View source for Java

{{Short description|Region and island in Indonesia}}
{{About|the Indonesian island|the programming language|Java (programming language)|other uses|Java (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox island
| name               = Java
| native_name        = {{native name|id|Jawa}}<br>ꦗꦮ {{nobold|([[Javanese language|Javanese]])}}<br>ᮏᮝ {{nobold|([[Sundanese language|Sundanese]])}}<br>''Jawè'' {{nobold|([[Betawi language|Betawi]])}}
| image_name         = Java Topography.png
| image_caption      = Topography of Java
| map_image          = Java_Locator.svg
| location           = Southeast Asia
| coordinates        = {{Coord|7|29|30|S|110|0|16|E|type:isle_region:ID_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago        = [[Indonesian Archipelago]]
---- 
[[Greater Sunda Islands]]
| area_km2           = 132598.77
| rank               = 13th
| highest_mount      = [[Semeru]]
| elevation_m        = 3678
| country            = [[Indonesia]]
| country_admin_divisions_title = Provinces
| country_admin_divisions = {{ubl|[[Banten]]|[[Jakarta]]|[[West Java]]|[[Central Java]]|[[Special Region of Yogyakarta]]|[[East Java]]}}
| country_largest_city = [[Jakarta]] (pop.10,684,948)
| population         = 156,927,804
| population_as_of   = mid 2024
| density_km2        = 1,183
| ethnic_groups      = [[Betawi people|Betawi]], [[Javanese people|Javanese]] (inc. [[Cirebonese]], [[Tenggerese people|Tenggerese]], [[Osing people|Osing]], [[Banyumasan people|Banyumasan]]), [[Kangeanese people|Kangeanese]], [[Madurese people|Madurese]] (inc. [[Bawean people|Bawean]]), [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] (inc. [[Baduy people|Baduy]], [[Bantenese people|Bantenese]]), etc.
| timezone1          = WIB
| utc_offset1        = +7
}}
{{Contains special characters|Sundanese|compact=yes}}

'''Java'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|'|dZ|a:|v|@|,_|'|dZ|æ|v|@}};<ref>{{Dictionary.com|Java|accessdate=26 September 2022 }}</ref> {{langx|id|Jawa}}, {{IPA|id|ˈdʒawa|pron}}; {{langx|jv|ꦗꦮ}}; {{langx|su|{{sund|ᮏᮝ}}}}}} is one of the [[Greater Sunda Islands]] in the South East Asian country of [[Indonesia]]. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the [[Java Sea]] (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9&nbsp;million people (including [[Madura]]) in mid 2024, projected to have risen to 158&nbsp;million by mid-2025, Java is the world's [[List of islands by population|most populous island]], home to approximately 56% of the [[Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesian population]] while constituting only 7% of its [[Geography of Indonesia|land area]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf |page=9 |publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]] |title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020 |language=id |date=21 January 2021 |access-date=21 January 2021 }}</ref> Indonesia's capital city, [[Jakarta]], is on Java's northwestern coast.

Many of the best known events in Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial [[Dutch East Indies]]. Java was also the center of the [[History of Indonesia|Indonesian struggle for independence]] during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically, and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eight [[UNESCO]] world heritage sites are located in Java: [[Ujung Kulon National Park]], [[Borobudur Temple]], [[Prambanan Temple]], and [[Sangiran Early Man Site]].

Java was formed by volcanic eruptions due to geologic [[subduction]] of the [[Australian Plate]] under the [[Sunda Plate]]. It is the [[List of islands by area|13th largest island]] in the world and the [[List of islands of Indonesia|fifth largest]] in Indonesia by landmass, at about {{Convert|132598.77|km2|mi2}} (including [[Madura]]'s {{Convert|5408.45|km2|mi2}}). A chain of volcanic mountains is the east–west spine of the island.

Four main languages are spoken on the island: [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], [[Madurese language|Madurese]], and [[Betawi language|Betawi]]. [[Javanese language|Javanese]] and [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] are the most spoken.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Naim |first1=Akhsan |last2=Syaputra |first2=Hendry |year=2011 |title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama, dan Bahasa Sehari-Hari Penduduk Indonesia: Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010 |url=https://www.bps.go.id/publication/2012/05/23/55eca38b7fe0830834605b35/kewarganegaraan-suku-bangsa-agama-dan-bahasa-sehari-hari-penduduk-indonesia.html |location=Jakarta |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik |isbn=9789790644175 |language=id |page=47 }}</ref> The ethnic groups native to the island are the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] in the central and eastern parts and [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] in the western parts. The [[Madurese people|Madurese]] in the [[Eastern salient of Java]] are migrants from [[Madura Island]] (which is part of [[East Java]] Province in administrative terms), while the [[Betawi people|Betawi]] in the capital city of Jakarta are hybrids from various [[ethnic groups in Indonesia]]. Most residents are bilingual, speaking [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java are [[Muslims|Muslim]], Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stockdale |first1=John Joseph |url={{GBurl |id=YJxt2i2HbjEC |q=java island}} |title=Island of Java |last2=Bastin |first2=John |date=15 March 2004 |publisher=Periplus Editions (HK) Limited |isbn=978-962-8734-23-8 |language=en }}</ref>

Java is divided into four administrative provinces: [[Banten]], [[West Java]], [[Central Java]], and [[East Java]], and two special regions, [[Jakarta]] and [[Special Region of Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]].

==Etymology==
{{See also|Zabag (ancient territory)||Al-Wakwak}}

The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. Java could possibly have been named after the [[Foxtail millet|''jáwa-wut'']] (foxtail millet) plant, which was said to be common in Java during the time, and that prior to [[Greater India|Indianization of the island]] had different names.<ref name="Raffles">{{cite book |last1=Raffles |first1=Sir Thomas Stamford |title=[[The History of Java]] |date=1817 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=2 |edition=1965 |language=English}}</ref>

The famous Indian epic, the ''[[Ramayana|Rāmāyaṇa]]'', mentions an island called "Yavadvipa"—the chief of the eponymous hero [[Rama]]'s army, [[Sugriva]], leads his troops of ''[[vanara]]'' humanoid apemen to Yavadvipa in search of Rama's kidnapped consort [[Sita]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465 |title=History of Ancient India |last=Kapur |first=Kamlesh |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=2010 |isbn=978-8120749108 |access-date=14 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429045511/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url={{GBurl |id=9ic4BjWFmNIC |p=465}} |title=History of Ancient India (Portraits of a Nation), 1/e |date=30 January 2010 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=9788120749108 |via=Google Books }}</ref> Java was hence referred to in India by the [[Sanskrit]] name ''yāvaka dvīpa'', with ''dvīpa'' meaning "island" and ''yava'' meaning "[[barley]]", a plant for which the island was famous.{{sfn|Raffles|p=3}}

Java is also mentioned in the ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] epic ''[[Manimekalai|Maṇimēkalai]]'' by the poet [[Chithalai Chathanar|Satthanar]], which states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called "Nagapuram".<ref>Hindu culture in ancient India by Sekharipuram Vaidyanatha Viswanatha, p. 177.</ref><ref>Tamil Literature by M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, p. 46.</ref><ref>The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago by V. Kanakasabhai, p. 11.</ref>

Another possible source for Java's name is the word ''jaú'', variations of which mean "beyond" or "distant".{{sfn|Raffles|p=3}}

Yet aother possibility is that the word "Java" comes from [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] ''awa'' or ''yawa'', meaning "home".<ref name = hatley>Hatley, R., Schiller, J., Lucas, A., Martin-Schiller, B., (1984). "Mapping cultural regions of Java" in: Other Javas away from the kraton. pp. 1–32.</ref> This is similar to the words ''awaʻi'' (''awaiki'') or ''hawaʻi'' (''hawaiki'') used in [[Polynesia]], especially in [[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]].

