View source for Jazz Age

{{short description|American period in the 1920s and 1930s}}
{{use American English|date=December 2019}}
{{use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{for multi|the 2012 album by Bryan Ferry|The Jazz Age (The Bryan Ferry Orchestra album){{!}}''The Jazz Age'' (The Bryan Ferry Orchestra album)|the 1998 album by Jack|The Jazz Age (Jack album){{!}}''The Jazz Age'' (Jack album)|the 1929 film|The Jazz Age (film){{!}}''The Jazz Age'' (film)}}{{Infobox historical era|start=1920s|end=1930s|image={{Multiple image 
| image1 = CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg
| image2 = JohnHeld Tales of the Jazz Age 1922.jpg
| image3 = Bessie Smith (1936) by Carl Van Vechten.jpg
| image4 = Fate Marable's New Orleans Band on the S. S. Sidney.jpg
| image5 = Frank Farnum coaching Pauline Starke.jpg
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| total_width = 310
| footer_align = center
| footer = {{resize|100%|'''Clockwise from top''': {{flatlist|
* King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra (1921)
* [[Bessie Smith]] (1936)
* Dancing the [[Charleston (dance)|Charleston]] (1925)
* [[Fate Marable]]'s New Orleans Band ({{circa|1918}})
* ''[[Tales of the Jazz Age]]'' (1922)
}}}}
}}|name=Jazz Age|location=[[United States]]|including={{plainlist|
* [[Roaring Twenties]]
* [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition era]]
* [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]]}}}}
The '''Jazz Age''' was a period from 1920 to the early 1930s in which [[jazz]] music and dance styles gained worldwide popularity. The Jazz Age's cultural repercussions were primarily felt in the United States, the birthplace of jazz. Originating in [[New Orleans]] as mainly sourced from the culture of [[African Americans]], jazz played a significant part in wider cultural changes in this period, and its influence on [[popular culture]] continued long afterwards. 

The Jazz Age is often referred to in conjunction with the [[Roaring Twenties]], and overlapped in significant cross-cultural ways with the [[Prohibition Era]]. The movement was largely affected by the introduction of [[radio]]s nationwide. During this time, the Jazz Age was intertwined with the developing [[youth culture]]. The movement would also help in introducing jazz culture to Europe. The Jazz Age ends before the Swing Era.

== Background ==
The term ''jazz age'' was in popular usage prior to 1920.{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}{{sfnm|Houghton Line|1919|1pp=6, 9|Literary Digest|1919|2p=31}} In 1922, American writer [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] further popularized the term with the publication of his short story collection ''[[Tales of the Jazz Age]]''.{{sfnm|Berg|1978|1p=217|Henderson|2013}}<ref name="Cooke 1998 on the Jazz Age" />

=== Jazz music ===
{{Main|Jazz}}
[[Jazz]] is a music genre that originated in the Black-American communities of [[New Orleans, Louisiana]],{{sfn|Roth|1952|pp=305, 312}}{{sfn|National Park Service|2015}} in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in [[blues]] and [[ragtime]].{{sfn|Roth|1952|p=306}}{{sfn|Germuska|1995}} New Orleans provided a cultural humus in which jazz could germinate because it was a port city with many cultures and beliefs intertwined.{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2001|pp=2–3}} In New Orleans, people of different cultures and races often lived close together which allowed for cultural interaction which facilitated the development of the active musical environment of the city'''.'''<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Orleans |title=Jazz Origins in New Orleans - New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref> In New Orleans, the development of jazz was influenced by [[Creole music]], [[ragtime]], and [[blues]].{{sfn|Biocca|1990|p=1}}

Jazz is seen by many as "America's classical music".{{sfn|Sales|1984|p=3}} The earliest Jazz styles, which emerged in New Orleans, Chicago, and New York in the early 1920s, are sometimes referred to as "[[dixieland]] jazz".{{sfnm|Cooke|1998|1p=52|Peretti|1992|2p=76}} In the 1920s, jazz became recognized as a major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent [[traditional music|traditional]] and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of Black-American and European-American musical parentage with a performance orientation.{{sfn|Hennessey|1973|pp=470–473}} From African traditions, jazz derived its rhythm, "blues", and traditions of playing or singing in one's own expressive way. From European traditions, jazz derived its harmony and instruments.{{sfnm|1a1=Ward|1a2=Burns|1y=2001|1p=10|2a1=Schuller|2y=1968|2p=3}}<ref>{{harvnb|Roth|1952|p=312}}: "It is here that we find one of the white, or European, influences upon American Negro music; it is the central one, I think, and the one which has the most to do with the birth of jazz. We may call it⁠—as I have called it heretofore⁠—the instrumentalizing of the human voice."</ref>

[[Louis Armstrong]] brought the improvisational solo to the forefront of a piece, replacing the original polyphonic ensemble style of New Orleans jazz.{{sfn|Biocca|1990|p=1}}<ref name="auto"/> Jazz is generally characterized by [[swung note|swing]] and [[blue note]]s, [[Call and response (music)|call and response vocals]], [[polyrhythm]]s and [[improvisation]].

