natural, but it is not wild."<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Landscape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto wrote that the Japanese generate "the best of nature's handiwork in a limited space".<ref name=Vincent2008/>

There has been mathematical analysis of some traditional Japanese garden designs. These designs avoid contrasts, symmetries and groupings that would create points which dominate [[Visual spatial attention|visual attention]]. Instead, they create scenes in which visual [[Salience (neuroscience)|salience]] is evenly distributed across the field of view. Stand-out colours, textures, objects, and groups are avoided. The size of objects, groupings, and the spacings between them are arranged to be [[self-similar]] at multiple [[spatial scale]]s; that is, they produce similar patterns when [[scale (ratio)|scaled up or down]] (zoomed in or out). This property is also seen in [[fractal]]s and [[Fractal#Natural phenomena with fractal features|many natural scenes]]. This fractal-like self-similarity may be extended all the way down to the scale of surface textures (such as those of rocks and [[moss lawns]]).<ref name="visual">{{cite journal |last1=van Tonder |first1=Gert J. |last2=Lyons |first2=Michael J. |title=Visual Perception in Japanese Rock Garden Design |journal=Axiomathes |date=September 2005 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=353–371 |doi=10.1007/s10516-004-5448-8 |citeseerx=10.1.1.125.463 |s2cid=121488942 |url=http://www.kasrl.org/axiomathes.pdf}}</ref> These textures are considered to express a {{transliteration|ja|[[wabi-sabi]]}} aesthetic.<ref name="heat_isle">{{cite journal |last1=Oishi |first1=Yoshitaka |title=Urban heat island effects on moss gardens in Kyoto, Japan |journal=Landscape and Ecological Engineering |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=177–184 |doi=10.1007/s11355-018-0356-z |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326676583|year=2019 |bibcode=2019LaEcE..15..177O |s2cid=51890554 }}</ref>

==Differences between Japanese and Chinese gardens==
Japanese gardens during the [[Heian period]] were modeled upon Chinese gardens, but by the [[Edo period]] there were distinct differences.

*Architecture: Chinese gardens have buildings in the center of the garden, occupying a large part of the garden space. The buildings are placed next to or over the central body of water. The garden buildings are very elaborate, with much architectural decoration. In later Japanese gardens, the buildings are well apart from the body of water, and the buildings are simple, with very little ornament. The architecture in a Japanese garden is largely or partly concealed.
* Viewpoint: Chinese gardens are designed to be seen from the inside, from the buildings, galleries and pavilions in the center of the garden. Japanese gardens are designed to be seen from the outside, as in the Japanese rock garden or zen garden; or from a path winding through the garden.
* Use of rocks: in a Chinese garden, particularly in the [[Ming dynasty]], [[scholar's rock]]s were selected for their extraordinary shapes or resemblance to animals or mountains, and used for dramatic effect. They were often the stars and centerpieces of the garden. In later Japanese gardens, rocks were smaller and placed in more natural arrangements, integrated into the garden.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 22</ref>
* Marine landscapes: Chinese gardens were inspired by Chinese inland landscapes, particularly Chinese lakes and mountains, while Japanese gardens often use miniaturized scenery from the Japanese coast. Japanese gardens frequently include white sand or pebble beaches and rocks which seem to have been worn by the waves and tide, which rarely appear in Chinese gardens.<ref>Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 466</ref>

==Garden styles==
===''Chisen-shoyū-teien'' or pond garden===
The ''chisen-shoyū-teien'' ("lake-spring-boat excursion garden") was imported from China during the [[Heian period]] (794–1185). It is also called the ''[[shinden-zukuri]]'' style, after the architectural style of the main building. It featured a large, ornate residence with two long wings reaching south to a large lake and garden. Each wing ended in a pavilion from which guests could enjoy the views of the lake. Visitors made tours of the lake in small boats. These gardens had large lakes with small islands, where musicians played during festivals and ceremonies worshippers could look across the water at the Buddha. No original gardens of this period remain, but reconstructions can be seen at [[Heian Shrine|Heian-jingū]] and [[Daikaku-ji]] temple in Kyoto.

<gallery class="center">
File:Lake at Heian Shrine, Kyoto.jpg|[[Heian Shrine|Heian-jingū]] is a recreation of the old imperial pond garden of Kyoto.
</gallery>

===The Paradise Garden===
The Paradise Garden appeared in the late [[Heian period]], created by nobles belonging to the Amida Buddhism sect. They were meant to symbolize Paradise or the [[Pure Land]] (''Jōdo''), where the [[Buddha]] sat on a platform contemplating a lotus pond. These gardens featured a lake island called Nakajima, where the Buddha hall was located, connected to the shore by an arching bridge. The most famous surviving example is the garden of the Phoenix Hall of [[Byōdō-in]] Temple, built in 1053, in Uji, near Kyoto. Other examples are [[Jōruri-ji]] temple in Kyoto, Enro-ji temple in [[Nara Prefecture]], the Hokongoin in Kyoto, [[Mōtsū-ji]] Temple in [[Hiraizumi]], and Shiramizu Amidado Garden in [[Iwaki City]].<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 84.</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:Byodo-in in Uji.jpg|[[Byōdō-in]] Temple in Uji, near Kyoto
File:Enjo-ji Garden 04.jpg|[[Enjō-ji]] Temple in [[Nara Prefecture]] is a good example of a paradise garden of the late Heian period.
File:Joruriji Hondo.jpg|[[Jōruri-ji]], a paradise garden in Kyoto. The pond was dug by monks in 1150.
</gallery>

===Karesansui dry rock gardens===
[[Karesansui]] gardens (枯山水) or [[Japanese rock gardens]], became popular in Japan in the 14th century thanks to the work of a Buddhist monk, [[Musō Soseki]] (1275–1351) who built zen gardens at the five major monasteries in Kyoto. These gardens have white sand or raked gravel in place of water, carefully arranged rocks, and sometimes rocks and sand covered with moss. Their purpose is to facilitate meditation, and they are meant to be viewed while seated on the porch of the residence of the ''hōjō'', the abbot of the monastery. The most famous example is [[Ryōan-ji]] temple in Kyoto.