An island called ''Iabadiu'' or ''Jabadiu'' is also mentioned in [[Ptolemy]]'s 150 AD [[Geography (Ptolemy)|''Geographia'']], composed during the height of the [[Roman Empire]]. ''Iabadiu'', the "island of barley", was also said to be rich in gold, and to have a silver city called "Argyra" located at its western end.<ref name="AncientGeo">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GpP0wKQ1lksC |title=History of Ancient Geography |author=J. Oliver Thomson |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-68992-3 |pages=316–317 }}</ref>

The late 5th century Chinese historical text ''[[Book of Song]]'' and the 7th century ''[[Book of Liang]]'' referred to Java as {{Lang-zh|t=闍婆|labels=no}} (''Shépó''). Chinese texts also reference an Indianized kingdom on Java's northern cost known as {{Lang-zh|t=訶陵|labels=no}} (''Hēlíng'') from 640–818 AD. The island was referred to as {{Lang-zh|t=闍婆|labels=no}} (''She-Pó'') until the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan Dynasty]] (1271–1368), whereupon it began to be called {{Lang-zh|t=爪哇|labels=no}} (''Zhǎowā''), the present-day name in [[Mandarin Chinese]].<ref name="Nusa Jawa">{{cite book |title=The Javanese Crossroads: Essay of global history |author=Denys Lombard |year=1990 }}</ref><ref name=":3">Lombard, Denys (2005)''. [https://archive.org/details/NJ2JA/mode/2up?q= Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia]''. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990). ''Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2''. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. p. 12.</ref> In his 1451 book ''[[Yingya Shenglan]]'' ("The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores"), Chinese explorer [[Ma Huan]], who accompanied the famous Admiral [[Zheng He]] on three of his [[Ming treasure voyages]], noted that the Chinese referred to Java as {{Lang-zh|t=爪哇|labels=no}} (''Zhǎowā''), and that it had previously been called {{Lang-zh|t=闍婆|labels=no}} (''Shépó'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=J.V.G. |title=Ying-yai Sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Ocean Shores [1433] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1970 |location=Cambridge |pages=86 }}</ref> 

When 14th century [[Europeans in Medieval China|Italian traveler]] [[Giovanni de' Marignolli]] returned to Europe from Asia, he claimed to have stopped at a land called "Saba" for several months, which he said had many elephants and was led by a queen, possibly [[Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi|Queen Gitarja]] ([[reigned|r]]. 1328–1350); this name "Saba" might have been his interpretation of ''Shépó''.<ref>Yule, Sir Henry (1913). ''[https://archive.org/details/cathaywaythither03yule/page/n15/mode/2up?q=saba Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China vol. III]''. London: The Hakluyt Society.</ref>{{Rp|page=xii, 192–194}}

9th century [[Iran|Persian]] merchant [[Sulaiman al-Tajir]] mentioned two notable islands which separated the [[Arabian Peninsula]] from China: one was the 800-[[Parasang|farsakh]] long ''al-Rami'' ([[Sumatra]]), and the other was the 400-farsakh long ''[[Zabag (ancient territory)|az-Zabaj]]'' ({{langx|ar|الزابج}}; {{langx|id|Sabak}}), identified as Java.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Nugroho |first=Irawan Djoko |title=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim |publisher=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti |year=2011 |isbn=978-602-9346-00-8 }}</ref>{{Rp|30–31}}

15th century Russian merchant [[Afanasy Nikitin]], one of the first Europeans to visit India, traveled to India in 1466 and described the land of Java, which he called "шабайте" (''šabajte'').<ref>Braginsky, Vladimir. 1998. [https://www.academia.edu/21785432/Two_Eastern_Christian_Sources_on_Medieval_Nusantara Two Eastern Christian sources on medieval Nusantara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520115142/https://www.academia.edu/21785432/Two_Eastern_Christian_Sources_on_Medieval_Nusantara |date=20 May 2021 }}. ''Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde''. 154(3): 367–396.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zenkovsky |first=Serge A. |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalrussiase00zenk/page/346/mode/2up?q=shabait |title=Medieval Russia's epics, chronicles, and tales |publisher=Dutton |year=1974 |isbn=0525473637 |location=New York |pages=345–347 }}</ref>

==Geography==
{{See also|Volcanoes of Java}}
[[File:Bromo yang menakjubkan.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Bromo]] in [[Malang]], East Java]]
Java lies between [[Sumatra]] to the west and [[Bali]] to the east. [[Borneo]] lies to the north, and [[Christmas Island]] is to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the [[Java Sea]] to the north, the [[Sunda Strait]] to the west, the Indian Ocean to the south and [[Bali Strait]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://geography.name/java/ |title=Java |publisher=geography.name |access-date=27 June 2024 |archive-date=27 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240627082947/https://geography.name/java/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Madura Strait]] in the east.<ref name="worldatlas">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/islands/java-island.html |title=Java Island |date=24 August 2021 |publisher=WorldAtlas.com |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>

Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains 38 mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes. There are 112 volcanoes in all, 35 of which are active. The highest volcano in Java is Mount [[Semeru]], {{Convert|3676|m|ft}}. The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia is [[Mount Merapi]], {{Convert|2930|m|ft}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pravitasari |first=Andrea Emma |title=Study on Impact of Urbanization and Rapid Urban Expansion in Java and Jabodetabek Megacity, Indonesia |journal=Geography, Environmental Science |date=24 September 2015 |volume= |issue= |page=18 |doi=10.14989/doctor.k19347 |s2cid=131526829 |url= }}</ref> In total, Java has more than 150 mountains.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Java-island-Indonesia |title=Java |date=23 June 2024 |publisher=[[Britannica]] |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>

Java's mountains and highlands split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable for [[Paddy field|wet-rice]] cultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p15">{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 |edition=2 |publisher=MacMillan |year=1990 |location=London |page=15 |isbn=978-0-333-57690-8 }}</ref> Java was the first place where [[Coffee production in Indonesia|Indonesian coffee]] was grown, starting in 1699. Today, [[coffea arabica]] is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sucafina.com/na/news/about-indonesia |title=About Indonesia |publisher=Sucafina |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De weg van Buitenzorg naar de Preanger Regentschappen TMnr 3728-429c.jpg|thumb|[[Parahyangan]] highland near {{lang|nl|Buitenzorg}} (now [[Bogor]], West Java), {{circa}} 1865–1872]]

The area of Java is about {{Convert|132598.77|km2|mi2}} (including Madura's {{Convert|5408.45|km2|mi2}} and minor offshore islands).<ref name="RICKLEFS_p15"/> It is about {{convert |1000|km|abbr=on}} long and up to {{convert|210|km|abbr=on}} wide. The island's longest river is the 600&nbsp;km long [[Solo River]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jasatirta1.go.id/english/3WorkArea/20BengawanSolo.htm |title=Management of Bengawan Solo River Area |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011113418/http://jasatirta1.go.id/english/3WorkArea/20BengawanSolo.htm |archive-date=11 October 2007 |publisher=Jasa Tirta I Corporation |date=2006 }}</ref> The river rises from its source in central Java at the [[Mount Lawu|Lawu]] volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the Java Sea near the city of [[Surabaya]]. Other major rivers are [[Brantas River|Brantas]], [[Citarum River|Citarum]], [[Manuk River|Cimanuk]] and [[Serayu River|Serayu]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}

The average temperature ranges from {{Convert|22|C|F}} to {{Convert|29|C|F}}; average humidity is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging {{Convert|34|C|F}} during the day in the [[dry season]]. The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler.<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate, Weather, and Temperature of Java Indonesia |url=http://www.javaindonesia.org/general/climate-weather-temperature-java-indonesia/ |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-date=3 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903193044/http://www.javaindonesia.org/general/climate-weather-temperature-java-indonesia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[wet season]] begins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aqil |first=Ibnu |date=6 January 2023 |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/indonesia/2023/01/05/central-java-rainy-season-to-peak-in-january-february.html |title=Central Java rainy season to peak in January, February |publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]] |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>

