View source for Jewish cuisine

{{Short description|Jewish culinary traditions}}
{{Jewish culture}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=February 2022}}

'''Jewish cuisine''' refers to the worldwide cooking traditions of the [[Jewish people]]. During its evolution over the course of many centuries, it has been shaped by [[Jewish dietary laws]] (''kashrut''), [[Jewish holidays|Jewish festivals and holidays]], and traditions centred around [[Shabbat]]. Jewish cuisine is influenced by the economics, agriculture, and culinary traditions of the many countries in which [[Jewish diaspora|Jewish communities were displaced]] and varies widely throughout the entire world.

The history of Jewish cuisine begins with the [[Ancient Israelite cuisine|cuisine of the ancient Israelites]]. As the [[Jewish diaspora]] grew, different styles of Jewish cooking developed. The distinctive styles in Jewish cuisine vary according to each community across the [[Ashkenazi]], [[Sephardi]], and [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] diaspora groupings; there are also notable dishes within the culinary traditions of the standalone significant Jewish communities from [[Greek cuisine|Greece]], [[Persian Jewish cuisine|Iran]], and [[Yemenite Jewish cuisine|Yemen]].

Since the [[establishment of the State of Israel]] in 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, a nascent Israeli "[[fusion cuisine]]" has developed. [[Israeli cuisine]] has adapted a multitude of elements, overlapping techniques and ingredients from the many culinary traditions of the Jewish diaspora.

==Influences on Jewish cuisine==

===''Kashrut''—Jewish dietary laws===
{{Main|Chametz|Kashrut|Tza'ar ba'alei chayim}}
{{Further|Kosher foods|Kosher wine|Shabbat meals}}
[[File:Kosher Salt.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Kosher salt|Coarse salt]] for koshering meat]]

The laws of keeping [[Kashrut|kosher]] (''kashrut'') have influenced Jewish cooking by prescribing what foods are permitted and how food must be prepared. The word kosher is usually translated as "proper".

Certain foods, notably [[pork]], [[shellfish]], and [[Insects as food|almost all insects]] are forbidden; meat and dairy cannot be eaten together in one dish and a certain period of time must elapse before dairy food can be eaten following a meat dish. The length of time depends on a specific [[minhag]] (tradition). It is most common to wait six hours but some groups wait three or one.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tzvi |date=2017-12-08 |title=Customs for Waiting Between Meat and Milk |url=https://aish.com/customs-for-waiting-between-meat-and-milk/ |access-date=2024-04-01 |website=Aish.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Meat must be [[Ritual slaughter|ritually slaughtered]] and salted to remove all traces of blood.

Observant Jews will eat only meat or poultry that is [[Hechsher|certified kosher]]. The meat has to have been slaughtered by a ''[[shochet]]'' (ritual slaughterer) in accordance with Jewish law and must be entirely drained of blood. Before it is cooked, it is soaked in water for half an hour, then placed on a perforated board, sprinkled with coarse salt (which draws out the blood) and left to sit for one hour. At the end of this time, the salt is washed off and the meat is ready for cooking.

Today, kosher meats purchased from a butcher or supermarket have already undergone the ''koshering'' process as described in the previous paragraph and no additional soaking or salting is required.<!--Isn't there a less-generic term than ''kashered'' for the salting? --AlanM1-->

According to ''kashrut'', meat and poultry must not be eaten with dairy products, nor may they be eaten from plates or with utensils that have been used with dairy products. Therefore, Jews who strictly observe ''kashrut'' divide their kitchens into different sections for meat and for dairy, with separate ovens, plates and utensils (or as much as is reasonable, given financial and space constraints; there are procedures to ''kasher'' utensils that have touched dairy to allow their use for meat).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bckosher.org/consumer/kitchen_planning.html |title=BCK Kosher Certification Agency—Kosher Kitchen |publisher=Bckosher.org |access-date=1 May 2012}}</ref><ref name=CRCKosherKitchen>{{cite web|title=cRc: Kosher in the Kitchen|url=http://www.crcweb.org/kosher_articles/Kashering_in_the_Kitchen.php#potsandpans|work=Consumer Kosher|publisher=Chicago Rabbinical Council|access-date=12 July 2012|archive-date=14 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414142037/http://www.crcweb.org/kosher_articles/Kashering_in_the_Kitchen.php#potsandpans|url-status=dead}}</ref> As a result, butter, milk, and cream are not used in preparing dishes made with meat or intended to be served together with meat. Oil, ''[[Kosher foods|pareve]]'' margarine, rendered [[chicken fat]] (often called [[schmaltz]] in the Ashkenazi tradition), or non-dairy cream substitutes are used instead.

Despite religious prohibitions, some foods not generally considered kosher have made their way into traditional Jewish cuisine; [[sturgeon]], which was consumed by European Jews at least as far back as the 19th century, is one example.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lupovich | first = Howard | title = Jews and Judaism in World History | year = 2010  | isbn = 978-0-203-86197-4 | pages = 258 | chapter = 7}}</ref>

===Geographical dispersion===
{{Main|History of the Jews|Jewish diaspora}}
{{Further|Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine|Israeli cuisine|Mizrahi Jewish cuisine|Sephardic Jewish cuisine}}

[[File:Frito gaditano- 2009.jpg|thumb|''[[Pescaíto frito]]'', originating from the 16th-century Andalusian Jews of Spain and Portugal]]
The hearty cuisine of [[Ashkenazi Jews]] was based on centuries of living in the cold climate of Central and [[Eastern Europe]], whereas the lighter, "sunnier" cuisine of [[Sephardi Jews]] was influenced by life in the Mediterranean region.

Each Jewish community has its traditional dishes, often revolving around specialties from their home country. In [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], [[olive]]s are a common ingredient and many foods are fried in oil. The idea of frying fish in the stereotypically [[British cuisine|British]] [[fish and chips]], for example, was introduced to Britain by Sephardic Jewish immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jay Rayner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2003/jan/19/foodanddrink.restaurants |title=Enduring love &#124; Food monthly &#124; The Observer |date=19 January 2003 |publisher=Observer.guardian.co.uk |access-date=1 May 2012}}</ref> In [[Germany]], stews were popular. The Jews of [[Netherlands]] specialized in pickles, [[herring]], [[butter cake]]s and ''bolas'' (jamrolls). In [[Poland]], Jews made various kinds of stuffed and stewed fish along with [[matzo ball|matza ball]] soup or [[Kugel|''lokshen'' noodles]]. In [[North Africa]], Jews ate ''[[couscous]]'' and ''[[tagine]]''.

Thus, a traditional [[Shabbat meals|Shabbat meal]] for Ashkenazi Jews might include stuffed vine leaves, roast beef, pot roast, or chicken, carrots ''[[tzimmes]]'' and potatoes. A traditional Shabbat meal for Sephardi Jews would focus more on salads, ''couscous'' and other Middle-Eastern specialties.

==History of Jewish cuisine==

===Biblical era===
{{Main|Ancient Israelite cuisine}}

[[File:Usdaemmer1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Emmer]] wheat, cultivated in biblical times]]
The daily diet of the average ancient Israelite consisted mainly of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour.

During the [[Second Temple period|Second Temple era]], bread made from wheat flour became predominant.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hareuveni|first1=Nogah|url=https://archive.org/details/natureinourbibli00hare|title=Nature in our biblical heritage|last2=Frenkley|first2=Helen|date=1980|publisher=Kiryat Ono, Israel: Neot Kedumim|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-965-233-002-4|language=en, he}}</ref> A variety of breads was produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called ''ugah'' or ''kikkar.'' Another type was a thin wafer, known as a ''rakik.'' A thicker loaf, known as ''hallah,'' was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes. Bread was sometimes enriched by the addition of flour from legumes (Ezekiel 4:9).