<gallery class="center">
File:RosanjiTeien.jpg|Rosan-ji garden, Kyoto
File:Zuihou-in2.JPG|Zuihō-in garden, Kyoto
File:Daisen-in3.jpg|[[Daisen-in]], Kyoto
</gallery>

===''Roji'', or tea gardens===
The [[tea garden]] was created during the [[Muromachi period]] (1333–1573) and [[Momoyama period]] (1573–1600) as a setting for the [[Japanese tea ceremony]], or ''[[chanoyu]]''. The style of garden takes its name from the ''[[roji]]'', or path to the teahouse, which is supposed to inspire the visitor to meditation to prepare him for the ceremony. There is an outer garden, with a gate and covered arbor where guests wait for the invitation to enter. They then pass through a gate to the inner garden, where they wash their hands and rinse their mouth, as they would before entering a Shinto shrine, before going into the teahouse itself. The path is always kept moist and green, so it will look like a remote mountain path, and there are no bright flowers that might distract the visitor from his meditation.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', pp. 118–119.</ref> Early teahouses had no windows, but later teahouses have a wall which can be opened for a view of the garden.

<gallery class="center">
File:Jingu Chashitsu04.jpg|A teahouse and roji, or tea garden, at [[Ise Jingu]]
File:2002 kenrokuen hanami 0123.jpg|Traditional teahouse and tea garden at [[Kenroku-en]] Garden
File:Urakuen tea garden 01.jpg|Garden of the Urakuen teahouse
File:Keishun-in 4.JPG|Rustic gate of the Keishun-in garden teahouse in Kyoto
</gallery>

===Kaiyū-shiki-teien, or promenade gardens===
Promenade or stroll gardens (landscape gardens in the go-round style) first appeared in Japan during the [[Edo period]] (1600–1854), at the villas of [[daimyo|nobles]] or [[shogun|warlords]]. These gardens were designed to complement the houses in the new {{transliteration|ja|[[sukiya-zukuri]]}} style of architecture, which were modeled after the [[chashitsu|teahouse]]. 

Promenade gardens were meant to be seen by following a path clockwise around a lake from one carefully composed scene to another. These gardens made use of two techniques to provide interest: {{nihongo|[[borrowed scenery]]|借景|shakkei}}, which took advantage of views of scenery outside the garden, such as mountains or temples, incorporating them into the view so the garden looked larger than it really was; and {{nihongo||見え隠れ|miegakure}}, or "hide-and-reveal", which used winding paths, fences, bamboo and buildings to hide the scenery so the visitor would not see it until he was at the best view point.

Edo period gardens also often feature recreations of famous scenery or scenes inspired by literature. For example, [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en]] Garden in [[Kumamoto]] has a miniature version of [[Mount Fuji]], and [[Katsura Villa]] in Kyoto has a miniature version of the [[Ama-no-hashidate]] sandbar in Miyazu Bay, near Kyoto. The [[Rikugi-en]] Garden in Tokyo creates small landscapes inspired by eighty-eight famous Japanese poems.<ref>Young, The ''Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 124</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:Shokin-tei seen from the Geppa-ro.jpg|[[Katsura Imperial Villa]], the prototype for the promenade garden
File:Shugakuin Imperial Villa.jpg|[[Shugaku-in]] Imperial Villa, completed in 1659, another classic example of a promenade garden of the Edo period
File:KoishikawaKorakuen8965.jpg|Two hills covered with trimmed bamboo grass which represent [[Mount Lu]] in China. This feature is in [[Koishikawa Kōrakuen]] Garden in Tokyo.
File:Kumamoto Suizenji-jojuen04n4272.jpg|[[Suizen-ji Jōju-en]] Garden, begun in 1636, has a miniature replica of [[Mount Fuji]]. The trees on the upper part of the hill are trimmed to be smaller, to make the mountain look taller.
</gallery>

===Small urban gardens===
[[File:Shima-Tsuboniwa.JPG|thumb|The ''naka-niwa'' or courtyard garden of a former [[geisha]] house in [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa]]. The trees are covered with straw to protect them from the snow.]]
{{main|Tsubo-niwa}}

Small gardens were originally found in the interior courtyards (''naka-niwa'', "inner garden") of [[Heian period]] palaces, and were designed to give a glimpse of nature and some privacy to the residents of the rear side of the building. They were as small as one ''[[tsubo]]'', or about 3.3 square meters, whence the name ''tsubo-niwa''. During the [[Edo period]], merchants began building small gardens in the space behind their shops, which faced the street, and their residences, located at the rear. These tiny gardens were meant to be seen, not entered, and usually had a stone lantern, a water basin, stepping stones and a few plants. Today, ''tsubo-niwa'' are found in many Japanese residences, hotels, restaurants, and public buildings.<ref>Young, ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', p. 126</ref> A good example from the [[Meiji period]] is found in the villa of [[Murin-an]] in Kyoto.<ref>Gunter Nitschke, ''Le jardin japonais'', p. 225.</ref> [[Totekiko]] is a famous courtyard rock garden.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ryogen-in, a sub-temple of Daitoku-ji |url=http://kyoto.asanoxn.com/places/murasakino/ryogenin.htm |website=kyoto.asanoxn.com |access-date=2020-01-06 |archive-date=2021-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123145816/http://kyoto.asanoxn.com/places/murasakino/ryogenin.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Hermitage garden===
[[File:Shisen-do.JPG|thumb|left|[[Shisen-dō]], built in Kyoto, in the 17th century, one of the best examples of a hermitage garden]]
A hermitage garden is a small garden usually built by a samurai or government official who wanted to retire from public life and devote himself to study or meditation. It is attached to a rustic house, and approached by a winding path, which suggests it is deep in a forest. It may have a small pond, a Japanese rock garden, and the other features of traditional gardens, in miniature, designed to create tranquility and inspiration. An example is the [[Shisen-dō]] garden in Kyoto, built by a bureaucrat and scholar exiled by the shogun in the 17th century. It is now a Buddhist temple.
{{clear}}

==Literature and art of the Japanese garden==
[[File:Bridge Over a Pond of Water Lilies, Claude Monet 1899.jpg|thumb|[[Claude Monet]], ''Bridge over a Pond of Water Lilies'', 1899, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]

===Garden manuals===
The first manual of Japanese gardening was the ''[[Sakuteiki]]'' ("Records of Garden Making"), probably written in the late eleventh century by Tachibana no Tohshitsuna (1028–1094). Citing even older Chinese sources, it explains how to organize the garden, from the placement of rocks and streams to the correct depth of ponds and height of cascades. While it was based on earlier Chinese garden principles, it also expressed ideas which were unique to Japanese gardens, such as islands, beaches and rock formations imitating Japanese maritime landscapes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuitert |first=Wybe |date=1998 |title=Review of De la création des jardins: Traduction du Sakutei-ki |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2385689 |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=292–294 |doi=10.2307/2385689 |jstor=2385689 |issn=0027-0741|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Besides giving advice, ''Sakuteiki'' also gives dire warnings of what happens if the rules are not followed; the author warns that if a rock that in nature was in a horizontal position is stood upright in a garden, it will bring misfortune to the owner of the garden. And, if a large rock pointed toward the north or west is placed near a gallery, the owner of the garden will be forced to leave before a year passes.<ref>Michel Baridon, ''Les Jardins'', pp. 485–486.</ref>

Another influential work about the Japanese garden, [[bonseki]], [[bonsai]] and related arts was ''Rhymeprose on a Miniature Landscape Garden'' (around 1300) by the Zen monk [[Kokan Shiren]], which explained how meditation on a miniature garden purified the senses and the mind and led to understanding of the correct relationship between man and nature.