=== Prohibition ===
{{Main|Prohibition in the United States}}
[[Prohibition in the United States]] was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In the 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a crime wave that shocked the U.S. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such as [[Al Capone]],{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=321}} and approximately $60&nbsp;million ({{Inflation|US|60000000.00|1937|fmt=eq}}) in illegal alcohol was smuggled across the borders of Canada and the United States.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=360}} The resulting illicit [[speakeasy|speakeasies]] that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes.

By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets", attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America.{{sfn|Orchowski|2015|p=32}} Prohibition ended with the ratification of the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-first Amendment]], which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the latter stages of the [[Progressive Era]].

===Speakeasies===
{{main|Speakeasy|Black and tan clubs}}
{{CSS image crop|Image=Krazy Kat LOC npcc.04658.jpg|bSize=500|cWidth=300|cHeight=200|oTop=125|oLeft=90|Location=right|Description=Several patrons and a [[flapper]] await the opening of the [[Krazy Kat Klub]] in 1921, a [[speakeasy]] located in [[Washington, D.C.]]}}
Formed as a result of the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|eighteenth amendment]], speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could drink alcohol and relax or speakeasy.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|pp=207–210}} Jazz was played in these speakeasies as a countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on.<ref>{{harvnb|Ward|Burns|2001|p=76}}: "Theirs would become the music of choice in cabarets and speakeasies and roadhouses, George Washington was a large supporter of jazz in the 20th century and would provide the accompaniment for the period F. Scott Fitzgerald would soon call the Jazz Age."</ref> Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. [[Al Capone]], the famous organized crime leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in ''A Renegade History of the United States'', states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'"{{sfn|Russell|2010|p=230}} Also from A Renegade History of the United States, "The pianist [[Earl Hines]] remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got along well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very free with $100 tips."{{sfn|Russell|2010|p=230}} The illegal culture of speakeasies led to what was known as [[Black and tan clubs|‘black and tan’ clubs]] which had multiracial crowds.<ref>{{harvnb|Okrent|2010|p=212}}: "Another barrier fell with the arrival of the 'black and tans,' integrated cabarets and nightclubs, usually in black neighborhoods and usually featuring leading African-American jazz musicians."</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Peretti|1y=1992|1p=31|2a1=Ward|2a2=Burns|2y=2001|yp=128}}

There were many speakeasies, especially in [[Chicago]] and [[New York City]]. New York City had, at the height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies.<ref name="Cops and Speakeasies">{{harvnb|Okrent|2010|p=264}}: "Each of the thirty-two thousand speakeasies in New York probably paid a beat cop five dollars a day to keep the taps and the cash register open."</ref> At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a way to preserve his and Jack Kriendler's illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police.<ref name="Cops and Speakeasies" /> Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a button was pushed, tongue blocks under shelves of liquor would drop, making the shelves drop back and liquor bottles fall down a chute, break, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An alarm also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door flush with the wall. It had a small, almost unnoticeable hole for a rod to be pushed in to activate a lock and open the door.{{sfn|Hill|2004|pp=153, 155, 156}}

=== Rum running/bootlegging ===
As to where speakeasies obtained alcohol, there were rum runners and bootleggers. Rum running, in this case, was the organized smuggling of liquor by land or sea into the U.S. Decent foreign liquor was high-end alcohol during prohibition, and [[William McCoy (bootlegger)|William McCoy]] had some of the best of it. Bill McCoy was in the rum-running business, and at certain points of time was ranked among the best. To avoid being caught, he sold liquor just outside the territorial waters of the United States. Buyers would come to him to pick up his booze as a precaution for McCoy. McCoy's liquor specialty was selling high-quality whiskey without diluting the alcohol.{{sfn|Hill|2004|pp=120, 121}} Bootlegging was making and or smuggling alcohol around the U.S. As selling the alcohol could make plenty of money, there are several major ways this was done. One strategy used by [[Frankie Yale]] and the [[Genna Brothers|Genna brothers gang]] (both involved in organized crime) was to give poor Italian Americans alcohol stills to make alcohol for them at $15 per day's work.{{sfn|Rodgers|1997}} Another strategy was to buy liquor from rumrunners. Racketeers would also buy closed breweries and distilleries and hire former employees to make alcohol. [[Johnny Torrio]] partnered with two other mobsters and legitimate brewer Joseph Stenson to make illegal beer in a total of nine breweries. Finally, some [[Racketeering|racketeers]] stole industrial grain alcohol and redistilled it to sell in speakeasies.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=201}}