West Java is wetter than [[East Java]], and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. The [[Parahyangan]] highlands of West Java receive over {{Convert|4000|mm|in}} annually, while the north coast of East Java receives {{Convert|900|mm|in}} annually.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

==Natural environment==
[[File:Cymbidium dayanum Orchi 04.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Cymbidium dayanum]]'' - typical orchid in Java]]
Java is an island with a large amount of biodiversity. The [[natural environment]] of Java is [[tropical rainforest]], with ecosystems ranging from coastal [[mangrove]] forest on the north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lying [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical forest]] to high altitude rainforest on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a dry [[savanna]] environment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Java-1934 -2.jpg|thumb|Male [[Javan rhinoceros|Javan rhino]] shot in 1934 in West Java. Today only small numbers of Javan rhino survive in [[Ujung Kulon National Park|Ujung Kulon]]; it is the world's rarest rhino.]]Javan wildlife originally supported a rich biodiversity, where numbers of [[Endemism|endemic]] species of flora and fauna flourished; such as the [[Javan rhinoceros]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=11 |title=Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) |publisher=EDGE Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered |access-date=26 June 2012 |archive-date=8 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108202706/http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Banteng|Javan banteng]], [[Javan warty pig]], [[Silvery gibbon|Javan silvery gibbon]], [[East Javan langur|Javan lutung]], [[Java mouse-deer]], [[Javan rusa]], and [[Javan leopard]]. With over 450 bird species and 37 endemic species including the [[Javan green magpie]], [[Java sparrow]], [[Javan hawk-eagle]], and [[Green peafowl|Javan peafowl]], Java is a birdwatcher's paradise.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wildlifenews.co.uk/2011/indonesia-bird-watching-tour-with-wildlife-news-travel/ |title=Indonesia bird watching tour |publisher=wildlifenews.co.uk |access-date=26 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209021238/http://wildlifenews.co.uk/2011/indonesia-bird-watching-tour-with-wildlife-news-travel/ |archive-date=9 February 2012 }}</ref> There are about 130 freshwater fish species in Java.<ref>Nguyen, T. T. T., and S. S. De Silva (2006). ''Freshwater finfish biodiversity and conservation: an asian perspective.'' Biodiversity & Conservation 15(11): 3543–3568.</ref> There are also several endemic [[List of amphibians of Java|amphibian species in Java]], including 5 species of [[Rhacophoridae|tree frogs]].<ref name=Frost>{{cite web |url=https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Anura/Rhacophoridae/Rhacophorinae/Rhacophorus/Rhacophorus-margaritifer |title=''Rhacophorus margaritifer'' (Schlegel, 1837) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2021 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: An Online Reference. Version 6.1 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |doi=10.5531/db.vz.0001 |access-date=6 February 2021 }}</ref>

Since ancient times, people have opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and created [[Paddy field|rice paddy]] and terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to have [[Javan tiger]]s and [[Javan elephant]]s, but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect the remnants of its fragile wildlife, such as [[Ujung Kulon National Park|Ujung Kulon]], [[Mount Halimun Salak National Park|Mount Halimun-Salak]], [[Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park|Gede Pangrango]], [[Baluran National Park|Baluran]], [[Meru Betiri National Park|Meru Betiri]], [[Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park|Bromo Tengger Semeru]] and [[Alas Purwo National Park|Alas Purwo]].

==History==
=== ''Homo erectus'' presence ===
[[File:Pithecanthropus_erectus-PeterMaas_Naturalis.jpg|thumb|The [[syntype]] fossils of Java Man (''H. e. erectus''), at [[Naturalis]], [[Leiden]]]]
[[File:Ngandong 14. Homo erectus.jpg|thumb|Cast of Skull XI at the [[Hall of Human Origins]], Washington, D.C.]]
Fossilised remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', popularly known as the "[[Java Man]]", dating back 1.3&nbsp;million<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Matsu’ura |first1=Shuji |last2=Kondo |first2=Megumi |last3=Danhara |first3=Toru |last4=Sakata |first4=Sheik |last5=Iwano |first5=Hideki |last6=Hirata |first6=Takafumi |last7=Kurniawan |first7=Iwan |last8=Setiyabudi |first8=Erik |last9=Takeshita |first9=Yoshihiro |last10=Hyodo |first10=Masayuki |last11=Kitaba |first11=Ikuko |last12=Sudo Masafumi |last13=Danhara |first13=Yugo |last14=Aziz |first14=Fachroel |date=2020 |title=Age control of the first appearance datum for Javanese Homo erectus in the Sangiran area |journal=Science |volume=367 |issue=6474 |pages=210–214 |doi=10.1126/science.aau8556 |pmid=31919224 |bibcode=2020Sci...367..210M |s2cid=210131393 |doi-access=free }}</ref> years were found along the banks of the [[Solo River|Bengawan Solo River]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355 |first1=G. G.}}
cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T. |author2=Soeriaatmadja, R. E. |author3=Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G. |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=15 August 1983 |doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 |pmid=6410399 |pmc=384173 |bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P |doi-access=free}}
cited in
{{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T. |author2=Soeriaatmadja, R. E. |author3=Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |page=309}};
{{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J. P. |author2=P. Y. Sondaar |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=9 December 1994 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D |doi-access=free}}
cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |author2=Soeriaatmadja, R. E. |author3=Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |page=309 }}</ref>