Other influential garden manuals which helped to define the aesthetics of the Japanese garden are ''Senzui Narabi ni Yagyo no Zu'' (Illustrations for Designing Mountain, Water and Hillside Field Landscapes), written in the fifteenth century, and ''Tsukiyama Teizoden'' (Building Mountains and Making Gardens), from the 18th century. The tradition of Japanese gardening was historically passed down from ''[[sensei]]'' to apprentice. The opening words of ''Illustrations for designing mountain, water and hillside field landscapes'' (1466) are "If you have not received the oral transmissions, you must not make gardens" and its closing admonition is "You must never show this writing to outsiders. You must keep it secret".<ref>The ''Illustrations'', nevertheless, are translated and annotated in David A. Slawson, ''Secret Teachings in the Art of Japanese Gardens'' (New York/Tokyo: Kodansha 1987)</ref>

These garden manuals are still studied today.<ref name="Young, p. 20"/>

===Gardens in literature and poetry===
* ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'', the classic Japanese novel of the [[Heian period]], describes the role of the Japanese garden in court life. The characters attend festivals in the old Kyoto imperial palace garden, take boat trips on the lake, listen to music and watch formal dances under the trees.<ref>Michel Baridon, ''Les Jardins'', p. 485.</ref>

Gardens were often the subject of poems during the Heian period. A poem in one anthology from the period, the ''Kokin-Shu'', described the ''Kiku-shima'', or island of chrystanthemums, found in the Osawa pond in the great garden of the period called ''Saga-in''.

:I had thought that here
:only one chrysanthemum can grow.
:Who therefore has planted
:the other in the depths
:of the pond of Osawa?

Another poem of the Heian period, in the ''Hyakunin isshu,'' described a cascade of rocks, which simulated a waterfall, in the same garden:

:The cascade long ago
:ceased to roar,
:But we continue to hear
:The murmur
:of its name.<ref>Nitschke, Le Jardin Japonais, p. 42. Excerpts translated from French by DR Siefkin.</ref>

===Philosophy, painting, and the Japanese garden===
[[File:Shubun - Landscape of the Four Seasons.jpg|thumb|Painting of part of ''Landscape of the Four Seasons'' by the monk [[Tenshō Shūbun]] from the [[Muromachi period]], showing an idealized Japanese landscape, where man was humble and lived in harmony with nature. This ideal landscape was also depicted in Japanese gardens.]]
In [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]], garden-making is a high art, equal to the arts of [[calligraphy]] and [[ink painting]]. Gardens are considered three-dimensional textbooks of Daoism and Zen Buddhism. Sometimes the lesson is very literal; the garden of [[Saihō-ji]] featured a pond shaped like the Japanese character ''shin'' (心) or ''xīn'' in Chinese, the heart-spirit of Chinese philosophy, the newspaper character is 心 but it's the full cursive, the ''sousho'' style (草書) for ''shin'' that would be used; ''sousho'', this well-named "grass writing", would be appropriate for gardening purpose indeed, for in cursive writing the character shapes change depending on the context and of course, since it is cursive, depending on the person -that is to say that the character would be done in a single pencil stroke, it would match the state of mind and the context rather than the newspaper print.{{clarify|date=February 2014}}
However, usually the lessons are contained in the arrangements of the rocks, the water and the plants. For example, the [[lotus flower]] has a particular message; Its roots are in the mud at the bottom of the pond, symbolizing the misery of the human condition, but its flower is pure white, symbolizing the purity of spirit that can be achieved by following the teachings of the Buddha.
<ref>Danielle Elisseeff, Jardins Japonais, p. 39.</ref>

The [[Japanese rock garden]]s were intended to be intellectual puzzles for the monks who lived next to them to study and solve. They followed the same principles as the ''suiboku-ga'', the black-and-white Japanese inks paintings of the same period, which, according to Zen Buddhist principles, tried to achieve the maximum effect using the minimum essential elements.<ref>Miyeko Murase, ''L'Art du Japon'', p. 183.</ref>
[[File:Hyônen zu by Josetsu.jpg|thumb|left|"[[Catching a catfish with a gourd]]" by [[Josetsu]] ]]
One painter who influenced the Japanese garden was [[Josetsu]] (1405–1423), a Chinese Zen monk who moved to Japan and introduced a new style of ink-brush painting, moving away from the romantic misty landscapes of the earlier period, and using asymmetry and areas of white space, similar to the white space created by sand in zen gardens, to set apart and highlight a mountain or tree branch or other element of his painting. He became chief painter of the Shogun and influenced a generation of painters and [[garden designer]]s.<ref>Miyeko Murase, ''L'Art du Japon'', p. 197</ref>

Japanese gardens also follow the principles of perspective of Japanese landscape painting, which feature a close-up plane, an intermediate plane, and a distant plane. The empty space between the different planes has a great importance, and is filled with water, moss, or sand. The garden designers used various optical tricks to give the garden the illusion of being larger than it really is, by [[borrowing of scenery ("shakkei")]], employing distant views outside the garden, or using miniature trees and bushes to create the illusion that they are far away.<ref>Virginie Klecka, ''Jardins Japonais'', p. 20.</ref>
{{clear}}