The Mishna ([[Hallah (Talmud)|Hallah]] 2:2) mentions bread dough made with fruit juice instead of water to sweeten the bread. The Israelites also sometimes added fennel and cumin to bread dough for flavor and dipped their bread in vinegar (Ruth 2:14), olive oil, or sesame oil for extra flavor.

Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in [[stew]]s. Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods, then cooked in a soup or a stew. Vegetables were also eaten uncooked with bread. Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called [[ashishim]].

The Israelites drank [[Goat milk|goat]] and [[Sheep milk|sheep's milk]] when it was available in the spring and summer and ate butter and cheese. They also ate honey, both from bees and [[date honey]].

Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, almonds, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally.

Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced.

Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently and had [[beef]], [[venison]], and [[veal]] available to them.

Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. [[Game (hunting)|Game]] (usually deer and gazelle), birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability.<ref name="Roden22">{{cite book |title= The Book of Jewish Food|last=Roden|first=Claudia| year=1997|pages=22–24}}</ref><ref name="Cooper15">{{cite book|title=Eat and Be Satisfied|last=Cooper|first=John| year=1993|pages=15–16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asor.org/anetoday/2016/07/the-daily-stew-everyday-meals-in-ancient-israel/|title=The Daily Stew? Everyday Meals in Ancient Israel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20180508-israels-millennia-old-biblical-diet|title=Israel's millennia-old 'biblical diet'|first=Shira|last=Rubin|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref><ref name="jvl">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/eating-in-historical-jerusalem|title=Eating in Historical Jerusalem|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref><ref>Macdonald, Nathan (2008). ''What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?''. pp. 19–21.</ref><ref>"Food in the Bible". Neot Kedumim News. Summer–Fall 2002.</ref><ref>Cooper, John (1993). ''Eat and Be Satisfied''. pp. 4–9.</ref> Meat was typically prepared in broths or stews, and sometimes roasted. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted.

[[File:Figs.jpg|thumb|[[Common fig|Figs]], one of the most frequently mentioned fruits in the Bible]]
[[Porridge]] and [[gruel]] were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called ''[[Shemen (bible)|shemen]]'', and fruits were sometimes added before baking.

Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled.

People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine. Producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor and the [[Climate of Israel|climatic conditions]] resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine, olives were made into oil, figs, beans and lentils were dried and grains were stored for use throughout the year.<ref name="HAIJ51">{{cite book|title= A History of Ancient Israel and Judah|last1= Miller|first1= J. Maxwell|author-link1=J. Maxwell Miller (biblical scholar)|last2= Hayes|first2= John H|year= 1986|publisher= Westminster John Knox Press|location= Louisville, KY|isbn= 0-664-21262-X|pages= [https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill/page/51 51–53]|url= https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill/page/51}}</ref>

As fresh milk tended to spoil quickly, the Israelites stored milk in skin containers that caused it to curdle quickly and drank it as thick sour milk which they called [[Leben (milk product)|laban]].

The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence.<ref name=DailyLifeFish>{{cite book |title=Daily Life in Biblical Times |last=Borowski |first=Oded |year=2003 |pages=68–69}}</ref> Remains of freshwater fish from the [[Yarkon River|Yarkon]] and [[Jordan River|Jordan]] rivers and the [[Sea of Galilee]] have been found in excavations, and include [[Tilapia|St. Peter’s fish]] and [[mouthbreeder]]s. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include [[sea bream]], [[grouper]], [[Argyrosomus regius|meager]], and [[Mullet (fish)|gray mullet]]. Most of these come from the [[Mediterranean Sea]], but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the [[Red Sea]].<ref name=MD37>{{cite book |title=What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? |last=Macdonald |first=Nathan |year=2008 |pages=37–38}}</ref> Although the [[Torah]] prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly [[catfish]] but also [[shark]], [[eel]], and [[ray (fish)|ray]], and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Did King David eat shrimp? |url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-did-king-david-keep-kosher-ancient-judeans-ate-biblically-banned-fish-1.9837609|access-date=2021-05-25 |newspaper=Haaretz |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/bad-judeans-despite-biblical-ban-non-kosher-fish-were-eaten-in-ancient-israel/ Bad Judeans? Despite biblical ban, non-kosher fish were eaten in ancient Israel]</ref>

Descriptions of typical Israelite meals appear in the Bible. The [[Book of Samuel]] described the rations [[Abigail]] brought to [[David]]'s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes.<ref>[https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a25.htm#18 1 Samuel 25.18]</ref> The [[Book of Ruth]] described a typical light breakfast: bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain.<ref>[https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt2902.htm#14 Ruth 2:14]</ref>

The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman period]], even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, [[rice]] was introduced during the [[Yehud Medinata|Persian era]].

During the [[History of the Jews in the Land of Israel#Hellenistic period (332-37 BCE)|Hellenistic period]], as trade with the [[Nabatean]]s increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities. During the Roman period, [[sugar cane]] was introduced.<ref name="Feinberg12">{{cite book|last=Vamosh|first=Miriam Feinberg|title=Food at the time of the Bible : from Adam's apple to the last supper|publisher=Palphot, Ltd.|location=Herzlia, Israel|isbn=978-9652801159|page=12&ndash;13|date=16 December 2007}}</ref>

The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among [[Jews]] after the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE and the beginning of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

Bread, wine and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel&mdash;wheat, grapes and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the [[Divinity|divine]] response to human needs ({{Bibleverse||Hosea|2:23-24|HE}}) and, particularly, the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. ({{Bibleverse||Deuteronomy|11:13-14|HE}}).<ref name="NIOBH">{{cite book|title=Nature in Our Biblical Heritage|last=Hareuveni|first=Nogah|year=1980|publisher=Neot Kedumim|location=Israel|isbn=965-233-002-7|url=https://archive.org/details/natureinourbibli00hare}}</ref>

The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into [[Judaism|Jewish religious]] [[ritual]], with the blessings over wine and bread for [[Shabbat]] and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as [[Jewish wedding|weddings]] and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil.<ref name="Roden22" /><ref name="Cooper4">{{cite book|title=Eat and Be Satisfied|last=Cooper|first=John|year=1993|pages=4–9}}</ref><ref name="EJF70Bread">{{cite book | title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Food|last=Marks|first=Gil|author-link=Gil Marks|year=2010|pages=70–71}}</ref>

Modern Jewish cooking originated in the various communities of the [[Jewish diaspora]], and modern Jewish cuisine bears little resemblance to what the ancient Israelites ate. However, a few dishes that originated in ancient Israel survive to the present day. Notably among them are [[Sabbath stew]]s, stews traditionally eaten on Shabbat that are [[simmering|simmered]] for 12 hours in a way that conforms with Shabbat restrictions. Such stews date to at least the [[Second Temple period]]. Various diaspora communities created their own variations of the dish based on their local climate and available ingredients, which are eaten today. Modern examples of such stews are ''[[cholent]]'' and ''[[hamin]]''.

Other foods dating to the ancient Israelites include ''pastels'', or Shabbat meat pies, and [[charoset]], a sweet fruit and nut paste eaten at the [[Passover Seder]].<ref>Marks, Gil: [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ux2lGKCKVPYC&pg=PA3 The: World of Jewish Cooking], P. 3 (1999). Shimon and Schuster</ref>

===Talmudic era===
Bread was a staple food and as in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the meal is designated by the simple term "to eat bread", so the [[rabbinical law]] ordains that the blessing pronounced upon bread covers everything else except wine and dessert. Bread was made not only from wheat, but also from barley, rice, millet, lentils, etc.