''H. erectus'' arrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be the first African exodus.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/ggi.12224 |pmid=25327904 |pmc=4285791 |title=Geriatric issues from the standpoint of human evolution |journal=Geriatrics & Gerontology International |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=731–34 |year=2014 |last1=Matsubayashi |first1=Kozo }}</ref> There is evidence that the Java population of ''H. erectus'' lived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled a [[savannah]], but was likely regularly inundated ("hydromorphic savanna"). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass ([[Poaceae]]), [[fern]]s, ''[[Ficus]]'', and ''[[Indigofera]]'', which are typical of lowland rainforest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=Thomas |last2=de Vos |first2=John |last3=Huffman |first3=O. Frank |year=2014 |title=The Oldest Gibbon Fossil (Hylobatidae) from Insular Southeast Asia: Evidence from Trinil, (East Java, Indonesia), Lower/Middle Pleistocene |journal=[[PLOS ONE|PLoS ONE]] |volume=9 |issue=6 |at=e99531 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0099531 |pmid=24914951 |pmc=4051846 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...999531I |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Solo Man|''H.&nbsp;e.&nbsp;soloensis'']] was the last population of a long occupation history of the island of Java by ''H.&nbsp;erectus'', beginning 1.51 to 0.93 million years ago at the Sangiran site, continuing 540 to 430 thousand years ago at the Trinil site, and finally 117 to 108 thousand years ago at Ngandong.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zaim |first1=Yahdi |last2=Ciochon |first2=Russell L. |last3=Polanski |first3=Joshua M. |last4=Grine |first4=Frederick E. |last5=Bettis |first5=E. Arthur |last6=Rizal |first6=Yan |last7=Franciscus |first7=Robert G. |last8=Larick |first8=Roy R. |last9=Heizler |first9=Matthew |last10=Aswan |first10=null |last11=Eaves |first11=K. Lindsay |last12=Marsh |first12=Hannah E. |title=New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia) |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=2011 |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=363–376 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.04.009 |issn=1095-8606 |pmid=21783226 |bibcode=2011JHumE..61..363Z }}</ref> If the date is correct for Solo Man, then they would represent a terminal population of ''H.&nbsp;erectus'' which sheltered in the last open-habitat refuges of East Asia before the rainforest takeover. Before the immigration of modern humans, Late Pleistocene Southeast Asia was also home to ''[[Homo floresiensis|H.&nbsp;floresiensis]]'' endemic to the island of [[Flores]], Indonesia, and ''[[Homo luzonensis|H.&nbsp;luzonensis]]'' endemic to the island of [[Luzon]], the Philippines. Genetic analysis of present-day Southeast Asian populations indicates the widespread dispersal of the [[Denisovans]] (a species currently recognisable only by their genetic signature) across Southeast Asia, whereupon they interbred with immigrating modern humans 45.7 and 29.8 thousand years ago.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} A 2021 genomic study indicates that, aside from the Denisovans, modern humans never interbred with any of these endemic human species, unless the offspring were [[hybrid incompatibility|unviable]] or the hybrid lineages have since died out.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Judging by the sheer number of specimens deposited at Ngandong at the same time, there may have been a sizeable population of ''H.&nbsp;e&nbsp;soloensis'' before the volcanic eruption which resulted in their interment, but population is difficult to approximate with certainty. This site is quite far from the north coast of Java Island, and it is not always easy to determine the position of the coastline in prehistoric times because of significant geographical changes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rizal |first1=Yan |last2=Westaway |first2=Kira E. |last3=Zaim |first3=Yahdi |last4=van den Bergh |first4=Gerrit D. |last5=Bettis |first5=E. Arthur |last6=Morwood |first6=Michael J. |last7=Huffman |first7=O. Frank |last8=Grün |first8=Rainer |last9=Joannes-Boyau |first9=Renaud |last10=Bailey |first10=Richard M. |last11=Sidarto |last12=Westaway |first12=Michael C. |last13=Kurniawan |first13=Iwan |last14=Moore |first14=Mark W. |last15=Storey |first15=Michael |date=18 December 2019 |title=Last appearance of Homo erectus at Ngandong, Java, 117,000–108,000 years ago |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1863-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=577 |issue=7790 |pages=381–385 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1863-2 |pmid=31853068 |hdl=10072/397335 |issn=1476-4687 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The southern coastline and estuary of the Bengawan Solo River at that time may have been different from what it is today, due to geological factors such as sedimentation, erosion, and changes in sea level over time. Currently, the estuary of the Bengawan Solo is in the Java Sea, but in prehistoric times, the river flow and estuary location may have changed. Geological and paleogeographic studies are often used to understand these changes.

=== After the arrival of modern humans ===
[[File:Sumbing, Java.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Sumbing]] surrounded by rice fields. Java's volcanic topography and rich agricultural lands are the fundamental factors in its history.]]
The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pp. 16–17.</ref> Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only the [[Brantas River|Brantas river]] and Solo river could provide long-distance communication and this way their valleys supported the centers of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges, and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Consequently, communication between Java's population was difficult.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p15" />

{{multiple image
| total_width = 230
| image1 = MET DP158751.jpg
| image2 = MET 2001 433 526 O2.jpg
| footer = Standing warrior bronze figures, Java, {{circa}} 500 BC – 300 AD
}}
The emergence of civilization on the island of Java is often associated with the arrival of [[Aji Saka]] in 78 AD. Although Aji Saka is said to be the bearer of civilization on Java, the story received several objections and rebuttals from other historical sources. Valmiki's [[Ramayana]], made around 500 BC, records that Java already had a governmental organization long before the story:<blockquote>"Yawadwipa is decorated with seven kingdoms, gold and silver islands, rich in gold mines, and there is Cicira (cold) Mountain that touches the sky with its peak."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastropajitno |first=Warsito |title=Rekonstruksi Sedjarah Indonesia. Zaman Hindu, Yavadvipa, Srivijaya, Sailendra |date=1958 |publisher=PT. Pertjetakan Republik Indonesia |location=Yogyakarta }}</ref>{{Rp|page=6}}</blockquote>

The Greek geographer [[Ptolemy]] called the island Iabadius or Sabadius ({{langx|grc|Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου}}).<ref>{{cite book |title=Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R. P. Soejono's Festschrift |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSFfD0dpdS4C |publisher=Jakarta : Indonesian Institute of Sciences, : International Center for Prehistoric and Austronesian Studies |date=2006 |page=407 |isbn=9792624996 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNgUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237 |title=Modern Times |first=H. |last=Kahler |date=31 December 1981 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn=9004061967 |via=Google Books }}</ref> Ptolemy said that the name meant the "Island of Barley" and produced a lot of grain and gold, adding that its metropolis was Argyre (Ἀργυρῆ)<ref>[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Geography/Iabadius Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Iabadius]</ref> meaning silver in Greek.<ref>[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tamils_Eighteen_Hundred_Years_Ago/Chapter_2 The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago/Chapter 2]</ref>

According to Chinese record ''[[History of Ming|Míng Shǐ]]'', the Javanese kingdom was founded in 65 BC, or 143 years before the story of Aji Saka began.<ref>Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876). "[https://archive.org/details/notes-on-the-malay-archipelago/page/n7/mode/2up?q= Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca, Compiled from Chinese Sources]". Batavia: W. Bruining.</ref>{{Rp|page=39}}

The story of Aji Saka is a Neo Javanese story. This story has not yet been found to be relevant in the Old Javanese text. This story tells of events in the Medang Kamulan kingdom in Java in the past. At that time, the king of Medang Kamulan Prabu Dewata Cengkar was replaced by Aji Saka. This story is considered as an allegory of the entry of Indians into Java. Referring to the [[Liang dynasty]] information, the Javanese kingdom was divided into two: the pre-Hinduism kingdom and the post-Hindu kingdom, which began in 78 AD.<ref name=":12"/>{{Rp||page=5 and 7}}

===Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms era===
{{See also|History of Southeast Asia#Early historical era|Hinduism in Java}}
[[File:Borobudur-Temple-Park Indonesia Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg|thumb|The 9th century [[Borobudur]] Buddhist [[stupa]] in Central Java]]

The [[Tarumanagara|Taruma]] kingdom of western Java existed from the 5th to the 7th centuries,<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|83}}<ref name=Casparis1975>The dating of the Taruma kingdom is based on the palaeography of its inscriptions, which scholars agree date to the second half of the 5th century or slightly later. {{cite book |last=de Casparis |first=J.G. |title=Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to c. A.D.1500 |year=1975 |publisher=E.J. Brill }}</ref>{{rp|19}} while the [[Heling kingdom]] sent embassies to China starting in 640.<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George |author-link=George Coedès |editor=Walter F. Vella |others=trans.Susan Brown Cowing |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1 }}</ref>{{rp|53,79}} However, the first major principality was the [[Mataram kingdom]] that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu god [[Shiva]], and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the [[Dieng Plateau]]. Around the 8th century, the [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra dynasty]] rose in [[Kedu Plain]] and become the patron of [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]]. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] in central Java.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of [[Kediri Kingdom|Kediri]], [[Singhasari]] and [[Majapahit]] were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established by [[Raden Wijaya|Wijaya]],<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|201}} and by the end of the reign of [[Hayam Wuruk]] (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, [[Gajah Mada]], led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|234}} Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|coming of Islam to Indonesia]], Majapahit went into decline.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|241}}

===Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates===
{{See also|Spread of Islam in Indonesia#Central and eastern Java}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2022}}

Islam became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms of [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]], [[Sultanate of Cirebon|Cirebon]], and [[Banten Sultanate|Banten]] were ascendant. The [[Mataram Sultanate]] became the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century.