==Noteworthy Japanese gardens==
===In Japan===
{{main|List of Special Places of Scenic Beauty, Special Historic Sites and Special Natural Monuments}}
[[File:Tenryuji Kyoto01n4500.jpg|thumb|[[Tenryū-ji]] Garden in [[Kyoto]]<br />(''Kaiyū-shiki Garden'', completed in the 14th century)]]
[[File:160319 Korakuen Okayama Japan04s3.jpg|thumb|[[Kōraku-en]] in [[Okayama]]<br />(''Kaiyū-shiki Garden'', completed in the 17th century)]]
[[File:Adachi Museum of Art01st3200.jpg|thumb|[[Adachi Museum of Art]] Garden, [[Yasugi]]<br />(''Kanshō-shiki Garden'', completed in the 20th century)]]
[[File:Kumamoto Suizenji-jojuen01n4272.jpg|thumb|A spacious Japanese garden, [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en]], near [[Kumamoto Castle]]]]
The [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]] of the government of [[Japan]] designates the most notable of the nation's scenic beauty as Special Places of Scenic Beauty, under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/english/org/eshisaku/ebunka.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815055124/http://www.mext.go.jp/english/org/eshisaku/ebunka.htm|url-status=dead|title=MEXT : Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology<!-- Bot generated title -->|archive-date=August 15, 2007}}</ref> As of March 2007, 29 sites are listed, more than a half of which are Japanese gardens ('''boldface''' entries specify [[World Heritage Site]]s):
* [[Tōhoku region]]
** [[Mōtsū-ji]] Garden ([[Hiraizumi, Iwate]])
* [[Kantō region]]
** [[Kairaku-en]] ([[Mito, Ibaraki]])
** [[Rikugi-en]] ([[Bunkyō]], Tokyo)
** Kyu [[Hamarikyu Gardens]] ([[Chūō, Tokyo]])
* [[Chūbu region]]
** [[Kenroku-en]] ([[Kanazawa, Ishikawa]])
** [[Ichijōdani Asakura Family Gardens]] ([[Fukui, Fukui]])
* [[Kansai region]]
** [[Byōdō-in]] Garden ([[Uji, Kyoto]])
** [[Ginkaku-ji|Jisho-ji]] Garden ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** [[Nijō Castle]] Ninomaru Garden ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** [[Rokuon-ji]] Garden ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** [[Ryōan-ji]] Garden ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** [[Tenryū-ji]] Garden ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** The garden of Sanbōin in [[Daigo-ji]] ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** The [[moss]] garden of [[Saihō-ji]] (the "Moss Temple") ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** [[Daitoku-ji]] Garden ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** The garden of [[Daisen-in]] in [[Daitoku-ji]] ([[Kyoto, Kyoto]])
** [[Murin-an]] garden, [[Kyoto, Kyoto]]
** [[Negoro-ji]] Garden ([[Iwade, Wakayama]])
* [[Chūgoku region]]
** [[Adachi Museum of Art]] Garden ([[Yasugi, Shimane]])
** [[Koraku-en|Kōraku-en]] ([[Okayama, Okayama]])
** [[Matsue Vogel Park]] ([[Matsue]])
** [[Shūraku-en]] ([[Tsuyama, Okayama|Tsuyama]])
* [[Shikoku]] Region
** [[Ritsurin Garden]] ([[Takamatsu, Kagawa]])
** [[Nakatsu Banshoen]] ([[Marugame, Kagawa]])
** [[Tensha-en]] ([[Uwajima, Ehime]])
* [[Kyushu]] Region
** [[Suizen-ji Jōju-en]] ([[Kumamoto, Kumamoto]])
** [[Sengan-en]] ([[Kagoshima, Kagoshima]])
* [[Ryūkyū Islands]]
** [[Shikina-en]] ([[Naha, Okinawa]])

However, the Education Minister is not eligible to have jurisdiction over any imperial property. These two gardens, administered by [[Imperial Household Agency]], are also considered to be great masterpieces.
* [[Katsura Imperial Villa]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/location/regional/kyoto/katsura.html|title=Katsura}}</ref>
* [[Shugaku-in Imperial Villa]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.japan.travel/en/things-to-do/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818152146/http://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/location/regional/kyoto/shugaku-in.html|url-status=dead|title=Things to Do &#124; Japan Travel &#124; JNTO|archive-date=August 18, 2007|website=Japan National Tourism Organization (JNTO)}}</ref>

===In Taiwan===
[[File:一滴水紀念館 A Drop of Water Memorial Hall - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Drop of Water Memorial Hall]] in [[New Taipei City, Taiwan|New Taipei City]], Taiwan]]

Several Japanese gardens were built during [[Japanese Taiwan]] period.

* [[Taipei Guest House]] 
* [[Beitou Plum Garden]] in [[Beitou]], [[Taipei]]
* [[Beitou Museum]] in [[Beitou]], [[Taipei]]
* [[Nanmon-cho 323]] in [[Zhongzheng District]], [[Taipei]]
* [[Drop of Water Memorial Hall]] in [[Tamsui]], [[New Taipei City]]
* Shoyoen in [[Kaohsiung]]

===In English-speaking countries===
[[File:07. Japanese Garden Pano, Cowra, NSW, 22.09.2006.jpg|thumb|This view from the Symbolic Mountain in the gardens in [[Cowra, New South Wales|Cowra, Australia]] shows many of the typical elements of a Japanese garden.]]
The aesthetic of Japanese gardens was introduced to the English-speaking world by [[Josiah Conder (architect)|Josiah Conder]]'s ''Landscape Gardening in Japan'' ([[Kelly & Walsh]], 1893). Conder was a British architect who had worked for the Japanese government and other clients in Japan from 1877 until his death. The book was published when the general trend of [[Japonisme]], or Japanese influence in the arts of the West, was already well-established, and sparked the first Japanese gardens in the West. A second edition was required in 1912.<ref>Slawson 1987:15 and note2.</ref> Initially these were mostly sections of large private gardens, but as the style grew in popularity, many Japanese gardens were, and continue to be, added to public parks and gardens. Conder's principles have sometimes proved hard to follow:

{{blockquote|Robbed of its local garb and mannerisms, the Japanese method reveals aesthetic principles applicable to the gardens of any country, teaching, as it does, how to convert into a poem or picture a composition, which, with all its variety of detail, otherwise lacks unity and intent.<ref>Conder quoted in Slawson 1987:15.</ref>}}

Samuel Newsom's ''Japanese Garden Construction'' (1939) offered Japanese aesthetic as a corrective in the construction of [[rock garden]]s, which owed their quite separate origins in the West to the mid-19th century desire to grow alpines in an approximation of Alpine [[scree]].