Many kinds of fruit were eaten. There was a custom to eat apples during [[Shavuot]],<ref>Targ. Sheni to Esth. iii. 8</ref> while specific fruit and herbs were eaten on holidays and special occasions such as [[Rosh Hashana]]. Children received nuts and roasted ears of grain especially on the evening of Passover. Olives were so common that they were used as a measure (''zayit'').

Meat was eaten only on special occasions, on [[Shabbat]] and at feasts. The pious kept fine cattle for Shabbat (Beẓah 16a), but various other kinds of dishes, relishes and spices were also on the table. Deer, also, furnished meat, as did pheasant, chickens and pigeons.

Fermented fish sauce was an important article of commerce, being called "[[garum]]" among the Jews, as among the Greeks and Romans. Pliny<ref>"Hist. Naturalis," xxxi. 95</ref> says expressly of a "''garum castimoniale''" (i.e., [[kosher]] garum) that it was prepared according to Jewish law. A specific type of locust was eaten. Eggs were so commonly eaten that the quantity of an egg was used as a measure.<ref>''"Food—In Talmudic Times"'', The Jewish Encyclopedia (1901-1906), pg 432 [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view_page.jsp?artid=252&letter=F&pid=2]</ref>

The devastation of the [[Bar-Kokhba revolt]] greatly reduced the variety of the local diet. In its aftermath, the amount of imported goods declined and vegetables became a luxury. The typical meal consisted of a slice of bread dipped in olive oil, a soup or [[gruel]] of legumes, and fruits, especially figs. On [[Shabbat]], a small amount of fish and vegetables were eaten.<ref name=jvl/>

While pork was prohibited by Jewish laws as described under ''[[kashrut]]'', the refusal to eat pork only became central to Jewish identity while under Roman rule. Pork consumption during the Roman period increased and became closely affiliated with Romans not only as a common cuisine but also as a frequently sacrificed animal. Jordan Rosenblum has argued that by not consuming pork, Jews maintained their sense of particularity and even held a silent revolt against the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosenblum|first=Jordan|date=2010|title=Why Do You Refuse to Eat Pork? Jews, Food, And Identity in Roman Palestine|journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review|volume=100| issue =  1|pages=95–110|doi=10.1353/jqr.0.0076|s2cid=162338333}}</ref>

====Structure of meal====
The first dish was a pickled starter to stimulate the appetite,<ref>Ber. vi. 7</ref> followed by the main meal, which ended with a dessert, called in Greek {{lang|grc|θάργημα}}. ''Afiḳomen'' is used in the same sense. Tidbits ({{transliteration|he|parperet}}) were eaten before and after the meal (Ber. vi. 6).

Wine was flavored with myrrh<ref>Mark xv. 23</ref> or with honey and pepper, the mixture being called ''conditum''. There was vinegar wine,<ref>'Ab. Zarah 30a</ref> wine from Amanus and Cilicia,<ref>Tosef., Sheb. v. 223</ref> red wine from Saron, Ethiopian wine,<ref>B. Ḳ. 97b</ref> and black wine.<ref>Abba Gorion i. 9</ref> Certain wines were considered good for the stomach, others not.<ref>Yer. Sheḳ. 48d.</ref> There was beer from Egypt called ''[[Egyptian zythos|zythos]]''<ref>Sometimes translated as purgative</ref> (Pes. iii. 1) and beer made from a thorn ''Spina regia''.<ref>Löw, "Aramäische Pflanzennamen," p. 231</ref><ref>Ket. 77b</ref>

Emphasis was placed on drinking with the meal as eating without drinking (any liquid) causes stomach trouble.<ref>Shab. 41a.</ref>

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Kugel.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lokshen kugel|''Lokshen'' kugel]]]]
The Jews were so widely scattered in the [[Middle Ages]] that it is difficult to give a connected account of their mode of living as to food. In Arabic countries the author of the ''[[Halakot Gedolot|Halakhot Gedolot]]'' knew some dishes that appear to have been specific Jewish foods, e.g., ''paspag'',<ref>p. 60, ed. Hildesheimer</ref> which was, perhaps, biscuit.

According to the ''Siddur Amram'',<ref>i. 38</ref> the well-known "''[[charoset|ḥaroset]]''" is made in those countries from a mixture of herbs, flour and honey (Arabic,"''ḥalikah''").

[[Maimonides]], in his "Sefer Refu'ot",<ref>Maimonides, "Sefer Refu'ot", ed. Goldberg, London, 1900</ref> mentions dishes that are good for health. He recommends bread baked from wheat that is not too new, nor too old, nor too fine,<ref>Maimonides, "Sefer Refu'ot", ed. Goldberg, London, 1900 p. 8</ref> further, the meat of the kid, sheep and chicken and the yolks of eggs. Goats' and cows' milk is good, nor are cheese and butter harmful. Honey is good for old people; fish with solid white flesh meat is wholesome; so also are wine and [[dried fruit]]s. Fresh fruits, however, are unwholesome, and he does not recommend garlic or onions.<ref>Maimonides, "Sefer Refu'ot", ed. Goldberg, London, 1900 p. 9</ref>

There is detailed information about Italian Jewish cookery in the book ''Massechet Purim''. It discusses pies, chestnuts, turtledoves, pancakes, small tarts, gingerbread, ragouts, venison, roast goose, chicken, stuffed pigeons, ducks, pheasants, partridges, quails, macaroons and salad. These were considered luxuries.<ref>Abrahams, "Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," p. 151</ref>

The oppressed medieval Jews enjoyed large meals only on Shabbat, festivals, circumcisions and weddings. For example, the Jews of [[Rhodes]], according to a letter of Ovadiah Bartinura, 1488, lived on herbs and vegetables only, never tasting meat or wine.<ref>"Jahrb. für die Gesch. der Juden," iii. 201</ref> In [[Egypt]], however, meat, fish and cheese were obtainable,<ref>ib. 208</ref> in [[Gaza City|Gaza]], grapes, fruit and wine.<ref>ib. 211</ref> Cold dishes are still relished in the East. Generally, only one dish was eaten, with fresh bread daily.<ref>Jacob Safir, in "Eben Sappir," p. 58a, Lyck, 1866</ref>

Some Jewish dishes frequently mentioned in [[Yiddish literature]] from the 12th century onward are ''brätzel'',<ref>Glassberg, "Zikron Berit," p. 122, Berlin, 1892</ref> ''lokshen'',<ref>Abrahams, l.c. p. 152</ref> ''pasteten'',<ref>ib. p. 151</ref><ref>Yoreh De'ah, Bet Yosef, § 97</ref> ''fladen'',<ref>Yoreh De'ah, ib.</ref> ''beleg''.<ref>Yoreh De'ah, Ṭure Zahab, § 101, 11</ref>

''Barscht'' or [[borscht]] is a [[Ukrainian cuisine|Ukrainian]] beet soup,<ref>ib. § 96</ref> best known are the ''berkes'' or ''barches'' (challah) eaten on Shabbat,<ref>Grünbaum, l.c. p. 229</ref> and ''shalet'' (cholent),<ref>Abrahams, l.c. p. 151</ref> which Heine commemorates,<ref>"Werke," i. 436</ref> and which the Spanish Jews called ''ani'' (hamin). Shabbat pudding, ''kigl'' or [[kugel]] in Yiddish, is also well known.