== History ==
From 1919, [[Kid Ory]]'s Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.{{sfn|Cooke|1998|p=54}} The year also saw the first recording by [[Bessie Smith]], the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.{{sfn|Cooke|1998|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Santelli|2001|p=423}} Chicago, meanwhile, was the main center developing the new "[[Hot Jazz]]", where [[Joe "King" Oliver|King Oliver]] joined [[Bill Johnson (double-bassist)|Bill Johnson]]. [[Bix Beiderbecke]] formed The Wolverines in 1924.{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2001|p=101}}{{sfn|Cooke|1998|p=79}}
[[File:Mandy (louis armstrong).tiff|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Top: excerpt from the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corresponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).]]

The same year, [[Louis Armstrong]] joined the [[Fletcher Henderson]] dance band as featured soloist, leaving in 1925.{{sfn|Wilson|2007}} The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young [[Coleman Hawkins]]), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality."{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=91}} The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by [[George W. Meyer]] and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=93}} (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it does not convey his use of swing.)

Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic [[Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five|Hot Five]] band, which included instrumentalist's Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), and wife Lil on piano, where he popularized [[scat singing]].{{sfn|Cooke|1998|pp=56–59, 66–70, 78–79}}

{{listen
 | pos = right
 | filename = US Marine Band Rhapsody in Blue.oga
 | type = music
 | title = "Rhapsody in Blue"
 | description = The [[United States Marine Band]]'s 2018 performance of [[George Gershwin]]'s "[[Rhapsody in Blue]]". F. Scott Fitzgerald asserted that the song idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age. | format = [[Ogg]]
}}
[[Jelly Roll Morton]] recorded with the [[New Orleans Rhythm Kings]] in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his [[Red Hot Peppers]]. There was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as [[Jean Goldkette]]'s orchestra and [[Paul Whiteman]]'s orchestra. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned [[George Gershwin|Gershwin]]'s ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'', premiered by Whiteman's Orchestra. Writer [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] opined that ''Rhapsody in Blue'' idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age.{{sfn|Fitzgerald|2004|p=93}} By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate kind of music.{{sfn|Dunkel|2015|p=123}} Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson's band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the [[Cotton Club]] in 1927) in New York, and [[Earl Hines]]' Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz.{{sfn|Cooke|1998|pp=82–83, 100–103}} By 1930, the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=88}}

Several musicians grew up in musical families, where a family member would often teach how to read and play music. Included in this group was the bandleader [[Guy Lombardo]], who collaborated with his brothers Carmen and Lebert in Canada to form the Royal Canadians Orchestra in the early 1920s. By 1929 their "sweet" [[big band]] appeared regularly at the landmark [[Roosevelt Hotel (New York)|Roosevelt Hotel]] in New York City and later in 1959 at the [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel]], where they entertained audiences nationwide for decades with a velvety-smooth interpretation of the "sweetest music this side of heaven".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 |last=Crump |first=William D. |title=Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide |publisher=McFarland & Co. |publication-place=London |date=2008 |page=101 |isbn=978-0-7864-3393-3}}</ref><ref> Obituary: [https://books.google.com/books?id=DYBIAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA14 "Famed Orchestra Leader Guy Lombardo, 75, Dies] Pittsubrg Post Gazette  7 Nov. 1977, p.26</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKgJNIaWn1IC&pg=PA95 |title=America's Music Makers Big bands and Ballrooms 1912-2011 - Shep Fields society band broadcasting on radio from the Palmer House|page= 95|last=Behrnes |first=Jack |publisher=AuthorHouse |publication-place=Bloomington, Il. |date=2011  |isbn=978-1-4567-2952-3}}</ref> Despite [[Benny Goodman]]'s claim that "sweet" music was a "weak sister" as compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band enjoyed widespread popularity which crossed racial divides and was even praised by [[Louis Armstrong]] as one of his favorites.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of music in the 20th Century |editor1-last=Stacey |editor1-first=Lee |editor2-last=Henderson |editor2-first=Lol |publisher=Routledge Taylor and Francis Group |publication-place=London |date=2014 |page=379 |isbn=978-1-135-92946-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA379}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__DTvryrBZkC&pg=PA472 |title=Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Genres North America |volume=8 |editor-last1=Horn |editor-first1=David |editor-last2=Shephard |editor-first2=John |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2012 |page=472 |isbn=978-1-4411-4874-2 |quote=Armstrong and Lombardo did not view their worlds as diametrically opposed, nor did many other contemporary musicians of the 1930s. ...Lombardo himself always took great pride in the number of black orchestras that imitated his style.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ml4OLDYcJs0C&pg=PA42 |title=Lonesome Roads and Streets of Dreams: Place Mobility and Race in Jazz of the 1930s and '40s |last=Berish |first=Andrew S. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2012 |page=45 |chapter=The Casino Ballroom: White and Sweet |isbn=978-0-226-04494-1}}</ref> 