Gardens where involvement of a Japanese designer came closest to resemble the ones found initially in Japan. The work of [[Taki Handa]] (and later J. Suzuki) at Cowden Castle, Scotland was notable back in 1907.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raggett |first=Jill |date=Autumn 2006 |title=Early Japanese-style gardens in Britain: an overview. |url=https://jgs.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Shakkei13_2Raggett-Early-Japanese-style-Gardens-in-Britain.pdf |journal=Shakkei |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=6–9}}</ref> According to the [[Garden History Society]], Japanese landscape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto was involved in the development of around 200 gardens in the UK. In 1937 he exhibited a rock garden at the [[Chelsea Flower Show]], and worked on the Burngreave Estate at Bognor Regis, and also on a Japanese garden at [[Cottered]] in Hertfordshire. The lush courtyards at [[Du Cane Court]]&nbsp;– an [[art deco]] block of flats in Balham, London, built between 1935 and 1938&nbsp;– were designed by Kusumoto. All four courtyards there may have originally contained ponds. Only one survives, and this is stocked with [[koi]]. There are also several stone lanterns, which are meant to symbolise the illumination of one's path through life; similarly, the paths through the gardens are not straight. [[Japanese maple]], [[Japanese anemone]], cherry trees, evergreens, and [[bamboo]] are other typical features of Du Cane Court's gardens.<ref name=Vincent2008>{{cite book |last=Vincent |first=Gregory K. |title=A history of Du Cane Court : land, architecture, people and politics |publisher=Woodbine |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-9541675-1-6}}</ref>

According to David A. Slawson, many of the Japanese gardens that are recreated in the US are of "museum-piece quality". He also writes, however, that as the gardens have been introduced into the Western world, they have become more Americanized, decreasing their natural beauty.<ref>{{cite book|last=Slawson|first=David A.|title=Japanese gardens: design principles, aesthetic values|year=1987|publisher=Kodansha International Ltd.|location=Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo|isbn=4-7700-1541-0|page=15}}</ref>

====Australia====
[[File:Zengardengate.jpg|thumb|A Japanese [[zen garden]] at the Auburn Botanical Gardens, in [[Auburn, New South Wales|Auburn]], Sydney]]

* [[Adelaide Himeji Garden]], South Australia 
* [[Auburn Botanical Gardens]], in [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]]
* [[Lennox Gardens|Canberra Nara Peace Park in Lennox Gardens]], [[Canberra]]
* [[Cowra Japanese Garden and Cultural Centre]], [[Cowra, New South Wales]]
* [[Melbourne Zoo]], Victoria
* Nerima Gardens, [[Ipswich, Queensland|Ipswich]], Queensland
* [[Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mount Coot-tha#Japanese Garden|"Tsuki-yama-chisen" Japanese Garden]], Brisbane
* [[University of Southern Queensland]] Japanese Garden, "Ju Raku En", Largest Japanese Gardens in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gardens|url=http://www.usq.edu.au/campus-services/gardens|publisher=University of Southern Queensland|access-date=14 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415041333/http://www.usq.edu.au/campus-services/gardens|archive-date=15 April 2014}}</ref> [[Toowoomba, Queensland]]

====Canada====
[[File:Japanese Garden Devonian Botanic Garden Edmonton Alberta Canada 31A.jpg|thumb|Japanese Garden in the Devonian Botanic Garden, Edmonton, Alberta]]
* [[Nitobe Memorial Garden]], [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]]
* The [[University of Alberta Botanic Garden]], [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]], formerly named the Devonian Botanic Garden, which contains an extensive Japanese garden
* [[Nikka Yuko Japanese Garden]], [[Lethbridge]], [[Alberta]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nikkayuko.com|title=Nikka Yuko Japanese Garden : Lethbridge, Alberta}}</ref>
* [[The Japanese Garden and Pavilion]], [[Montreal Botanical Garden]], [[Quebec]]
* Kariya Park, [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mississauga.ca/portal/residents/kariyapark|title=Mississauga.ca&nbsp;– Residents&nbsp;– Kariya Park|website=www.mississauga.ca|date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

====United Kingdom====
'''England'''
[[File:Tatton Japanese Garden.jpg|thumb|Japanese Garden, [[Tatton Park Gardens]]]]
* [[Compton Acres (garden)|Compton Acres]], [[Dorset]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://japan-interface.co.uk/gardens/details.php?garID=47 |title=Japanese Gardens in the UK and Ireland – Compton Acres |access-date=2007-12-11 |archive-date=2007-07-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070731102016/http://japan-interface.co.uk/gardens/details.php?garID=47 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Dartington Hall]], [[Devon]]<ref name="JGJUK"/>
* Hall Park, [[Leeds]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/leeds/content/articles/2009/08/27/garden_feature.shtml |title=Leeds&nbsp;– Places&nbsp;– Japanese Garden at Horsforth Hall Park reopens |publisher=BBC |date=2009-08-27 |access-date=2013-12-22}}</ref>
* [[Harewood House]], [[Leeds]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.homeandgardeningarticles.co.uk/article-topics/gardening-articles/14-gardening/295-japanese-gardens-and-where-to-visit-them-in-the-uk.html |title=Japanese Gardens and Where to visit them in the UK |publisher=Homeandgardeningarticles.co.uk |date=2011-05-26 |access-date=2013-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101959/http://www.homeandgardeningarticles.co.uk/article-topics/gardening-articles/14-gardening/295-japanese-gardens-and-where-to-visit-them-in-the-uk.html |archive-date=2013-12-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Holland Park]], [[London]]<ref name="JGJUK" />
* [[St Mawgan in Pydar]], [[Cornwall]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buildajapanesegarden.com/|title=Japanese Garden Design, Construction and Materials|date=October 1, 2014|website=Build a Japanese Garden UK}}</ref>
* [[Tatton Park]], [[Cheshire]]<ref name="JGJUK" />
* [[School of Oriental and African Studies]], [[London]]<ref name="JGJUK"/>

'''Northern Ireland'''
* [[Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park]], Belfast
* Fujiyama Japanese Garden

'''Scotland'''
* [[Lauriston Castle]], Edinburgh – garden opened 2002<ref name="JGJUK"/>
* [[Japanese garden at Cowden|Cowden]], Clackmannanshire, - garden opened in 1908 and 2019<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Japanese Garden at Cowden |url=https://www.historichouses.org/house/cowden-garden/visit/ |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=Historic Houses |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
[[File:Irish National Stud, Co. Kildare (506993) (30045800113).jpg|thumb|Japanese Garden, [[Kildare|Tully]], [[County Kildare]]. Red lacquered arched bridges are Chinese in origin and seldom seen in Japan, but are often placed in Japanese-style gardens in other countries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eliovson|first=Sima|title=Gardening the Japanese way|year=1971|publisher=Harrap|isbn=978-0-245-50694-9|page=47|quote=Red lacquered arched bridges are seldom seen in Japan, although they are often placed in Japanese-styled gardens in other countries. These are of Chinese origin and there are only a few in evidence in Japanese gardens.}}</ref>]]
* The Japanese Gardens at the [[Irish National Stud]], [[Kildare]]<ref name="JGJUK">{{cite journal |date=September–October 2003 |title=UK and Ireland Survey |journal=Japanese Garden Journal |volume=35 |url=http://www.rothteien.com/topics/uk-survey.htm |access-date= 2007-12-11 }}</ref>
*[https://www.lafcadiohearngardens.com/ Lafcadio Hearn Japanese Gardens], [[Tramore]], [[County Waterford]]