Java’s Islamic tradition is known for its tolerance and harmony among faiths. Local religious organizations actively promote peace and inclusivity, reflecting broader values of coexistence in Indonesian society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gibson |first=Thomas |last2=Hefner |first2=Robert W. |date=2001 |title=Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia |url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/39aeba42-aa85-48b0-9e51-5bfac8de8ae4/content |journal=Indonesia |volume=72 |pages=197 |doi=10.2307/3351487 |issn=0019-7289 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319050724/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/39aeba42-aa85-48b0-9e51-5bfac8de8ae4/content |archive-date=19 March 2025}}</ref> [[File:Page001 img001.png|thumb|"The Champion" (Sang Agul-agul). Sketch of a Javanese soldier leader by Swiss painter J. Schiess (1799–1844), from J.J.X. Pfyffer's 1829 "Sketches from Java," Plate VI. Photo: Leiden Univ. Library. Sources and related content]]

===Colonial periods===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Soendanese theepluksters TMnr 10011963.jpg|thumb|Tea plantation in Java during [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonial period]], in or before 1936]]

Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 with [[Luso-Sundanese padrão|a treaty]] between the Sunda kingdom and the [[Portuguese Malacca|Portuguese in Malacca]]. After its failure, the [[Portuguese colonialism in the East Indies|Portuguese presence]] was confined to Malacca and to the eastern islands.
In 1596, a four-ship expedition led by [[Cornelis de Houtman]] was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 |author=Ames, Glenn J. |year=2008 |page=99 }}</ref> By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through the [[Dutch East India Company in the Malay Archipelago|Dutch East India Company in Indonesia]]. Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.

Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice-producing islands like [[Banda Islands|Banda]], rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.<ref>{{cite book |last=St. John |first=Horace Stebbing Roscoe |title=The Indian Archipelago: its history and present state, Volume 1 |publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans |year=1853 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indianarchipela02johngoog/page/n183 137] |url=https://archive.org/details/indianarchipela02johngoog }}</ref>

During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in Europe, the Netherlands fell to France, as did its colony in the [[East Indies]]. During the short-lived [[Herman Willem Daendels|Daendels]] administration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of the [[Great Post Road]] was commenced in 1808. The road, spanning from [[Anyer]] in Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ekspedisi Anjer-Panaroekan, Laporan Jurnalistik Kompas |publisher=Pnerbit Buku Kompas, PT Kompas Media Nusantara, Jakarta Indonesia |date=November 2008 |pages=1–2 |isbn=978-979-709-391-4 }}</ref> In 1811, Java was [[Invasion of Java (1811)|captured by the British]], becoming a possession of the [[British Empire]], and Sir [[Stamford Raffles]] was appointed as the island's governor. In 1816, under the governorship of [[John Fendall Jr.|John Fendall]], Java was returned to the Dutch as per the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Atkins |first=James |title=The Coins And Tokens of the Possessions And Colonies of the British Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/coinstokensofpos1889jame |year=1889<!-- |location=Quaritch, Bernard--> |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/coinstokensofpos1889jame/page/213 213] |publisher=Bernard Quaritch }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hannigan |first=Tim |title=Raffles and the British invasion of Java |publisher=Singapore: Monsoon Books Pte Ltd. |year=2012 |isbn=978-981-4358-85-9 |edition=4th |pages=229 }}</ref>

In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/301673/Java |title=Java (island, Indonesia) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=31 January 2019 }}</ref> In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such as [[cassava]] and maize that could sustain populations that could not afford rice.<ref>Taylor (2003), p. 253.</ref> Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under the [[Cultivation System]] to which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families’ ability to pay tax and buy goods.<ref>Taylor (2003), pp. 253–254.</ref> [[Cholera]] claimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820.<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph Patrick |last=Byrne |title=Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC&pg=PA99 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2008 |page=99 |isbn=978-0-313-34102-1}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
[[File:The Allied Occupation of Java, 1945 SE4857.jpg|thumb|Japanese prepare to discuss surrender terms with British-allied forces in Java, 1945.]]

The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from the 1840s through to the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Japanese occupation]] in the 1940s.<ref name="Taylor 2003, p. 254">Taylor (2003), p. 254.</ref> However, other sources claimed the Dutch's Cultivation system is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly in [[Cirebon]] and then [[Central Java]], as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice.

===Independence===
{{main|Indonesian National Awakening}}

Indonesian nationalism first took hold in Java in the early 20th century, and [[Indonesian National Revolution|the struggle to secure the country's independence]] following [[World War II]] was centered in Java. In 1949, Indonesian independence was recognized.

==Administration==
{{see also|Public administration of Java}}
{|
|valign=top|<div style="position: relative;">[[File:Java blank map.svg|450px]]
{{Image label small|x=-25.0|y=-30.0|scale=-1|text=Banten}}
{{Image label small|x=-92.0|y=-50.0|scale=-1|text=West Java}}
{{Image label small|x=-200.0|y=-68.0|scale=-1|text=Central Java}}
{{Image label small|x=-310.0|y=-90.0|scale=-1|text=East Java}}
{{Image label small|x=-82.0|y=-20.0|scale=-1|text=1}}
{{Image label small|x=-252.0|y=-98.0|scale=-1|text=2}}
{{Image label small|x=-20.0|y=-110.0|scale=-1|text=1 Jakarta}}
{{Image label small|x=-20.0|y=-130.0|scale=-1|text=2 Yogyakarta}}
</div>
|}
Java is divided into four [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]] and two special regions:<ref name="worldatlas" />
* [[Banten]], capital: [[Serang]]
* [[Jakarta|Special Capital Region of Jakarta]], capital: [[Central Jakarta]] (''de facto'')
* [[West Java]], capital: [[Bandung]]
* [[Central Java]], capital: [[Semarang]]
* [[Special Region of Yogyakarta]], capital: [[Yogyakarta]]
* [[East Java]], capital: [[Surabaya]] (which province also includes [[Madura Island]])