Some musicians, like [[Pops Foster]], learned on homemade instruments.{{sfn|Chevan|2002|p=201}}

Urban radio stations played African-American jazz more frequently than suburban stations, due to the concentration of African Americans in urban areas such as New York and Chicago. Younger demographics popularized the black-originated dances such as the Charleston as part of the immense cultural shift the popularity of jazz music generated.{{sfnm|Peretti|1992|1p=50|Cooke|1998|2p=40}}{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2001|p=107}}<ref name="Cooke 1998 on the Jazz Age">{{harvnb|Cooke|1998|p=52}}: "The popularity of new dance styles helped jazz to develop from the march-like tread of its early days into the snappy, syncopated music so characteristic of what F. Scott Fitzgerald dubbed 'The Jazz Age'."</ref>

Jazz aimed to cultivate empathy by initially challenging established norms and those who adhered to them, before captivating them with its ethereal and enchanting allure. It sought to blur the societal divides of race, class, and political allegiance, as illustrated in James Baldwin's renowned short story, "Sonny's Blues," where the transformative power of jazz unites two estranged brothers through the deeply emotive melodies played by Sonny. In Fitzgerald's works and beyond, jazz acted as a leveling influence, fostering a degree of equality within both literature and society.<ref name="auto"/>

In 1925, ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' epitomized this phase of Fitzgerald's career, capturing the romanticism and superficial charm of the "Jazz Age." This era started with the conclusion of World War I, the onset of women's suffrage, and Prohibition, and ultimately crumbled with the Great Crash of 1929.<ref name="auto"/>

=== Swing in the 1930s ===
{{Main|Swing music|1930s in jazz}}
The 1930s belonged to popular [[swing (music)|swing]] big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers [[Count Basie]], [[Cab Calloway]], [[Jimmy Dorsey|Jimmy]] and [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Benny Goodman]], [[Fletcher Henderson]], [[Earl Hines]], [[Harry James]], [[Jimmie Lunceford]], [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Artie Shaw]]. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music.

Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders recruit white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist [[Teddy Wilson]], vibraphonist [[Lionel Hampton]] and guitarist [[Charlie Christian]] to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist [[Lester Young]] marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or [[jump blues]] used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on [[boogie woogie (music)|boogie-woogie]] from the 1930s.

== Radio ==
The introduction of large-scale radio broadcasts enabled the rapid national spread of jazz in 1932. The radio was described as the "sound factory." Radio made it possible for millions to hear music for free — especially people who never attended expensive, distant big city clubs.{{sfn|Biocca|1990|p=3}} These broadcasts originated from clubs in leading centers such as New York, Chicago, Kansas City, and Los Angeles. There were two categories of live music on the radio: concert music and big band dance music. The concert music was known as "potter palm" and was concert music by amateurs, usually volunteers.{{sfn|De Roche|2015|p=18}} Big band dance music is played by professionals and was featured in [[Big band remote|remote]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/BigBandRemotes|title=Big Band Remotes|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> broadcasts from nightclubs, dance halls, and ballrooms.{{sfn|Barlow|1995|p=327}} 

Musicologist [[Charles Hamm]] described three types of jazz music at the time: black music for black audiences, black music for white audiences, and white music for white audiences.{{sfn|Savran|2006|p=461}} Jazz artists like Louis Armstrong originally received very little airtime because most stations preferred to play the music of white American jazz singers. Other jazz vocalists include Bessie Smith and [[Florence Mills]]. In urban areas, such as Chicago and New York, African-American jazz was played on the radio more often than in the suburbs. Big-band jazz, like that of [[James Reese Europe]] and Fletcher Henderson in New York, attracted large radio audiences.{{sfn|Barlow|1995|pp=326–327}}