====United States====

{{Further|List of Japanese gardens in the United States}}
[[File: Bridge to Eden.jpg|thumb|[[Brooklyn Botanic Garden]]'s Japanese Hill-and-Pond Garden ([[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]]); designed by [[Takeo Shiota]], was one of the first gardens to be created in an American [[botanical garden]] and reportedly the first one to be accessible free of charge.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT117|title=Quiet Beauty: The Japanese Gardens of North America|last1=Brown|first1=K. H.|last2=Cobb|first2=D. M.|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4629-1186-8|pages=117–118|access-date=January 13, 2020}}</ref>]]
[[File:Hakone Gardens.jpg|thumb|[[Hakone Gardens]] in [[Saratoga, California]]]]
* [[Anderson Japanese Gardens]] ([[Rockford, Illinois]])
* [[Brooklyn Botanic Garden#Japanese Hill-and-Pond Garden|Japanese Hill-and-Pond Garden at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden]] ([[Brooklyn]], New York)
* [[Chicago Botanic Garden#Garden facts|Chicago Botanic Garden]] ([[Glencoe, Illinois]])
* [[Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden]] at [[California State University, Long Beach]] ([[Long Beach]], California)
* [[Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park#Japanese Garden|Richard & Helen DeVos Japanese Garden at Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park]] (Grand Rapids, Michigan)
* [[Fort Worth Japanese Garden]] at the [[Fort Worth Botanic Garden]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas]])
* [[Japanese Tea Garden (San Francisco)|Japanese Tea Garden]] at [[Golden Gate Park]] ([[San Francisco]], California)
* [[Hakone Gardens]] ([[Saratoga, California]]), used as a filming location for ''[[Memoirs of a Geisha (film)|Memoirs of a Geisha]]''
* [[Japanese Gardens (Hayward, California)|Hayward Japanese Gardens]] ([[Hayward, California]]), the oldest traditionally designed Japanese garden in California<ref>[http://www.dmtonline.org/Japanese%20Gardens.htm The Japanese Gardens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825051939/http://www.dmtonline.org/Japanese%20Gardens.htm |date=2010-08-25 }}. Dmtonline.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-25.</ref>
* [[Japanese Garden of Peace]] at the [[National Museum of the Pacific War]] ([[Fredericksburg, Texas]])
* [[Huntington Library#Japanese Garden|Japanese Garden at the Huntington Library]] ([[San Marino, California]])
* [[Ro Ho En|Japanese Friendship Garden]] (Phoenix, Arizona)
* [[Japanese Friendship Garden (Balboa Park)]] ([[San Diego]], California)
* [[Japanese Friendship Garden (Kelley Park)]] ([[San Jose, California]])
* [[Japanese Garden (Houston)|Japanese Garden]] at [[Hermann Park]] ([[Houston, Texas]])
* [[Morikami Museum and Japanese Gardens]] (Delray Beach, Florida)
* [[Portland Japanese Garden]] (Portland, Oregon)
* [[Seattle Japanese Garden]] at the [[Washington Park Arboretum]] ([[Seattle, Washington]])
* [[Kubota Garden]] ([[Seattle, Washington]])
* [[The Japanese Garden]] (Los Angeles, California)
* [[Seiwa-en]] at the [[Missouri Botanical Garden]] (St. Louis, Missouri)
* [[Shofuso Japanese House and Garden]] (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
* [[Yuko-En on the Elkhorn]] ([[Georgetown, Kentucky]])
* [[Japanese Garden (Ashland, Oregon)]]