===Modern era===
[[File:כבד קצוץ.jpg|thumb|Chopped liver]]
In the United States, in particular, Jewish cooking (and the cookbooks that recorded and guided it) evolved in ways that illuminate changes in the role of Jewish women and the Jewish home.<ref name="kitchen">Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, [http://www.nyu.edu/classes/bkg/kitchen.dos "Kitchen Judaism,"] in ''Getting Comfortable in New York: The American Jewish Home, 1880-1950'', edited by Susan L. Braunstein and Jenna Weisman Joselit (New York: [[Jewish Museum (New York)|The Jewish Museum]], 1990), pp.75-105.  (This article is also available, in pdf format, here [http://www.nyu.edu/classes/bkg/web/kitchenjudaism.pdf].)</ref>

Jewish cuisine has also played a big part in shaping the restaurant scene in the West, in particular in the UK and US.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hancock|first1=Alice|title=Jewish food: the most comforting trend of 2017|url=https://life.spectator.co.uk/2017/07/jewish-food-the-most-comforting-trend-of-2017/|access-date=20 October 2017|date=17 July 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020190743/https://life.spectator.co.uk/2017/07/jewish-food-the-most-comforting-trend-of-2017/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Israeli cuisine]] in particular has become a niche food trend in the UK, with Israeli restaurants now opening up sister restaurants in London and beyond.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cameron|first1=Rebecca|title=The Best 5 Restaurants in Jerusalem|url=http://www.elitetraveler.com/finest-dining/the-5-best-restaurants-in-jerusalem?|access-date=20 October 2017|date=3 October 2017}}</ref>

In the 1930s there were four Jewish bakeries in [[Minneapolis]] within a few blocks of each other baking [[bagels]] and other fresh breads. Jewish families purchased ''[[challah]]'' loaves for their Sabbath meal at one North Side bakery. There were two kosher meat markets and four [[Jewish deli|Jewish delicatessen]]s, one of which began distribution for what would become [[Sara Lee Corporation|Sara Lee]] frozen [[cheesecakes]]. The delis sold sandwiches like [[corned beef]] and [[salami]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewin |first=Rhonda |title=Jewish Community of North Minneapolis |year=2001 |publisher=Arcadia |isbn=9780738508177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6KUoKmDiqkC&pg=PA19}}</ref>

In [[Chicago]] Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe ate a type of [[oatmeal]] cereal called [[Krupnik (soup)|''krupnik'']] that sometimes had barley, potatoes and fat added, and milk when it was available. [[Orthodox Jews]] continued to observe ''[[kashrut]]''. Sweatshop laborers carried [[bagels]], [[knish]] and [[herring]] to work.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

==Jewish cuisine variations==
[[File:Carciofo alla Giudea.jpg|thumb|Fried [[Jewish artichokes]]]]
Jewish cuisines vary widely depending on their regions of origin, but they tend to be broadly categorized into [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardic]] (Iberian, Anatolian, and North African), [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] (Middle Eastern, Caucasian, and Central Asian) and [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] (Eastern, Western, and Central European) families.

Still, there is significant overlap between the different cuisines, as Jews have often migrated great distances and as different regions where Jews have settled (e.g. Southeastern Europe) have been influenced by different cultures over time. For example, Balkan Jewish cuisine contains both Ashkenazi/European and Sephardic-Turkish influences, as this part of Europe (up to the borders of present-day Austria, Czech Republic, and Poland) was for a time part of the Ottoman Empire.

Since the rise of Ashkenazi Jewish migration to 19th-century Palestine and the establishment of the State of Israel, increased contact between Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews has led to a rising importance of Middle-Eastern and Mediterranean cuisine amongst Jews of all backgrounds.

===Ashkenazi===
{{See also|Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine}}
While Ashkenazi cuisine as it is known today is largely based within the context of [[American Jewish cuisine|American-Jewish]] and Ashkenazi-Israeli food, much of the culinary tradition of Ashkenazi Jews springs from Central, Western, and Eastern Europe.

After having been expelled from Western Europe in the Middle Ages, Jews were forced to live in poverty and thus were limited in terms of ingredients. Dishes were made with fewer components; they were not heavily spiced and ingredients that were more flavorful had to be used sparingly. This is often why some dishes in Ashkenazic cuisine are known for being blander than dishes in Sephardic or Mizrahi cuisine.

The cuisine is based largely on ingredients that were affordable for the historically poor Ashkenazi Jewish communities of Europe, often composed of ingredients that were readily available in Europe and which were perceived to be less desirable and rarely used by their gentile neighbors, such as brisket, chicken liver, and artichokes, among other ingredients.

As Ashkenazi Jews were typically forbidden to grow crops in their home countries in Europe, their cuisine reflects that and there are less vegetable-focused dishes in their cuisine compared to their Sephardi and Mizrahi counterparts.

Meat is ritually slaughtered in the ''[[shechita]]'' process, and is soaked and salted. Meat dishes are a prominent feature of [[Shabbat]], festival, and celebratory meals. Braised meats such as brisket feature heavily, as do root vegetables such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips which are used in such dishes as [[latke]]s, [[Matzah ball|matzo ball soup]], and ''[[tzimmes]]''.

Cooked, stuffed and baked vegetables such as stuffed cabbage are central to the cuisine. Due to the lack of availability of olive oil and other fats traditionally used in Jewish cooking, fat from leftover chicken and goose skins (''[[gribenes]]'') called ''[[schmaltz]]'' is traditionally used in [[Milk and meat in Jewish law|''fleishig'']] (meat) dishes, while butter is traditionally used in [[Milk and meat in Jewish law|''milchig'']] (dairy) dishes.

====Fish====
[[File:Gefilte fish balls for Rosh Hashanah.jpg|left|thumb|[[Gefilte fish]] with carrot slices and ''[[chrain]]'']]
With kosher meat not always available, fish became an important staple of the Jewish diet. In Eastern Europe it was sometimes especially reserved for [[Shabbat]]. As fish is not considered meat by the culinary definition nor in the Judaic context, it is consumed by many observant Jews who consider to be permissible to eat fish with milk and other dairy products. However, within various Jewish communities there are different rules regarding fish and dairy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Fish with meat or dairy|url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/132721/jewish/Fish-with-Meat-or-Dairy.htm|website=Chabad}}</ref> For instance, many [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]] do not mix fish with milk or any other kind of dairy product.<ref name="fish-dairy">{{Cite web|last=Jachter|first=Rabbi Haim|title=A Sephardi Refusing Bagels, Lox and Cream Cheese? Why?|url=http://jewishlinknj.com//features/14355-a-sephardi-refusing-bagels-lox-and-cream-cheese-why|access-date=2021-09-09|website=jewishlinknj.com|date=25 August 2016 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="beityosef">{{cite web |language=he |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Beit_Yosef%2C_Yoreh_Deah.87.5.1?lang=bi| website=Sefaria| title=Beit Yosef, Yoreh Deah 87:5:1|trans-quote="Fish and locust are permissible to eat with dairy... In any case, one shouldn't eat them [fish or locust] with dairy because it is dangerous.|access-date=2023-01-26}}</ref> Similarly, the [[Chabad]]-[[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] custom is not to consume fish together with specifically [[milk]]; however, it is permissible to eat fish and other [[dairy product]]s ''(ex; butter, cheese, cream)'' at the same time.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Posner|first=Menachem|title=May Fish be Consumed with Dairy? Is Lox and Cream Cheese Kosher?|url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/815625/jewish/Is-lox-and-cream-cheese-kosher.htm|website=Chabad}}</ref>

Even though fish is [[parve]], when they are served at the same meal, [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]] will eat them during separate courses and wash (or replace) the dishes in between. [[Gefilte fish]] and [[lox]] are popular in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] cuisine.