Several "sweet jazz" dance orchestras also achieved national recognition in big band remote broadcasts including: [[Guy Lombardo]]'s Royal Canadian Orchestra, at New York City's [[Roosevelt Hotel (New York)|Roosevelt Hotel]] (1929) and at the [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel]] (1959),<ref>{{cite book|last=Crump |first=William D. |title=Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide |publisher=McFarland & Co. |publication-place=London |date=2008 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 |isbn=978-0-7864-3393-3}}</ref> and [[Shep Fields]]'s Rippling Rhythm Orchestra<ref name="nyt1">{{cite web |title=SHEP FIELDS, LEADER OF BIG BAND KNOWEN FOR RIPPLING RYTHEM (Published 1981) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/24/obituaries/shep-fields-leader-of-big-band-knowen-for-rippling-rythem.html |website=The New York Times |accessdate=28 October 2020 |date=24 February 1981}}</ref> at Chicago's landmark [[Palmer House Hotel]] (1936),<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5qM7AQAAIAAJ&q=Shep+Fields+Biltmore+Hotel Who Is Who In Music. Berghan Publishing Co. 1941 p. 93 Biography of Shep Fields on Google Books]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKgJNIaWn1IC&q=Shep+Fields+society+band&pg=PA95|title=America's Music Makers: Big Bands & Ballrooms 1912-2011|first=John|last=Behrens|date=March 4, 2011|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4567-2952-3 |via=Google Books}}</ref> New York City's "Star-light Roof" in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (1937),<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oaYrAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5fwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6717,4906729&dq=broadcast+hotel+shep+fields&hl=en|newspaper=The Telegraph |title=Obituaries: Shep Fields Dies -noted bandleader|date= February 24, 1981}}</ref> and the [[Copacabana (nightclub)|Copacabana]] nightclub.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUz_qcJQmnUC&pg=PA61 |title=The Copacabana |last=Baggelaar |first=Kristin |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |date=2006 |page=61 |isbn=978-0-7385-4919-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nxEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT33 |magazine=The Billboard |date=February 24, 1945 |page=34 |title=New Band for Kelly-Wood |quote=Shep Fields is set for the Copacabana}}</ref>

== Elements and influences ==
=== Youth ===
Young people in the 1920s used the influence of jazz to rebel against the traditional culture of previous generations. This youth rebellion of the 1920s included such things as [[flapper]] fashions, women who smoked cigarettes in public, a willingness to talk about sex freely, and radio concerts. Dances like the [[Charleston (dance)|Charleston]], developed by African Americans, suddenly became popular among the youth. Traditionalists were aghast at what they considered the breakdown of morality.{{sfn|Fass|1977|p=22}} Some urban middle-class African Americans perceived jazz as "devil's music", and believed the improvised rhythms and sounds were promoting promiscuity.<ref>{{harvnb|Berger|1947|p=463}}: "Calling jazz an 'agency of the devil,' the pastor of the Calvary Baptist Church in New York said
 in 1926: 'Jazz, with its . . . appeal to the sensuous, should  be stamped out.' The rector of the Episcopal Church of the Ascension in New York said in 1922: 'Jazz is retrogression. It is going to the African jungle for our music.'"</ref>

Jazz served as a platform for rebellion on multiple fronts. In dance halls, jazz clubs, and speakeasies, women found refuge from societal norms that confined them to conventional roles. These spaces offered them more freedom in their speech, attire, and behavior. Reflecting the prevalent Freudian psychology of the 1920s, jazz promoted "childlike" behavior, with frequenters known as Flappers often called "Jazz Babies." The uninhibited and spontaneous nature of jazz encouraged primal and sensual expression. As the older generation dismissed jazz, it became a vehicle for young women (and men) to challenge the values of their parents and grandparents.<ref>{{Cite web |title=jazzlib |url=https://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/tbacig/studproj/is3099/jazzcult/20sjazz/jazzlib.html#:~:text=Jazz%20provided%20an%20outlet%20for,language,%20clothing,%20and%20behavior |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=www.d.umn.edu}}</ref>

=== Role of women ===
{{Main|Women in jazz}}
With women's [[suffrage]]—the right for women to vote—at its peak with the ratification of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]] on August 18, 1920, and the entrance of the free-spirited flapper, women began to take on a larger role in society and culture. With women now taking part in the work force after the end of the First World War there were now many more possibilities for women in terms of social life and entertainment. Ideas such as equality and open sexuality were very popular during the time and women seemed to capitalize on these ideas during this period. The 1920s saw the emergence of many famous women musicians, including Bessie Smith. Bessie Smith gained attention because she was not only a great singer but also an African-American woman as well as an icon in the LGBTQ+ community. Throughout her musical career she was unapologetically herself, expressing the struggles of the Black working class, addressing issues such as poverty, racism, and sexism alongside themes of love and female sexuality in her lyrics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bessie Smith |url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/lgbtq/bessie-smith |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=National Museum of African American History and Culture |language=en}}</ref> She has grown through the ages to be one of the most well respected singers of all time and inspired later performers such as [[Billie Holiday]].{{sfn|Ward|2004|pp=458–460}}