===In other countries===
[[File:Jardin Japones de Bs As 174.jpg|thumb|The Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens]]
[[File:Ekohaus1.jpg|thumb|The Japanese Temple Garden at the EKŌ-House of Japanese Culture in Düsseldorf]]
[[File:Tsubo-en O-karikomi center seasons run-opt.gif|thumb|All seasons close-up of the Tsubo-en (Netherlands) O-karikomi, hako-zukuri topiary]]
[[File:Giardini di montcarlo - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The Japanese Garden in [[Larvotto]], Monaco]]
[[File:Ogród Japoński-Przelewice.JPG|thumb|The Japanese Garden in [[Dendrological Garden in Przelewice|Przelewice]], Poland]]
[[File:Lankester Japanese Garden.JPG|thumb|The Japanese Garden in [[Lankester Botanical Garden]]s, [[Costa Rica]]]]
[[File:Japanese Garden Sngapore - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Japanese Garden, Singapore]]]]
* '''Argentina'''
** The [[Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens]], of the Fundación Cultural Argentino Japonesa
** [[Japanese Garden, Belén de Escobar|Japanese Garden]], [[Belén de Escobar]]
* '''Austria''':
** Setagayapark, Ecke Gallmeyergasse,1190 Vienna&nbsp;– opened 1992 (garden designer Ken Nakajima)
** The Japanese Garden in Schlosspark Schönbrunn, Vienna&nbsp;– revitalized 1999 
* '''Belgium'''
** [[Japanese Garden of Hasselt|Japanse tuin]], [[Hasselt]]
** [[Japanese Garden of Ostend|Japanse tuin]], [[Ostend]]
** Jardin japonais Chevetogne [[Namur, Belgium|Namur]]
* '''Brazil'''
** Parque Santos Dummont, São José dos Campos, São Paulo
** Bosque Municipal Fábio Barreto, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo
* '''Bulgaria''':
** at the [[Kempinski Hotel Zografski]] in [[Sofia]]; built in 1979 as a large-scale copy of the garden at the [[Hotel New Otani Tokyo]], first and only Japanese Garden in the [[Balkans]] until 2004.<ref name="thehotel">{{cite web|url=http://www.kempinski.com/en/sofia/Pages/Welcome.aspx?item_id=50119|title=The Hotel|publisher=Kempinski Hotel Zografski Sofia|access-date=2009-11-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716170327/http://www.kempinski.com/en/sofia/Pages/Welcome.aspx?item_id=50119|archive-date=2011-07-16}}</ref>
* '''Chile''':
** Jardin Japonés de [[La Serena, Chile|La Serena]] (Kokoro No Niwa); It is the largest Japanese garden in [[South America]].
** Jardín Japonés de [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]]; Built in 1978 and reopened in 1997 by [[Masahito, Prince Hitachi]]. 
* '''Costa Rica''':
** [[Lankester Botanical Garden]]s, operated by the [[University of Costa Rica]], in [[Cartago (canton)|Cartago canton]]
* '''Czech Republic''':
** Japanese Garden in [[Prague]] at Botanical Garden
** Japanese Zen Garden in [[Karlovy Vary]] at Teplà river
* '''Egypt''':
** Japanese garden in [[Cairo]] at Helwan district
* '''France''':
** The Departmental Museum of [[Albert Kahn (banker)|Albert Kahn]] ([[Musée Albert-Kahn]]) in [[Boulogne-Billancourt]] has two Japanese gardens.<ref>See the [http://albert-kahn.hauts-de-seine.net/les-jardins/les-differents-jardins/ official web site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103194717/http://albert-kahn.hauts-de-seine.net/les-jardins/les-differents-jardins/ |date=2015-01-03 }}. For the contemporary Japanese Garden see: Wybe Kuitert "Discourse and Creation: Two Japanese Gardens to contemplate in Paris" Shakkei, 2008, 15/1, pp. 18–29 [https://www.scribd.com/doc/248505708/Two-Japanese-Gardens-to-Discover-in-Paris pdf]</ref>
** Japanese Garden at the UNESCO Head Quarters, created by Isamu Noguchi in 1958<ref>See the [http://www.unesco.org/visit/jardin/ official web site]; and see Wybe Kuitert "Discourse and Creation: Two Japanese Gardens to contemplate in Paris" Shakkei, 2008, 15/1, pp. 18–29 [https://www.scribd.com/doc/248505708/Two-Japanese-Gardens-to-Discover-in-Paris pdf]</ref>
** Rising sun garden ({{lang|fr|Jardin du Soleil levant}}) in the [[Jardin botanique de Haute-Bretagne|botanical garden of Upper Brittany]]
** Jardin japonais Pierre-Baudis, in the [[Jardin Compans-Cafferelli]] of [[Toulouse]]
* '''Georgia''':
** in [[Tbilisi]] (in [[National Botanical Garden of Georgia|Tbilisi Botanical Garden]]) opened in 2016
* '''Germany''':
** in [[Augsburg]] (in the [[Botanischer Garten Augsburg]])
** in [[Bad Langensalza]] (called "Kōfuku no niwa" and is the 2nd largest Japanese garden in Germany)
** in [[Berlin]] (in the [[Gärten der Welt]] Park)
** in [[Bielefeld]] (in borough of Gadderbaum) opened in 2003
** in [[Bonn]] (in Rheinaue park)
** in [[Bremen]] (in [[Overseas Museum, Bremen|Overseas Museum]] and [[Botanika]])
** in [[Cologne]] (at [[Museum of East Asian Art (Cologne)|Museum of East Asian Art]])
** in [[Dortmund]] (in Westfalenpark)
** in [[Düsseldorf]] (temple garden of the EKŌ-House of Japanese Culture and Nordpark)
** in [[Erfurt]] (in Egapark)
** in [[Freiburg im Breisgau|Freiburg]] (in Seepark)
** in [[Hamburg]] (in the [[Planten un Blomen]] Park)
** in [[Hanover]] (in Stadtpark)
** in [[Kaiserslautern]] (largest Japanese garden in Germany)
** in [[Karlsruhe]] (in Zoological garden)
** in [[Leverkusen]] (in Chempark)
** in [[Munich]] (in the [[Englischer Garten#Japanisches Teehaus|Englischer Garten]])
** in [[Rostock]] (in IGA park)
** in [[Schwielowsee]] (Bonsai garden)
** in [[Stuttgart]] (in Schlossgarten)
** in [[Trier]] (called "U Raku En")
** in [[Würzburg]] (called "Ōmi no wa" and is a contribution from its sister city [[Ōtsu]] and at Krankenkai)
* '''Greece''':
** in [[Athens]], established in 2021
* '''Hungary''':
** on [[Margaret Island]], [[Budapest]]
** in the [[Budapest Zoo and Botanical Garden]]
* '''India''':
** in [[Moti Jheel]], [[Kanpur]]
** in Buddha Park, Indira Nagar, [[Kalianpur]], Kanpur
** [[Japanese Garden, Chandigarh]]
** [[Pune-Okayama Friendship Garden]], [[Pune]]
* '''Iran''':
** in [[Tehran]], the National Botanical Garden of Iran; established in 1995
* '''Israel''':
** Kibbutz [[Heftziba]]
* '''Kenya''':
** Japanese Zen garden in [[Nairobi]] at Kitisuru district
* '''Mexico''': 
** Masayoshi Ohira Park in [[Mexico City]]
** in Los Colomos, [[Guadalajara]]
** in "Jardines de México" theme park in [[Cuernavaca]]
** in [[Parque Tangamanga]], [[San Luis Potosí|San Luis Potosi]]
* '''Mongolia''':
** Juulchin street cnr Jigjidjav street, [[Ulaanbaatar]], established in 2005 by a Mongolian sumo wrestler
* '''Monaco''':
** [[Japanese Garden, Monaco|Jardin Japonais]], [[Larvotto]]
* '''Netherlands''':
** The Japanse Tuin of Clingendael park<ref>Japonaiserie in London and The Hague, A history of the Japanese gardens at Shepherd's Bush (1910) and Clingendael (c. 1915) ''Journal of the Garden History Society'' 30, 2: 221–238 {{JSTOR|1587254}}</ref>
** The {{Transliteration|ja|Tsubo-en karesansui}} garden in Lelystad, a private modern Japanese zen ({{Transliteration|ja|karesansui}} meaning "dry rock") garden
** The Von Siebold Memorial Garden in Leiden<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VBoQbBJ9eE |title=シーボルト庭園 |date=2013-05-24 |last=太田さく |access-date=2024-12-12 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
* '''Nicaragua''':
** Parque Japón Nicaragua, in [[Managua]]
* '''Norway''':
** Japanhagen in Milde, [[Bergen]]&nbsp;– opened 2005, part of the botanical garden of the [[University of Bergen]]&nbsp;– (landscape architect Haruto Kobayashi)
* '''Philippines''':
** The Japanese garden at Rizal Park in [[Ermita, Manila]]
** The Japanese garden at Lake Caliraya in [[Cavinti, Laguna]]
* '''Poland''':
** The [[Japanese Garden, Wrocław|Japanese Garden]] in [[Wrocław]]&nbsp;– founded 1913, restored 1996–1997, destroyed by flood, restored 1999
** The Japanese garden in [[Przelewice, Pyrzyce County|Przelewice]]&nbsp;– a part of [[Dendrological Garden in Przelewice]] founded in 1933
* '''Romania''':
** in [[Bucharest]], [[King Michael I Park|Herăstrău Park]]
** in [[Cluj-Napoca]], [[Cluj-Napoca Botanical Garden]]
* '''Russia''':
** The Japanese garden in [[Moscow]] – founded 1983, opened 1987 (landscape architect Ken Nakajima)
** {{nihongo|{{Transliteration|ja|Karesansui}} garden|枯山水}} or Japanese rock garden in [[Irkutsk]] – opened 2012 (landscape architect Takuhiro Yamada), part of the [[Botanic Garden of the Irkutsk State University]] 
* '''Serbia''':
** The Japanese garden in [[Jevremovac|Botanical Garden Jevremovac]]&nbsp;– opened 2004 (landscape architects Vera and Mihailo Grbic)
* '''Singapore''':
** [[Japanese Garden, Singapore|Japanese Garden]]&nbsp;– a garden island located in [[Jurong Lake]]
* '''South Africa''':
** Japanese Garden in [[Durban]] at Athlone district
* '''Spain''':
** Zen Gardens of the [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]] at the faculty of translation and interpretation
* '''Sweden''':
** Japanska Trädgården in [[Ronneby]] Brunnspark, [[Blekinge]]
** The "Japandalen" (Japan Valley) of [[Gothenburg Botanical Garden]]
* '''Turkey''':
** [[Eskişehir]] [[Anadolu University]] [[Japanese Botanical Garden]]
* '''Uruguay''':
** [[Japanese Garden, Montevideo|Jardín Japonés]], [[Montevideo]]&nbsp;– opened 2001 by [[Sayako Kuroda|Princess Sayako]]
* '''Uzbekistan''':
** in [[Tashkent]], at exhibition centre
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{portal|right=yes|Gardening|Gardens}}
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Sakuteiki]]}}, the oldest Japanese manual on landscape gardening
* [[Three Great Gardens of Japan]]
* [[Roji-en Japanese Gardens]]
* [[List of parks and gardens in Tokyo]]