Though the combination of dairy and fish is generally acceptable, fish is the only parve food that the Talmud places restrictions on when it is being baked/eaten alongside meat. Talmudic reasoning for not eating meat and fish together originates from health and sanitary concerns rather than holy obligations.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Separating Fish and Meat {{!}} Kosher.com|url=https://www.kosher.com/learn/laws-of-meat-and-milk/separating-fish-and-meat#fishandmeat|access-date=2021-09-09|website=www.kosher.com}}</ref> Unlike with milk and meat, it is kosher to eat fish and meat at the same meal as long as they're baked separately, they're served on separate plates as separate courses, the same utensils aren't shared, and between courses the mouth is thoroughly cleansed with a beverage and the palate is neutralized with a different food.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

[[Gefilte fish]] (from Yiddish געפֿילטע פֿיש ''gefilte fish'', "stuffed fish") was traditionally made by skinning the fish steaks, usually [[Mirror carp|German or French carp]], de-boning the flesh, mincing it and sometimes mixing with finely chopped browned onions (3:1), eggs, salt or pepper and vegetable oil. The fish skin and head were then stuffed with the mixture and poached.<ref>Попова, М. Ф., ''Секреты Одесской кухни'', Друк, Одесса, 2004, p.163 (Russian); Popova M.F., ''Secrets of [[Odesa]] kitchen'', Druk, Odesa, 2004, p.163</ref> The religious reason for a boneless fish dish for the Sabbath is the prohibition of separating bones from food while eating [the prohibition of  ''borer'', separating]
[[File:Forshmack.jpg|thumb|''Vorschmack'' [[Herring as food|herring]] spread]]
A more common commercially packaged product found today is the "Polish" gefilte fish patties or balls, similar to [[quenelle|''quenelles'']], where sugar is added to the broth, resulting in a slightly sweet taste.<ref>Satz, Miriam, ''Heirloom cookbook: recipes handed down by Jewish mothers and modern recipes from daughters and friends'', Kar-Ben, 2003, p.14</ref> Strictly speaking they are the fish filling, rather than the complete filled fish.<ref>Goodman, Hanna, ''Jewish cooking around the World: gourmet and holiday recipes'', Varda Books
Skokie, Illinois, 2002, p.147</ref> This method of serving evolved from the tradition of removing the stuffing from the skin,<ref>Garfunkel, Trudy, ''Kosher for everybody: the complete guide to understanding, shopping, cooking, and eating the kosher way'', John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004, p.11</ref> rather than portioning the entire fish into slices before serving.

While traditionally made with [[carp]] or [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|whitefish]] and sometimes pike, gefilte fish may also be made from any large fish: [[cod]], [[haddock]], or [[hake]] in the United Kingdom.

The combination of [[smoked salmon]], or whitefish with [[bagel]]s and [[cream cheese]] is a traditional breakfast or brunch in [[American Jewish cuisine]], made famous at [[New York City]] [[appetizing store]]s and [[Jewish dairy restaurant]]s, and [[kosher style]] [[Jewish deli]]s.

Vorschmack or ''gehakte hering'' (chopped herring), a popular appetizer on Shabbat, is made by chopping skinned, boned [[herring]]s with hard-boiled [[Egg (food)|egg]]s, sometimes [[onion]]s, [[apple]]s, [[sugar]] or [[Black pepper|pepper]] and a dash of [[vinegar]].

====Soups====
[[File:Borscht served.jpg|thumb|[[Borscht]] with sour cream]]
A number of soups are characteristically [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]], one of the most common of which is [[chicken soup]] traditionally served on Shabbat, holidays and special occasions.

The soup may be served with noodles (''lokshen'' in Yiddish). It is often served with ''[[shkedei marak]]'' (lit. "soup almonds", croutons popular in Israel), called ''mandlen'' or ''mandlach'' in Yiddish. Other popular ingredients are ''[[kreplach]]'' (dumplings) and matza balls&nbsp;''([[kneidlach]])'' &ndash; a mixture of matza meal, eggs, water, and pepper or salt. Some reserve ''kneidlach'' for [[Passover]] and ''kreplach'' for other special occasions.

In the preparation of a number of soups, neither meat nor fat is used. Such soups formed the food of the poor classes. An expression among Jews of Eastern Europe, ''soup mit nisht'' (soup with nothing), owes its origin to soups of this kind.

Soups such as [[borsht]] were considered a staple in [[Russia|Ukraine]]. Soups like [[Krupnik (soup)|''krupnik'']] were made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of the ''[[Yeshiva|yeshivot]]''; in richer families, meat was added to this soup.

At weddings, "golden" chicken soup was often served. The reason for its name is probably the yellow circles of molten [[chicken fat]] floating on its surface. Today, chicken soup is widely referred to (not just among Jews) in jest as "Jewish penicillin", and hailed as a cure for the common cold.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish penicillin definition |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26182 |work=Medterms.Com |publisher=Medicine Net.Com, a WebMD Company |access-date=12 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801103609/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26182 |archive-date=1 August 2012 }}</ref>

There are a number of sour soups in the borscht category. One is ''kraut'' or cabbage borscht, made by cooking together cabbage, meat, bones, onions, raisins, sour salt (citric acid), sugar and sometimes tomatoes.

Beet borsht is served hot or cold. In the cold version, a beaten egg yolk may be added before serving and each bowl topped with a dollop of sour cream. This last process is called ''farweissen'' (to make white).

====Bread and cake====
[[File:Challah Bread Six Braid 1.JPG|thumb|[[Challah]] bread]]
The dough of [[challah]] (called ''barkhes'' in Western Yiddish) is often shaped into forms having symbolical meanings; thus on [[Rosh Hashanah]] rings and coins are imitated, indicating "May the new year be as round and complete as these"; for Hosha'na Rabbah, bread is baked in the form of a key, meaning "May the door of heaven open to admit our prayers." Challah bread is most commonly braided or made in round roll shapes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://momentmag.com/talk-of-the-table-timeless-jewish-foods/|title = Talk of the Table &#124; Timeless Jewish Foods|date = 17 June 2020}}</ref>

The [[hamantashen|''hamentash'']], a triangular cookie or turnover filled with fruit preserves (''[[lekvar]]'') or honey and black [[poppy seed]] paste, is eaten on the [[Purim|Feast of Purim]]. It is said to be shaped like the ears of [[Haman (Bible)|Haman]] the tyrant. The ''[[Mohn kichel|mohn kihel]]'' is a circular or rectangular wafer sprinkled with poppy seed. ''[[Pierogi|Pirushkes]]'', or turnovers, are little cakes fried in honey or dipped in molasses after they are baked. [[Strudel]] is served for dessert. [[Kugel]]s are prepared from rice, noodles or mashed potatoes.

In Eastern Europe, the Jews baked black (''proster'', or "ordinary") bread, white bread and [[challah]]. The most common form is the twist (''koilitch'' or ''kidke'' from the [[Romanian language|Romanian]] word ''încolăci'' which means "to twist"). The ''koilitch'' is oval in form and about one and a half feet in length. On special occasions, such as weddings, the ''koilitch'' is increased to a length of about two and a half feet.