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Province or Special Region
! Map
! Capital
! Area<br />km<sup>2</sup>
! Area<br />%
! Population<br />census<br />2000<ref name="citypop">{{cite web |url=http://www.citypopulation.de/Indonesia-MU.html |title=Indonesia (Urban City Population): Provinces & Cities – Statistics & Maps on City Population |publisher=City Population |date=1 May 2010 |access-date=17 July 2013 }}</ref>
! Population<br />census<br />2010<ref>Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011.</ref>
! Population<br />census<br />2020<ref>Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021.</ref>
! Population<br />estimate<br />mid 2024<ref>Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2025.</ref>
! Population<br />density<br />mid 2024
|-
| [[File:Coat of arms of Banten.svg|center|65x65px]]<br />[[Banten]]
| [[File:Indonesia Banten location.svg|150px]]
| [[Serang]]
| style="text-align:right;"|9,352.77
| style="text-align:right;"|6.88
| style="text-align:right;"|8,098,277
| style="text-align:right;"|10,632,166
| style="text-align:right;"|11,904,562
| style="text-align:right;"|12,431,390
| style="text-align:right;"|1,329
|-
| [[File:Coat of arms of Jakarta.svg|center|65x65px]]<br />[[Special Region of Jakarta]]
| [[File:Indonesia Jakarta location.svg|150px]]
| [[Central Jakarta]] (''de facto'')
| style="text-align:right;"|660.98
| style="text-align:right;"|0.50
| style="text-align:right;"|8,361,079
| style="text-align:right;"|9,607,787
| style="text-align:right;"|10,562,088
| style="text-align:right;"|10,684,946
| style="text-align:right;"|16,165
|-
| [[File:Coat of arms of West Java.svg|center|65x65px]]<br />[[West Java]]
| [[File:Indonesia West Java location.svg|150px]]
| [[Bandung]]
| style="text-align:right;"|37,040.04
| style="text-align:right;"|27.93
| style="text-align:right;"|35,724,093
| style="text-align:right;"|43,053,732
| style="text-align:right;"|48,274,160
| style="text-align:right;"|50,345,189
| style="text-align:right;"|1,359
|-
| ''Western Java <br>(3 areas above)''
|
|
| style="text-align:right;"|''47,053.79''
| style="text-align:right;"|''35.49''
| style="text-align:right;"|''52,183,449''
| style="text-align:right;"|''63,293,685''
| style="text-align:right;"|''70,740,810''
| style="text-align:right;"|''73,461,525''
| style="text-align:right;"|''1,561''
|-
| [[File:Coat of arms of Central Java.svg|center|65x65px]]<br />[[Central Java]]
| [[File:Indonesia Central Java location.svg|150px]]
| [[Semarang]]
| style="text-align:right;"|34,337.49
| style="text-align:right;"|25.90
| style="text-align:right;"|31,223,258
| style="text-align:right;"|32,382,657
| style="text-align:right;"|36,516,035
| style="text-align:right;"|37,892,280
| style="text-align:right;"|1,104
|-
| [[File:Coat of arms of Yogyakarta.svg|center|65x65px]]<br />[[Yogyakarta Special Region]]
| [[File:Indonesia Yogyakarta location.svg|150px]]
| [[Yogyakarta]]
| style="text-align:right;"|3,170.65
| style="text-align:right;"|2.39
| style="text-align:right;"|3,121,045
| style="text-align:right;"|3,457,491
| style="text-align:right;"|3,668,719
| style="text-align:right;"|3,759,500
| style="text-align:right;"|1,186
|-
| ''Central Java Region<br>(2 areas above)''
|
|
| style="text-align:right;"|''37,508.14''
| style="text-align:right;"|''28.29''
| style="text-align:right;"|''34,344,303''
| style="text-align:right;"|''35,840,148''
| style="text-align:right;"|''40,184,754''
| style="text-align:right;"|''41,651,780''
| style="text-align:right;"|''1,110''
|-
| [[File:Coat of arms of East Java.svg|center|65x65px]]<br />[[East Java]]<br />(Include Madura Islands)
| [[File:Indonesia East Java location.svg|150px]]
| [[Surabaya]]
| style="text-align:right;"|48,036.84
| style="text-align:right;"|36.23
| style="text-align:right;"|34,765,993
| style="text-align:right;"|37,476,757
| style="text-align:right;"|40,665,696
| style="text-align:right;"|41,814,499
| style="text-align:right;"|870
|-
|
:Java Island <sup>(1)</sup>
|
| –
| style="text-align:right;" |127,190.32
| style="text-align:right;" |95.92
| style="text-align:right;" |118,063,445
| style="text-align:right;" |132,987,827
| style="text-align:right;" |147,586,696
| style="text-align:right;" |152,771,143
| style="text-align:right;" |1,201
|-
|
:[[Madura]] Island <sup>(2)</sup> of East Java
|
| –
| style="text-align:right;" |5,408.45
| style="text-align:right;" |4.08
| style="text-align:right;" |3,230,300
| style="text-align:right;" |3,622,763
| style="text-align:right;" |4,004,564
| style="text-align:right;" |4,156,661
| style="text-align:right;" |769
|-
| Region Administered as ''Java''
|
| [[Jakarta]]
| style="text-align:right;"|132,598.77
| style="text-align:right;"|100%
| style="text-align:right;"|121,293,745
| style="text-align:right;"|136,610,590
| style="text-align:right;"|151,591,260
| style="text-align:right;"|156,927,804
| style="text-align:right;"|1,183
|}
<sup>(1) including the neighbouring small archipelagos of the [[Kangean Islands]] (648.55&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), the [[Sapudi Islands]] (167.41&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), [[Talango Island]] (50.278&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), [[Masalembu]] (40.85&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), the [[Gili Genteng|Giligenteng Islands]] (30.32&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) - all the foregoing within [[Sumenep Regency]].
<br>(2) Other offshore islands are included in this figure, but are comparatively very small in population and area; they include [[Nusa Barong]] (84.73&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), [[Bawean]] (197.42&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), [[Karimunjawa]] (78&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), [[Nusa Kambangan]] (121&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), [[Panaitan]] (170&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), and the [[Thousand Islands Regency|Thousand Islands]] (8.7&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) – with a combined population of roughly 150,000 (of whom 85,320 are on Bawean, 28,809 are on the Thousand Islands, 16,200 on Nusa Barong and 10,800 on Karimunjawa).</sup>

<sup>(3) Land area of provinces updated in mid 2024 regency/city annual statistics.</sup>

==Demographics==

===Demographic profile===
[[File:Jakarta.jpg|left|thumb|[[Jakarta]], the capital of Indonesia ]]
{{Historical populations
|1961 | 63059575
|1971 | 76086320
|1980 | 91269528
|1990 | 107581306
|2000 | 121352608
|2010 | 136610590
|2015 | 145013583
|2020 | 151591262
|2024 | 156927804
|source=<ref>Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 28 February 2025 (and earlier editions)</ref>
|footnote=Refers to the administrative region (including Madura).
}}

Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during the Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta, [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]]. Java houses the majority of Indonesia's urban population. Currently, 65% of the island is urbanized. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average.<ref>[http://www.bkkbn.go.id/kependudukan/Pages/DataSensus/Sensus_Penduduk/Pola_Perkawinan/Rata_Usia_Kawin_Pertama/Nasional.aspx Usia Kawin Pertama Rata-Rata Wanita Menurut Provinsi: Sensus Penduduk Tahun 1990, 2000 dan 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629055719/http://www.bkkbn.go.id/kependudukan/Pages/DataSensus/Sensus_Penduduk/Pola_Perkawinan/Rata_Usia_Kawin_Pertama/Nasional.aspx |date=29 June 2015 }}. Retrieved 16 August 2015.</ref> The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/30/central-java-strives-alleviate-poverty.html |author=Agus Maryono |title=Central Java strives to alleviate poverty |work=The Jakarta Post |date=30 March 2009 |access-date=16 August 2015 |archive-date=8 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908234750/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/30/central-java-strives-alleviate-poverty.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving the island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surrounding [[Jakarta]] and [[Bandung]], which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

===Population growth===
[[File:Population density map of Java and Madura by subdistrict (kelurahan) (2022).svg|thumb|left|upright=2|Population density of Java and Madura by subdistrict as of 2022, with major urban areas shown]]
Java is the [[List of islands by population|most populous major island in the world]] and is home to 55% of Indonesia's population, with a combined population of 156.9&nbsp;million according to the official estimates as at mid 2024 (including Madura's 4.16&nbsp;million).<ref name=JKTPOS>{{cite news |title=Population growth 'good for Papua' |date=23 August 2010 |access-date=30 August 2010 |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/23/population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99.html |work=[[The Jakarta Post]] |archive-date=24 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824053746/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/23/population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> At nearly 1,183.5 people per km<sup>2</sup> in 2024, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on a par with Bangladesh. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2020 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significant [[Mount Merapi#2006 eruption|volcanic eruption]]s during the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese,<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413004319/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia |date=13 April 2021 }}. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref> while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well.

The western third of the island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of roughly 1,563 per square kilometre and accounts for most of the population growth of Java.<ref name="JKTPOS"/> It is home to three metropolitan areas, [[Greater Jakarta]] (with outlying areas of Greater [[Serang]] and Greater [[Sukabumi]]), [[Bandung Metropolitan Area|Greater Bandung]], and Greater [[Cirebon]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}

From the 1970s to the fall of the [[Suharto]] regime in 1998, the Indonesian government ran [[transmigration program]]s aimed at resettling the population of Java on other less populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results, sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrived [[settler]]s. Nevertheless, it has caused Java's share of the nation's population to progressively decline.

Jakarta and its outskirts, being the dominant metropolis, is also home to people from all over the nation. East Java is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty.