[[Lovie Austin]] (1887–1972) was a Chicago-based bandleader, session musician (piano), composer, singer, and arranger during the 1920s [[Classic female blues|classic blues]] era. She and [[Lil Hardin Armstrong]] often are ranked as two of the best female [[jazz blues]] piano players of the period.{{sfn|Santelli|2001|p=20}}

Piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong was originally a member of King Oliver's band with Louis, and went on to play piano in her husband's band the [[Hot Five]] and then his next group called the [[Hot Seven]].{{sfn|Borzillo|1996|pp=1, 94–96}} It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that many women jazz singers, such as Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday, were recognized as successful artists in the music world.{{sfn|Borzillo|1996|pp=1, 94–96}}<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1998|p=129}}: "Holiday (1919–59) is widely recognized as the greatest jazz vocalist of all time, a performer who revolutionized the art of jazz singing in the 1930s and exerted a powerful influence on subsequent vocalists."</ref> Another famous female vocalist who attained stardom at the tail-end of the Jazz Age was Ella Fitzgerald, one of the more popular female jazz singers in the United States for more than half a century and later dubbed "The First Lady of Song".<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1998|p=128}}: "Ella Fitzgerald's extensive 'songbook' recordings made between 1956 and 1964 remain among the best-selling vocal albums in jazz."</ref> She worked with all the jazz greats of the era, including [[Chick Webb]],{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2001|pp=270, 272}} Duke Ellington,{{sfn|Crow|1990|p=251}} Count Basie, and Benny Goodman.{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2001|p=272}} These women were persistent in striving to make their names known in the music industry and to lead the way for many more women artists to come.{{sfn|Borzillo|1996|pp=1, 94–96}}

=== Influence of middle-class white Americans ===
The birth of jazz is credited to African Americans.{{sfn|McCann|2008|p=3}} But it was modified to become socially acceptable to middle-class white Americans. Those critical of jazz saw it as music from people with no training or skill.<ref>{{harvnb|Berger|1947|p=463}}: "Those who opposed jazz with no qualification whatever saw in it an appeal to sensuousness, a return to primitive forms, and described it as the music of persons without any training."</ref> White performers were used as a vehicle for the popularization of jazz music in America. Although jazz was taken over by the white middle-class population, it facilitated the mesh of African American traditions and ideals with white middle-class society.{{sfn|Barlow|1995|p=325}}

=== Beginnings of European jazz ===
By the 1920s jazz had spread around the world. According to ''The New York Times'' in 1922:<ref name="hershey19220625">{{Cite news |last=Hershey |first=Burnet |date=1922-06-25 |title=Jazz Latitude |pages=T5 |work=The New York Times |url=https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/ |url-status=live |access-date=2022-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626162658/https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/ |archive-date=June 26, 2022}}</ref>

{{quote|Jazz latitude is marked as indelibly on the globe as the heavy line of the equator. It runs from Broadway along Main Street to San Francisco: to the Hawaiian Islands, which it has lyricized to fame; to Japan, where it is hurriedly adopted as some new Western culture; to the Philippines, where it is royally welcomed back as its own; to China where the mandarins and even the coolies look upon it as a helpful sign that the Occident at last knows what is music; to Siam, where the barbaric tunes strike a kindred note and come home to roost; to India, where the natives receive it dubiously, while the colonists seize upon it avidly; to the East Indies, where it holds sway in its elementary form — ragtime; to Egypt, where it sounds so curiously familiar and where it has set Cairo dance mad; to Palestine, where it is looked upon as an inevitable and necessary evil along with liberation; across the Mediterranean, where all ships and all shores have been inoculated with the germ; to Monte Carlo and the Riviera, where the jazz idea has been adopted as its own enfant-chéri; to Paris, which has its special versions of jazz; to London, which long has sworn to shake off the fever, but still is jazzing; and back again to Tinpan Alley, where each day, nay, each hour, adds some new inspiration that will slowly but surely meander along jazz latitude.}}