The [[bagel]], which originated in [[Poland]], is a popular [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] food and became widespread in the [[United States]].<ref>Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. [http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/bagelhistory.htm “Bagel History: Bagels date back to the 1600s”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518125308/http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/bagelhistory.htm |date=18 May 2016 }}, About.com website, retrieved 27 March 2013.</ref><ref>Altschuler, Glenn C. (2008). [http://www.forward.com/articles/14502 ”Three Centuries of Bagels”], a book review of:'' 'The Bagel: The Surprising History of a Modest Bread', by Balinska, Maria, Yale University Press, 2008'', Jewish Daily Press website, published on-line 5 November 2008 in the issue of 14 November 2008</ref>

====Meat and fats====
''Gebratenes'' (roasted meat), chopped meat and ''essig-fleisch'' (vinegar meat) are favorite meat recipes. The ''essig'' or, as it is sometimes called, ''honig'' or ''[[sauerbraten]]'', is made by adding to meat which has been partially roasted with some sugar, bay leaves, pepper, raisins, salt and a little vinegar. [[Knish]] is a snack food consisting of a meat or potato filling covered with dough that is either baked or grilled.

A popular dish among [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]], as amongst most Eastern-Europeans, is ''[[pierogi]]'' (which are related to but distinct from ''[[kreplach]]''), often filled with minced beef. [[Kishka (food)|''Kishka'']] is a popular Ashkenazi dish traditionally made of stuffing of flour or matza meal, ''schmaltz'' and spices.

The rendered fat of chickens, known as ''[[schmaltz]]'', is sometimes kept in readiness for cooking use when needed. ''[[Gribenes]]'' or "scraps", also called ''griven,'' the cracklings left from the rendering process were one of the favorite foods in Eastern Europe. ''Schmaltz'' is eaten spread on bread.

A spread of [[chopped liver]], prepared with onions and often including ''gribenes'', is a popular appetizer, side dish, or snack, especially among Jews on the eastern coast of North America. It is usually served with rye bread or crackers. [[Brisket (Jewish dish)|Brisket]] is also a popular Ashkenazi dish of braised beef brisket.

''[[Holishkes]]'', stuffed cabbage, also known as the [[cabbage roll]], is also a European Jewish dish that emerged from more impoverished times for Jews. Because having a live cow was more valuable than to eat meat in the Middle Ages, Jews used fillers such as breadcrumbs and vegetables to mix with ground beef. This gave the effect of more meat being stuffed into the cabbage leaves.

====Sweets and confections====
[[File:Teiglach, Traditional Ashkenazi Holiday Dish.jpg|thumb|''[[Teiglach]]'']]
''[[Teiglach]]'', traditionally served on [[Rosh Hashanah]], the Jewish New Year, consists of little balls of dough (about the size of a marble) drenched in a honey syrup. ''Ingberlach'' are ginger candies shaped into small sticks or rectangles.

In Europe, jellies and preserves made from fruit juice were used as pastry filling or served with tea. Among the poor, jelly was reserved for invalids, hence the practice of reciting the Yiddish saying {{transliteration|yi|Alevay zol men dos nit darfn}} (May we not have occasion to use it) before storing it away.

''Flodni'', a layered sweet pastry consisting of apples, walnuts, currants and poppy seeds, were a staple of [[Hungarian Jewish]] bakeries prior to [[World War II]].

Because it was easy to prepare, made from inexpensive ingredients and contained no dairy products, [[compote]] became a staple dessert in Jewish households throughout Europe and was considered part of Jewish cuisine.<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/culture/food-wine/be-merry-a-taste-of-poland.premium-1.470666 Be Merry / A taste of Poland], [[Haaretz]]</ref>

====Side dishes====
[[File:TzimmesS.jpg|thumb|[[Tzimmes|Carrot ''tzimmes'']]]]
''[[Tzimmes]]'' consists generally of cooked vegetables or fruits, sometimes with meat added. The most popular vegetable is the carrot (''mehren tzimmes''), which is sliced. Turnips were also used for ''tzimmes'', particularly in Lithuania. In southern Russia, Galicia and Romania ''tzimmes'' was made of pears, apples, figs, prunes or plums (''floymn tzimmes'').

''[[Kreplach]]'', similar to Russian ''[[pelmeni]]'', are [[ravioli]]-like dumplings made from flour and eggs mixed into a dough, rolled into sheets, cut into squares and then filled with finely chopped, seasoned meat or cheese. They are most often served in soup, but may be fried. ''Kreplech'' are eaten on various holidays, among them [[Purim]] and [[Hosha'na Rabbah]].

===Sephardic, Mizrahi, and Italian Jewish cuisine===
{{See also|Mizrahi Jewish cuisine|Sephardic Jewish cuisine}}
[[File:Farshirovannyi peretz.jpg|thumb|left|Stuffed peppers]] 
The exact distinction between traditional [[Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews|Sephardic]] and [[Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi cuisines]] can be difficult to make, due to the intermingling of the Sephardi diaspora and the Mizrahi Jews with whom they came in contact.

As a general rule, however, both types reflect the food of the local non-Jewish population that each group lived amongst. The need to preserve ''[[kashrut]]'' does lead to a few significant changes (most notably, the use of [[olive oil]] instead of animal fat is often considered to be a legacy of Jewish residency in an area, due to the fact that olive oil may be eaten with milk, unlike animal fat).

Despite this, Sephardic and Ashkenazic concepts of kosher differ; perhaps the most notable difference being that [[rice]], a major staple of the Sephardic diet, is considered kosher for [[Passover]] among Sephardim but it is forbidden as ''[[kitniyot]]'' by most Ashkenazim.

Sephardi cuisine emphasizes salads, stuffed vegetables and vine leaves, olive oil, lentils, fresh and dried fruits, herbs and nuts, and chickpeas. Meat dishes often make use of lamb or ground beef. Fresh lemon juice is added to many soups and sauces. Cooked, stuffed, and baked vegetables are central to the cuisine, as are various kinds of beans, chickpeas, lentils and burghul (cracked wheat). Rice takes the place of potatoes.

Many meat and rice dishes incorporate dried fruits such as apricots, prunes and raisins. Pine nuts are used as a garnish. Mizrahi cuisine is based largely on fresh ingredients, as marketing was done in the local souq. Meat is ritually slaughtered in the ''[[shechita]]'' process, and is soaked and salted. Meat dishes are a prominent feature of [[Shabbat]], festival, and celebratory meals.

Coming from the Mediterranean and "sunny" climes, [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] cuisine is often light, with an emphasis on salads, stuffed vegetables and vine leaves, olive oil, lentils, fresh and dried fruits, herbs and nuts, and chickpeas. Meat dishes often make use of lamb or ground beef. Fresh lemon juice is added to many soups and sauces.
[[File:Maoravyerushalmi.jpeg|thumb|[[Jerusalem mixed grill]]]]
Many meat and rice dishes incorporate dried fruits such as apricots, prunes and raisins. Pine nuts are used as a garnish. Pomegranate juice is a staple of Persian Jewish cooking. ''[[Kubbeh]]'', a meat-stuffed bulgur dumpling, features in the cooking of many Mizrahi communities. It is served in the cooking broth, as a kind of soup.
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 36801 Architechture and Texture.JPG|thumb|''[[bourekas]]'']]
[[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] cuisine in particular is known for its considerable use of vegetables unavailable to the [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]] of Europe, including [[spinach]], [[artichoke]]s, [[pine nut]]s and (in more modern times) [[Squash (plant)|squash]].
[[File:Jachnun.jpg|thumb|[[Jachnun]]]]
The cooking style is largely Middle Eastern, with significant admixtures of Spanish, Italian and North African flavors. The most popular Sephardic and Mizrahi dishes include ''[[malawach]]'', ''[[jachnun]]'', ''[[sabich]]'', ''[[mofletta]]'', ''[[Jerusalem mixed grill|meorav yerushalmi]], and [[kubaneh]]''.  Popular condiments include ''[[Zhug|skhug]]'' and [[Amba (condiment)|''amba'']]. [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] Jewish cuisine has many unique dishes that were eaten by Jews in Eastern Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Yemen.