===Ethnicity and culture===
{{See also|Culture of Indonesia|Music of Java|Music of Sunda}}
[[File:Three Betawi Dancers 20240622 115231.jpg|thumb|[[Betawi people|Betawi]] girl dancers]]
[[File:SambaSunda Quintett in Cologne (0244).jpg|thumb|[[SambaSunda]] music performance, featuring traditional [[Sundanese music]] instruments]]
[[File:Ramayana Java.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lakshmana]], [[Rama]] and [[Sita|Shinta]] in [[Ramayana]] ballet at [[Prambanan]], Java]]
Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]]. A third group is the [[Madurese people|Madurese]], who inhabit the island of [[Madura Island|Madura]] off the northeast coast of Java and have immigrated to [[East Java]] in large numbers since the 18th century.<ref name=Periplus58>{{cite book |last=Hefner |first=Robert |title=Java |publisher=Periplus Editions |year=1997 |location=Singapore |page=58 |isbn=978-962-593-244-6 }}</ref> The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 38% and 10% respectively.<ref name=Periplus58/> The fourth group is the [[Betawi people]] who speak a dialect of [[Malay language|Malay]]. They are the descendants of the people living around [[Jakarta|Batavia]] from around the 17th century. Betawis are [[creole people]], mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such as [[Ethnic Malay|Malay]], [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], [[Javanese people|Javanese]], [[Balinese people|Balinese]], [[Minangkabau people|Minang]], [[Bugis people|Bugis]], [[Makassar people|Makassar]], [[Ambonese people|Ambonese]], mixed with foreign ethnic groups such as [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Dutch people|Dutch]], [[Arab]], Chinese and Indian brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] and [[Javanese people|Javanese]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}

The Javanese prose text [[Tantu Pagelaran]] ({{circa|15th century}}) explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

Four major cultural areas exist on the island: 

# The heartland of the Javanese people in the central part of Java with [[Yogyakarta]] as its cultural center; 
# the [[Pasisir]] region (from {{Langx|jv|ꦥꦱꦶꦱꦶꦂ|4=shore, coast}}) on the northern coast, home to the first Muslim sultanate in Indonesia;
# the [[Sundanese people|Sunda]] lands ([[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]: {{Sund|ᮒᮒᮁ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ}}, ''Tatar'' ''Sunda'') in the western part of Java with [[Parahyangan]] as their heartland;
# the [[eastern salient of Java]], also known as [[Banyuwangi|Blambangan]], consisting of the [[Blambangan Peninsula|Blambangan Peninsual]] east of the Tengger Massif.

Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal eastern Java.<ref name="Periplus58" />

The ''kejawen of Javanese'' culture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy is based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.<ref name="Periplus58" /> The territory from [[Banyumas Regency|Banyumas]] in the west through to [[Blitar]] in the east encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.''<ref name="Periplus58" />''

In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named the [[Banyumas Regency|Banyumasan]] region, a cultural mingling occurred, bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the [[Banyumasan language|Banyumasan]] culture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Java and Cambodia {{!}} Boundless Art History |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/java-and-cambodia/ |access-date=21 October 2020 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com }}</ref> In the central Javanese court cities of [[Yogyakarta (city)|Yogyakarta]] and [[Surakarta]], contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java include [[gamelan]] music and [[wayang]] puppet shows.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance |title=Theatre and dance |publisher=[[Britannica]] |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>

Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,<ref>See Wallace Stevens's poem "[[Tea (poem)|Tea]]" for an appreciative allusion to Javanese culture.</ref> and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These include ''[[Ken Arok]] and [[Ken Dedes]]'', the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations of ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]] is a famous contemporary Indonesian author who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.

===Languages===
[[File:Java languages.JPG|thumb|Languages spoken in Java (Javanese is shown in white). "Malay" refers to [[Betawi language|Betawi]], the local dialect as one of Malay creole dialect.]]

The three major languages spoken on Java are [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] and [[Madurese language|Madurese]]. Other languages spoken include [[Betawi language|Betawi]] (a [[Malay language|Malay]] dialect local to the Jakarta region), [[Osing language|Osing]], [[Banyumasan language|Banyumasan]], and [[Tenggerese people|Tenggerese]] (closely related to Javanese), [[Baduy language|Baduy]] and [[Bantenese language|Bantenese]] (closely related to Sundanese), [[Kangean language|Kangean]]ese (closely related to Madurese), and [[Balinese language|Balinese]].<ref>[http://www.cityandsuburbancleaners.com.au/Languages-of-Indonesia.pdf Languages of Java and Bali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216214336/http://www.cityandsuburbancleaners.com.au/Languages-of-Indonesia.pdf |date=16 February 2017 }}. Other sources may list some of these as dialects rather than languages.</ref> The vast majority of the population also speaks [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], often as a second language.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Ethnic-groups |title=Ethnic groups |publisher=[[Britannica]] |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Java (2023)<ref name="RELIGION">{{cite web |url=https://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/ |publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] |date=31 December 2023 |access-date=11 March 2024 |language=id |title=Visualisasi Data Kependudukan |archive-date=5 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705211227/http://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|label1 = [[Islam]]
|value1 = 96.06
|color1 = Green
|label2 = [[Protestantism]]
|value2 = 2.26
|color2 = DarkBlue
|label3 = [[Roman Catholicism]]
|value3 = 1.07
|color3 = Purple
|label4 = [[Buddhism]]
|value4 = 0.48
|color4 = Gold
|label5 = [[Hinduism]]
|value5 = 0.11
|color5 = DarkOrange
|label6 = [[Aliran Kepercayaan]]
|value6 = 0.01
|color6 = Black
|label7 = [[Confucianism]]
|value7 = 0.013
|color7 = Red
}}
Hinduism was the main religion in Java before the arrival of Islam.<ref>{{cite web |title=Java Religion |url=https://www.hinduamerican.org/blog/hinduism-beyond-india-java |website=Hinduism in Java |date=28 June 2021 |access-date=3 September 2025 }}</ref> [[South Asia|Indian]] influences came first with [[Shaivism]] and [[Buddhism]] penetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.<ref name="kroef1961">{{cite journal |first=Justus M. |last=van der Kroef |title=New Religious Sects in Java |journal=Far Eastern Survey |volume=30 |issue=2 |year=1961 |pages=18–25 |doi=10.2307/3024260 |jstor=3024260 }}</ref> One [[Conduit (spiritualism)|conduit]] for this were the [[asceticism|ascetic]]s, called ''resi'', who taught mystical practices. A ''resi'' lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, [[Brahmin]] clerics and ''pudjangga'' (sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linked [[Hinduism|Hindu]] cosmology to their political needs.<ref name="kroef1961"/> Small [[Hindu]] enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large [[Hindu]] population along the eastern coast nearest [[Bali]], especially around the town of [[Banyuwangi]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Religions !! Total
|-
| [[Islam]] || style="text-align:right;"|151,001,350
|-
| [[Protestantism]] || style="text-align:right;"|3,551,176
|-
| [[Roman Catholicism]] || style="text-align:right;"|1,677,824
|-
| [[Buddhism]] || style="text-align:right;"|755,560
|-
| [[Hinduism]] || style="text-align:right;"|168,055
|-
| [[Aliran Kepercayaan]] || style="text-align:right;"|21,855
|-
| [[Confucianism]] || style="text-align:right;"|20,303
|-
| '''Overall''' || style="text-align:right;"|'''157,196,123'''
|}<ref name="RELIGION"/>
The coming of [[Islam]], strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. More than 98 percent of the [[Muslims]] in Java are [[Sunni|Sunnis]] with very minority being [[Shia]] and [[Ahmadis]] (respectively 1% and 0.2%), on a broad continuum between ''[[abangan]]'' (more syncretic) and ''[[santri]]'' (more orthodox). Muslim scholars (''[[Kyai]]'') became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal [[Clergy|priesthood]], but the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch colonial government]] established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese ''[[pesantren]]'' (Islamic schools), the ''Kyai'' perpetuated the tradition of the ''resi''. Students around him provided his needs, even [[peasant]]s around the school.<ref name="kroef1961"/>