==Sources and citations==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*[[Hugh Johnson (wine writer)|Johnson, Hugh]], ''Hugh Johnson on Gardening'', 1993, the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]/Reed International Books, ({{ISBN|1-85732-303-3}})  
* Kuitert, Wybe (2017), ''Japanese Gardens and Landscapes, 1650–1950'', University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, ({{ISBN|978-0-8122-4474-8}})
* Kuitert, Wybe (2002), ''Themes in the History of Japanese Garden Art'', Hawaii University Press, Honolulu, ([https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313236651_Themes_in_the_History_of_Japanese_Garden_Art Online as PDF]) ({{ISBN|0-8248-2312-5}})
* Kuitert, Wybe (1988), ''Themes, Scenes, and Taste in the History of Japanese Garden Art'' [https://ja.scribd.com/document/337296383/Themes-Scenes-and-Taste-in-Japanese-Garden-Art-by-Wybe-Kuitert-1988] [http://edepot.wur.nl/206169], Japonica Neerlandica, Amsterdam, ({{ISBN|90-5063-0219}})
* Young, David and Michiko (2005), ''The Art of the Japanese Garden'', Tuttle Publishing, Vermont and Singapore, ({{ISBN|978-0-8048-3598-5}})
* Nitschke, Gunter (1999), ''Le Jardin japonais – Angle droit et forme naturelle'', Taschen publishers, Paris (translated from German into French by Wolf Fruhtrunk), ({{ISBN|978-3-8228-3034-5}})
* {{cite book|last=Baridon|first=Michel|title=Les Jardins- Paysagistes, Jardiniers, Poetes|year=1998}}, Éditions Robert Lafont, Paris, ({{ISBN|2-221-06707-X}})
* Murase, Miyeko (1996), ''L'Art du Japon'', La Pochothḕque, Paris, ({{ISBN|2-253-13054-0}})
* Elisseeff, Danielle (2010), ''Jardins japonais'', Ḗditions Scala, Paris, ({{ISBN|978-2-35988-029-8}})
* Klecka, Virginie (2011), ''Concevoir, Amenager, Decorer Jardins Japonais'', Rustica Editions, ({{ISBN|978-2-8153-0052-0}})
* Slawson, David A. (1987), ''Secret Teachings in the Art of Japanese Gardens'', New York/Tokyo: Kodansha
* Yagi, Koji (1982), ''A Japanese Touch for Your Home''. Kodansha
* Miller, P. (2005), "The Japanese Garden: Gateway to the Human Spirit", ''International Journal of Humanities & Peace'', Vol. 21 Issue 1, Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: http://researchport.umd.edu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824000049/http://researchport.umd.edu/ |date=2017-08-24 }}
* Kato, E. (2004), ''The Tea Ceremony and Women's Empowerment in Modern Japan'', RoutledgeCurzon, Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: http://www.netlibrary.com
* Varely, P. (2000), ''Japanese Culture Fourth Edition'', The Maple – Vaile Book Manufacturing Group, Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: http://www.netlibrary.com
* GoJapanGo (2008), Japanese Garden History, GNU Free Documentation License, Retrieved August 2, 2008 from: [https://web.archive.org/web/20140311134523/http://www.gojapango.com/garden/japanese_garden_history.html www.gojapango.com]
* Gardens, Japan Guide (1996–2008), Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: [http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2099.html http://www.japan-guide.com/]
* ''Kenkyusha's New Japanese–English Dictionary'', Kenkyusha Limited, Tokyo 1991, {{ISBN|4-7674-2015-6}}
* ''The Compact Nelson Japanese–English Dictionary'', Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo 1999, {{ISBN|4-8053-0574-6}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Japanese gardens}}
* [https://www.japanese-city.com/calendar/events/p/location-japanese-garden.php?s=state List Japanese Gardens by State]
* [https://www.japanese-city.com/calendar/events/index.php?com=location&c=garden&d=365 Map of Japanese Gardens in the United States]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121007094905/http://www.gojapango.com/garden/japanese_garden.html Japanese Gardens] 65+ in Japan, others overseas
* [http://learn.bowdoin.edu/japanesegardens/ Japanese Gardens, Bowdoin College]
* [http://www.japanesegardens.jp/gardens/index.php Real Japanese Gardens] 90 gardens in Japan

{{Japanese architectural elements}}
{{Horticulture and gardening}}
{{Chinese garden styles}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Japanese gardens| ]]
[[Category:Garden design history of Japan| ]]
[[Category:Japanese style of gardening|*]]
[[Category:Types of garden by country of origin]]