==Shabbat and holiday dishes==

===Shabbat===
[[File:Chol 001.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Hamin|Chamin]]'']]
Good food is an important part of the ''[[mitzvah]]'' of ''oneg Shabbat'' ("enjoying Shabbat"), hence much of Jewish cuisine revolves around [[Shabbat]].

As observant Jews do not cook on Shabbat, various techniques were developed to provide for a hot meal on Shabbat day.

One such dish is ''[[cholent]]'' or ''chamin'', a slow-cooked meat stew with many variations. The ingredients are placed in a pot and put up to boil before lighting the candles on Friday evening. Then the pot is placed on a hotplate, traditional ''[[blech]]'' (thin tin sheet used to cover the flames and on which the pot is placed), or in a slow oven and left to simmer until the following day.<ref>The Complete & Illustrated Guide by Rabbi Fishel Jacobs [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]</ref>

''Cholent'' emerged in ancient Judea, possibly as far back as the [[Second Temple period]]. Over the centuries, as Jewish diaspora communities developed, they created variations of the dish based on the local climate and available ingredients.

A prominent feature of Shabbat cookery is the preparation of twists of bread, known as [[challah|''challot'']] or (in southern Germany, [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]]) "barches". They are often covered with seeds to represent [[manna]], which fell in a double portion on the sixth day.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}

Another Shabbat dish is [[calf's foot jelly]], called ''p'tsha'' or ''šaltiena'' in Lithuania and ''galarita'', ''galer'', ''galleh'', or ''fisnoge'' in Poland. Beef or calf bones are put up to boil with water, seasonings, garlic and onions for a long time. It is then allowed to cool. The broth then jells into a semi-solid mass, which is served in cubes.

''[[P'tcha|Drelies]],'' a similar dish originating in south Russia and Galicia is mixed with [[Boiled egg|soft-boiled eggs]] and vinegar when removed from the oven and served hot. In Romania it is called ''piftie'', in Serbia ''pihtije''; it is served cold, with garlic, hard-boiled eggs and vinegar sauce or mustard creme and considered a traditional dish in the winter season.

''[[Kugel]]'' is another Shabbat favorite, particularly ''lokshen kugel,'' a sweet baked noodle pudding, often with raisins and spices. Non-sweet kugels may be made of potatoes, carrots or a combination of vegetables.

Among the Jewish communities of Libya, Italy and a number of other communities in the Mediterranean basin, they used to prepare a rich selection of desserts that can be prepared even on Pesach without the need for leaven so that it can be served both on Pesach and on the day of Passover, which was spoken by the Sephardic Jews and the Mizrahi Jews on the day of Mimona, which is also considered a holiday. Among these foods are the [[abambar]], [[buca de dama]].

Traditional noodles—''lokshen''—are made from a dough of flour and eggs rolled into sheets and then cut into long strips. If the dough is cut into small squares, it becomes ''[[farfel]].'' Both ''lokshen'' and ''farfel'' are usually boiled and served with soup.

===Rosh Hashanah===
On [[Rosh Hashanah]], the [[Jews|Jewish]] New Year, several symbolic foods called {{transliteration|he|simanim}} are prepared and eaten for a variety of different reasons, each unique to the dish. All of the ingredients within the dishes are [[kosher]], which means they follow the laws of [[kashrut]], the Hebrew word for correct.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/overview-of-jewish-dietary-laws-and-regulations|title=Overview of Jewish Dietary Laws & Regulations|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|language=en|access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref>

The majority of the dishes are sweetened to represent a prayer for a sweet (pleasant) new year. Such sweet dishes include [[apple]]s that are either baked or covered in [[honey]], ''[[lekach]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chabad.org/recipes/recipe_cdo/aid/2635036/jewish/Lekach-Honey-Cake.htm|title="Lekach"—Honey Cake|website=www.chabad.org|language=en|access-date=5 October 2018}}</ref> (honey cake) and ''[[makroudh]]'' (a pastry that is filled with dates and covered with honey).

[[Date (fruit)|Date]]s, symbolizing the end,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/rosh-hashana-simanim-symbolic-foods-2122243|title=Serve Up A Sweet New Year: 10 Symbolic Foods for Rosh Hashanah|work=The Spruce Eats|access-date=5 October 2018}}</ref> can also be eaten by themselves to encourage the enemies to meet their end. The value of the date can be traced back to biblical times, when the [[Date palm|palm date]] is mentioned multiple times within the [[Bible]] itself, but also with how valuable dates were as an [[export]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/palm|title=Palm|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|language=en|access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref>

[[Pomegranate]] seeds are eaten for a year of many blessings, because there are many seeds inside of a single pomegranate. Specifically, there are thought to be 613 seeds inside of a pomegranate, each one representing one of the [[Torah|Torah's]] 613 commandments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stories.thejewishmuseum.org/pomegranates-for-rosh-hashanah-b268b99514aa|title=Pomegranates for Rosh Hashanah|last=Museum|first=The Jewish|date=19 September 2017|website=The Jewish Museum|access-date=5 October 2018}}</ref>

The traditional value placed on pomegranates and their consumption is derived from their mention in the [[Bible]] when its discovery by one of Moses's spies concluded that there was fertility in the land of the unknown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pomegranate|title=Pomegranate|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|language=en|access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref>

[[Challah]] bread is baked into a round, circular shape that is meant to represent the cyclical nature of life and the crown.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/rosh-hashanah-table-spiritual-meaning_n_5871258.html|title=The Spiritual Meaning Of The Food On Your Rosh Hashanah Table|last=Kuruvilla|first=Carol|date=24 September 2014|work=Huffington Post|access-date=5 October 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> It is also sweetened with either honey or a combination of cinnamon and sugar instead of being dipped into the usual [[Kosher foods|kosher]] salt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chabad.org/recipes/recipe_cdo/aid/3885107/jewish/Round-Spelt-Vegan-Cinnamon-Sugar-Challah-for-Rosh-Hashanah.htm|title=Round (Spelt & Vegan) Cinnamon-Sugar Challah for Rosh Hashanah|website=www.chabad.org|language=en|access-date=5 October 2018}}</ref>

''[[Tzimmes]]'', a side dish composed traditionally of sweetened carrots or yams, are served to symbolize prosperity, because of the double meaning of [[Yiddish]] word ''meren'', which represents "to multiply" and "carrot".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chabad.org/recipes/recipe_cdo/aid/2635032/jewish/Traditional-Rosh-Hashanah-Tzimmes.htm|title=Traditional Rosh Hashanah Tzimmes|website=www.chabad.org|language=en|access-date=5 October 2018}}</ref>

Additional symbolic foods include:

*''[[Teiglach]]'', knotted pastries boiled in a honeyed syrup (for [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] Jews).
*Head of a [[Fish (food)|fish]] or a [[mutton|ram]], for a successful year in which we are the "head", not the "tail" (because Rosh Hashanah begins the year, it is referred to as the head).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://forward.com/articles/11486/a-fishy-tradition-00381/|title = A Fishy Tradition| date=29 August 2007 }}</ref>
*Fried [[leek]] [[cutlet]]s, called ''karteh'' (for [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] Jews).
*Fried [[chard]] [[cutlet]]s, called ''salkeh'' (for Sephardic Jews).
*Local type of [[zucchini]] called ''qara'a'', made into sweet [[confiture]] (for Sephardic Jews).[[File:Makroudh Pâtisserie tunisienne 08.jpg|thumb|[[Makroudh]]]]• [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Algerian Jews]] serve a honey-dipped date pastry called ''[[makroudh]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/01/dining/01rosh.html|title=Rosh Hashana Recipes Routed Through Africa (Published 2010)|first=Joan|last=Nathan|newspaper=The New York Times|date=31 August 2010}}</ref>

===Yom Kippur===
[[Yom Kippur]] is a fast day. The pre-fast meal, called ''seuda hamafseket'', usually consists of foods that are digested slowly and are not highly spiced, to make fasting easier and prevent thirst.