As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, [[Mike Danzi]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Jazz Experience in Weimar Germany |last=Kater |first=Michael |journal=German History |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=6 |issue=2 |date=1 April 1988 |pages=145–158 |quote=American Jazz was imported into Germany in the early 1920s...some two to five years after it had entered Britain or France...genuine American Jazz musicians (such as)... Mike Danzi embarked on a German tour with American bandleader Alex Hyde before deciding to make Berlin his permanent European base....As the great majority of German musicians still found jazz very difficult to master, it was Americans and a few Englishmen who came to dominate the jazz scene of the Roaring Twenties... |doi=10.1093/gh/6.2.145}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDIKSt7JR40C&pg=PA121 |title=Jazz Research and Performance Materials |last=Meadows |first=Eddie S. |date=February 27, 1995 |page=121|publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-8153-0373-2 }}</ref> and [[Lonnie Johnson (musician)|Lonnie Johnson]], who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.{{sfn|Wynn|2007|p=67}} The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.

British jazz began with a [[Original Dixieland Jass Band#London tour|tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919]].{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=8–11}} In 1926, [[Fred Elizalde]] and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=29, 46, 67}} Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very soon, the resulting music craze in the United Kingdom led to a [[moral panic]] in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist [[John Bulloch Souter]]'s controversial 1926 painting ''[[The Breakdown]]''.{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=29–31}} The painting has been described as embodying the fears of Western civilization towards [[jazz]] music,{{sfn|Blake|1999|p=89}} and the painting was later destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned.{{sfnm|McKay|2005|1p=121–122|Shearer|2018}}

The European style of jazz entered full swing in France with the [[Quintette du Hot Club de France]], which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.{{sfn|Jackson|2002|pp=149–170}} Belgian guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] popularized [[gypsy jazz]], a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "[[Bal-musette|musette]]", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe [[Eddie Lang]] and [[Joe Venuti]] pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on [[Okeh Records]] in the late 1920s.{{sfnm|1a1=Ward|1a2=Burns|1y=2001|1p=299|Peretti|1992|2p=201}}

=== South African jazz ===
{{Main|Marabi}} {{main|Music of South Africa}} {{Main|Kwela}} {{Main|South African jazz}}
After the discovery of natural resources which boosted the country's economy during the late 19th century and early 20th century, [[South Africa]] became urbanised rapidly after its formation in 1910 with Black people leaving their native rural villages to go and work in the city/town in order to earn an income.

Due to discriminative laws that forbade black people from living in the suburbs and owning property, most of them ended up living in slums which became townships. In these slums, [[shebeens]] were opened by black women with the purpose of selling home-made, [[Traditional African beer]] (locally known as '[[Umqombothi]]') in order to earn an income.

Eventually, these shebeens would provide a nightlife for black people who were living in these slums. During this period in the early 20th century, American jazz was introduced on [[South African radios]], and it became the most popular style of music in the urban areas of South Africa. The biggest consumer of jazz music was the newly black urban class in these shebeens based on the slums of South Africa. Therefore, jazz got fused with [[African Traditional Music]] and a new style/genre was formed called [[Marabi]].{{cn|date=November 2024}}

In the 1940s, the genre had taken the country by storm, and by the 1950s, another style of South African jazz was formed called [[Kwela]] with an addition of the modern or traditional [[pennywhistle]]. South African jazz has created many stars of which some became famous worldwide e.g. [[Miriam Makeba]], [[Hugh Masekela]].

== Criticism of the movement ==
During this period, jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the [[Roaring Twenties]]. Professor Henry van Dyke of [[Princeton University]] wrote: "[I]t is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2001|p=78}} The media also spoke ill of it. ''[[The New York Times]]'' in the 1920s intimated that jazz was responsible for the decline of Western civilization and of the quality of Italian tenors, a poor trade balance with Hungary, a classical musician's fatal heart attack, and frightening bears in [[Siberia]].{{sfn|Suhor|2001|p=18}}

=== Classical music ===
As jazz flourished, American elites who preferred classical music sought to expand the listenership of their favored genre, hoping that jazz would not become mainstream.{{sfn|Biocca|1990|p=9}} Conversely, jazz became an influence on composers as diverse as [[George Gershwin]] and [[Herbert Howells]].