<gallery class="center" mode="packed">
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|The [[Menara Kudus Mosque]] in [[Kudus Regency|Kudus]], built in a mix of traditional Islamic and old Javanese styles
File:Gereja Immanuel, Gambir, Jakarta.jpg|[[Immanuel Church, Jakarta|Immanuel Church]] a [[Protestant church]] in [[Jakarta]]
File:Ganjuran Church, exterior 01.jpg|[[Ganjuran Church|Ganjuran Roman Catholic church]] in [[Bantul Regency]], built in the traditional [[Javanese traditional house|Javanese style]]
File:Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkartta, Candi Siliwangi Shrine.jpg|[[Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta]], a Hindu shrine dedicated to [[Prabu Siliwangi]], [[Bogor]]
File:001 Main Temple (25595087247).jpg|Maha Vihara Mojopahit, a Buddhist monastery near [[Trowulan]] Majapahit temple, [[Mojokerto]]
File:Boen Tek Bio.jpg|[[Boen Tek Bio]], the oldest [[Chinese temple]] in [[Tangerang]]
</gallery>

Pre-Islamic Javanese traditions have encouraged Islam in a mystical direction. There emerged in Java a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving around ''kyais'', possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic [[Folklore|lore]], [[belief]] and practice.<ref name="kroef1961"/> The kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of the [[supernatural]]. However, this very looseneess of kyai leadership structure has promoted [[schism (religion)|schism]]. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught [[mysticism]] and those who sought to reform Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, there is a division between ''santri'', who believe that they are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, with ''[[abangan]]'', who have mixed pre-Islamic [[animism|animistic]] and Hindu-Indian concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief.<ref name="kroef1961"/>

There are also [[Christians|Christian]] communities, mostly in the larger cities, primarily among [[Chinese Indonesian]] and minority [[Javanese people|Javanese]] even some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] communities also exist in the major cities, primarily among the [[Chinese Indonesian]]. The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions.

A wider effect of this division is the number of sects. In the middle of 1956, the Department of Religious Affairs in [[Yogyakarta]] reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 35 were in [[Central Java]], 22 in [[West Java]] and six in [[East Java]].<ref name="kroef1961"/> These include [[Javanese beliefs|Kejawen]], [[Javanese beliefs|Sumarah]], [[Subud]], etc. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.<ref name="Beatty">Beatty, Andrew, ''Varieties of Javanese Religion: An Anthropological Account'', Cambridge University Press 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-62473-8 }}</ref> [[Sunda Wiwitan]] is a traditional [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] religion, its adherents still exist in several villages.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dcTAQAAMAAJ&q=sunda+wiwitan+religion |title=Tempo: Indonesia's Weekly News Magazine |date=2006 |publisher=Arsa Raya Perdana |language=en }}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:KerbauJawa.jpg|left|thumb|[[Water buffalo]] ploughing [[Paddy field|rice fields]] near [[Salatiga]], in [[Central Java]]]]
Initially the economy of Java relied heavily on rice agriculture. Ancient kingdoms such as the [[Kingdoms of Sunda]], [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], and [[Majapahit]] were dependent on rice yields and tax. Java was famous for rice surpluses and rice export since ancient times, and rice agriculture contributed to the population growth of the island. Trade with other parts of Asia such as ancient India and China flourished as early as the 4th century, as evidenced by Chinese ceramics found on the island dated to that period. Java also took part in the global trade of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] spice from ancient times in the Majapahit era, until well into the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) era.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Growth-and-impact-of-the-Dutch-East-India-Company |title=Growth and impact of the Dutch East India Company |publisher=[[Britannica]] |access-date=27 June 2024 }}</ref>

The VOC set their foothold on [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] in the 17th century and was succeeded by the [[Dutch East Indies]] in the 19th century. During these colonial times, the Dutch introduced the cultivation of commercial plants in Java, such as [[sugarcane]], rubber, coffee, tea, and [[quinine]]. In the 19th and early 20th century, Javanese coffee gained global popularity. Thus, the name "Java" today has become a synonym for coffee.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-is-coffee-called-a-cup-of-joe#:~:text=When+it+comes+to+the,to+be+known+as+java |title=Why Is Coffee Called "A Cup of Joe"? |website=Wonderopolis |date=16 January 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.littlecoffeeplace.com/why-is-coffee-called-java |title=Why is Coffee Called Java? Colloquial Coffee Synonyms |last=Demri |date=12 December 2017 |website=www.littlecoffeeplace.com }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://coffeechronicler.com/why-is-coffee-called-java/ |title=Why is Coffee Called Java? &#124; Coffee Facts & History |date=30 July 2021 |website=The Coffee Chronicler }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://driftaway.coffee/coffee-called-java/ |title=Why is Coffee Called Java? |date=12 April 2016 }}</ref>[[File:KCIC CIT400AF.jpg|thumb|[[High-speed rail in Indonesia|Whoosh]] high-speed train passing through [[Bekasi]] city]]
Java has been Indonesia's most developed island since the Dutch East Indies era and continues to be so today in the modern Republic of Indonesia. The road transportation networks that have existed since ancient times were connected and perfected with the construction of [[Great Post Road|Java Great Post Road]] by [[Daendels]] in the early 19th century. It became the backbone of Java's road infrastructure and laid the base of [[North Coast Road (Java)|Java North Coast Road]] ({{langx|id|Jalan Pantura, abbreviation from "Pantai Utara"}}). The need to transport commercial produces such as coffee from plantations in the interior of the island to the harbour on the coast spurred the construction of railway networks in Java. Today, industry, business, trade and services flourished in major cities of Java, such as [[Jakarta]], [[Surabaya]], [[Semarang]], and [[Bandung]]; while some traditional Sultanate cities such as [[Yogyakarta]], [[Surakarta]], and [[Cirebon]] preserved its royal legacy and has become the centre of art, culture and tourism. Industrial estates are also growing in towns on northern coast of Java, especially around [[Cilegon]], [[Tangerang]], [[Bekasi]], [[Karawang]], [[Gresik]] and [[Sidoarjo]]. The [[toll road]] highway networks was built and expanded since the New Order until the present day, connecting major urban centres and surrounding areas, such as in and around [[Jakarta]] and [[Bandung]]; also the ones in [[Cirebon]], [[Semarang]] and [[Surabaya]]. In addition to these motorways, Java has 16 national highways.

[[File:Java Transportation Network.svg|thumb|Java transport network]]Based on the statistical data by the year of 2021 released by [[Statistics Indonesia]] (''Badan Pusat Statistik''), Java alone contributes around 60% of Indonesia's GDP or equivalent to US$686&nbsp;billion (int$2.0 trillion, PPP).<ref name="bps">{{Cite book |title=PDRB Atas Dasar Harga Berlaku Menurut Pengeluaran (Juta Rupiah), 2021 |author=Badan Pusat Statistik |author-link=Statistics Indonesia |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik |year=2022 |location=Jakarta |url=https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/171/534/1/-seri-2010-1-pdrb-atas-dasar-harga-berlaku-menurut-pengeluaran.html }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Indonesia|Islands}}
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[List of monarchs of Java]]
{{-}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location=New Haven and London |isbn=978-0-300-10518-6 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Cribb |first=Robert |year=2000 |title=Historical Atlas of Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000crib |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon Press, University of Hawaii Press |location=London and Honolulu |isbn=978-0-8248-2111-1 |url-access=registration }}
* Padmo, Soegijanto (2000). ''[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/11597-java-and-the-making-op-the-nation-2d30d285.pdf Java and The Making of The Nation.]'' Humaniora Journal, Gadjah Mada University.

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}

{{Provinces of Indonesia}}
{{World's largest islands}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Java| ]]
[[Category:Greater Sunda Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Islands of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Maritime Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Populated places in Indonesia]]