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Larry F. |date=December 2004 |title=Bessie |journal=[[Notes (journal)|Notes]] |location=Middleton, Wisconsin |publisher=[[Music Library Association]] |volume=61 |issue=2 |doi=10.1353/not.2004.0171 |jstor=4487383 |s2cid=201766523}}
* {{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Nancy |author-link=Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) |date=December 19, 2007 |title=Fletcher Henderson: 'Architect of Swing' |work=NPR's Jazz Profiles |publisher=[[NPR|National Public Radio (NPR)]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing |url-status=live |access-date=November 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421232839/https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing |archive-date=April 21, 2018}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMaszIALuVYC |title=Cross the Water Blues: African American Music in Europe |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-60473-546-8 |editor-last=Wynn |editor-first=Neil A. |edition=1st |location=Jackson, Mississippi |access-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718001250/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cross_the_Water_Blues/PMaszIALuVYC |archive-date=July 18, 2022 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Frederick Lewis |url=https://archive.org/details/onlyyesterdayinf00alle |title=Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties |publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]] |year=1931 |edition=1st |location=New York and London |ref=none |author-link=Frederick Lewis Allen |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Frederick Lewis |url=https://archive.org/details/sinceyesterdayth001025mbp |title=Since Yesterday: The 1930s in America |publisher=[[Harper and Row]] |year=1939 |location=New York |ref=none |author-link=Frederick Lewis Allen |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dinerstein |first=Joel |year=2003 |title=Music, Memory, and Cultural Identity in the Jazz Age |journal=[[American Quarterly]] |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=303–313 |doi=10.1353/aq.2003.0012 |jstor=30041974 |ref=none |s2cid=145194943}}
* {{Cite book |last=Doerksen |first=Clifford J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qiAoQ1Z1iv0C |title=American Babel: Rogue Radio Broadcasters of the Jazz Age |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8122-0176-5 |location=Philadelphia |ref=none |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dumenil |first=Lynn |url=https://archive.org/details/moderntemperamer0000dume |title=The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s |publisher=[[Hill and Wang]] |year=1995 |isbn=0-8090-1566-8 |location=New York |ref=none |author-link=Lynn Dumenil |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fitzgerald |first=F. Scott |url=https://archive.org/details/cerackup0000fsco/ |chapter=Echoes of the Jazz Age |title=The Crack-up |publisher=[[New Directions Publishing|New Directions]] |year=1945 |isbn=0-8112-0051-5 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Edmund |editor-link=Edmund Wilson |location=New York |pages=13–22 |ref=none |author-link=F. Scott Fitzgerald |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}} See [[The Crack-Up]].
* {{Cite book |last=Kyvig |first=David E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinunite00kyvi |title=Daily Life in the United States, 1920–1939: Decades of Promise and Pain |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-313-29555-7 |location=Westport, Connecticut |lccn=2001023857 |ref=none |author-link=David E. Kyvig |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last=Leuchtenburg |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/perilsofprosperi00leuc |title=The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–1932 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1958 |isbn=0-226-47368-6 |location=Chicago and London |lccn=58-5680 |ref=none |author-link=William Leuchtenburg |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lynd |first1=Robert S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156473 |title=Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture |last2=Lynd |first2=Helen Merrell |publisher=[[Harcourt, Brace and Company]] |year=1929 |location=New York |ref=none |author-link=Robert Staughton Lynd |author-link2=Helen Merrell Lynd |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mowry |first=George E. |url=https://archive.org/details/twentiesfordsfla00mowr |title=The Twenties: Fords, Flappers, & Fanatics |publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]] |year=1963 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |lccn=63-19425 |ref=none |author-link=George E. Mowry |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parrish |first=Michael E. |url=https://archive.org/details/anxiousdecadesam0000parr_n1p1 |title=Anxious Decades: America in Prosperity and Depression, 1920–1941 |publisher=[[W.W. Norton]] |year=1992 |isbn=0-393-03394-5 |location=New York and London |ref=none |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/ourtimes190019250006sull_w0z1 |title=Our Times, 1900–1925: Volume IV – The Twenties |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |year=1936 |edition=1st |location=New York and London |ref=none |author-link=Mark Sullivan (journalist) |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
*{{Citation |last=Teal |first=Kimberly Hannon |title=Jazz Places: How Performance Spaces Shape Jazz History |date=2021-06-15 |work=Jazz Places |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520972841/html |access-date=2024-04-25 |publisher=University of California Press |language=en |doi=10.1525/9780520972841 |isbn=978-0-520-97284-1|url-access=subscription }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Category commons}}
* [http://www.1920s-fashion-and-music.com/jazz-age.html The Jazz Age In America]
* [http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1564.html Roaring Twenties] from U S History.com

{{Prohibition}}
{{jazz}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:1920s in American music]]
[[Category:1920s neologisms]]
[[Category:1930s in American music]]
[[Category:Eras of United States history]]
[[Category:Jazz culture|Age]]
[[Category:Roaring Twenties]]