===Sukkot===
[[File:Levivot Hanukkah.jpg|thumb|[[Latke|''Latkes'']] with [[Smetana (dairy product)|''smetana'']]]]
On [[Sukkot]] meals are eaten outside in the ''[[sukkah]]'', a thatched hut built specially for the holiday. Often fresh fruits are eaten also, which are woven into the roof of the thatched hut.

===Hanukkah===
[[File:Classic Hanukkah sufganiyot.JPG|thumb|''[[Sufganiyah|Sufganiyot]]'']]
It is customary to eat foods fried in oil to celebrate [[Hanukkah]]. Eating dairy products was a custom in medieval times.
*[[Latke|''Latkes'']]—potato pancakes, may be topped with sour cream or applesauce  ([[Ashkenazi]] food)
*[[Sufganiya|Sufganiyot]]—jam doughnuts (Ashkenazi, popular in [[Israel]])
*Fried [[doughnuts]] with grounded [[sugar]] sprinkled on top, called ''[[Sfenj|sfinge]]'' (mainly by [[Maghrebi Jews|North African Jews]]) or ''[[zalabiyeh]]''.
*''[[Rugelach]]''—filled pastry.

===Purim===
{{Main|Purim}}
[[File:Homemade hamantaschen.jpg|thumb|''[[hamantash]]'']]
*''[[Hamantaschen]]''—triangular pastries traditionally filled with poppy seeds or prunes
*[[Couscous]]—a [[Berbers|Berber]] dish of small steamed balls of crushed [[durum wheat]] [[semolina]] traditionally served with a stew spooned on top • ''[[Fazuelos]]''—[[Sephardic]] pastries of thin fried dough
*''[[Ma'amoul]]''—shortbread pastries filled with dates or nuts

===Passover===
[[Passover]] celebrates [[The Exodus]] from Egypt where it is said the Jewish people left so quickly, there was no time for their [[bread]] to rise.<ref>[[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 12:34.</ref> Commemorating this event, Jews eat [[Matzah|matza]] and abstain from bread, cakes and other foods made with yeast and leavening agents. In modern times, rabbinical authorities permit the use of chemical leavening, such as baking powder.

Matza is a staple food during the holiday and used as an ingredient of many Passover dishes. ''Kneidlach'' ([[Matzah ball|matza ball]]) soup is traditional. Fish is coated with matza meal before frying and cakes and puddings are made with potato starch and matza meal.

Jewish cooks use both matza meal and [[potato starch]] for pastries during Passover. Whisked whole eggs or egg whites are frequently used to make pastries without leavening agents, such as angel and sponge cakes (potato starch replacing cake flour) and coconut and almond [[macaroon]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/cookies/cookies2/history-of-macaroons.asp|title=The Nibble: Macaroons|website=www.thenibble.com}}</ref>

[[File:Shmura Matzo.jpg|thumb|left|Handmade {{transliteration|yi|matsa shmura}}]]
Passover foods vary distinctly between [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] and [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] communities. Ashkenazim exclude rice, while it is served by Sephardim. Matza is traditionally prepared from water and flour only, but there are other varieties, such as egg matza, which may also contain fruit juice.

At the [[Passover Seder|seder]], it is customary in some communities, particularly among strictly Orthodox Jews, to use handmade {{transliteration|yi|[[shmura matza]]}}, which has undergone particularly strict ''[[kashrut]]'' supervision.

The exclusion of leaven from the home has forced Jewish cooks to be creative, producing a wide variety of Passover dishes that use matza meal and [[potato]] as thickeners. [[Potato flour]] is largely used in cakes along with finely ground matza meal and nuts.
[[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Matzah Ball Soup.jpg|thumb|Soup with [[matzah ball|matza ball]]s]]
Popular Ashkenazi dishes are ''[[matzo brei|matza brei]]'' (crumbled matza with grated onion, fried with scrambled egg), ''matza latkes'' ([[pancake]]s) and ''[[chremslach]]'' (also called ''crimsel'' or ''gresjelies,'' matza meal fritters). Wined ''matza kugels'' ([[pudding]]) have been introduced into modern Jewish cooking.

For thickening soups and sauces at Passover fine matza meal or potato flour is used instead of flour, for frying fish or cutlets a coating of matza meal and egg, and for stuffing potatoes instead of soaked bread.

"[[Noodle]]s" may be made by making pancakes with beaten eggs and matza meal which, when cooked, are rolled up and cut into strips. They may be dropped into [[soup]] before serving. {{transliteration|yi|Matza kleys}} (dumplings) are small balls made from suet mixed with chopped fried onions, chopped parsley, beaten egg and seasonings, dropped into soup and cooked.

Wine is also an important part of Passover meals. Traditionally, a Passover seder is served with four cups of wine or grape juice, to be consumed along with various parts of the seder. [[Kosher wine]] is typically consumed for Passover.

===Shavuot===
Dairy foods are traditionally eaten on [[Shavuot]].
*[[Blintz]]es[[File:Cheese blintzes with blackberries.jpg|thumb|''[[Blintz]]'']]
*[[Cheesecake]]

===Tisha B'Av===
[[Tisha B'av]] is a fast day, preceded by nine days when Jews traditionally do not eat meat, except on [[Shabbat]]. Thus dairy and vegetarian dishes are prepared during this time of year.

The meal before the fast (the {{transliteration|he|[[seudat mafseket]]}}) also consists of dairy foods and usually contains dishes made from lentils and eggs, both ancient Jewish symbols of mourning.<ref>See Marks, ''The World of Jewish Cooking'', pg 209</ref> Some [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] Jews eat hard-boiled eggs sprinkled with "ashes" ([[Black pepper|pepper]]) to symbolize mourning.

==See also==
{{portal|Food|Judaism}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[American Jewish cuisine]]
* [[Appetizing store]]
* [[Israeli cuisine|Cuisine of Israel]]
* [[Cuisine of the Ashkenazi Jews]]
* [[Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews]]
* [[Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews]]
* [[Delicatessen]]
* [[Jewish deli]]
* [[Hechsher]]
* [[Jewish vegetarianism]]
* [[Kosher restaurant]]
* [[Kosher wine]]
* [[List of Jewish cuisine dishes]]
* [[List of kosher restaurants]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
:{{JewishEncyclopedia|title=FOOD}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Commons category|Jewish cuisine}}
{{Cookbook|Cuisine of Israel}}
{{Cookbook|Kosher}}
*[[Mildred Grosberg Bellin|Bellin, Mildred Grosberg]], ''The Original Jewish Cook Book'', New York, [[Bloch Publishing]], 1983, {{ISBN|0-8197-0058-4}}
*Cooper, John, ''Eat and Be Satisfied: A Social History of Jewish Food'', New Jersey, Jason Aronson Inc., 1993, {{ISBN|0-87668-316-2}}
*Goldstein, Joyce and Da Costa, Beatriz, ''Sephardic Flavors: Jewish Cooking of the Mediterranean'', Chronicle Books, 2000, {{ISBN|0-8118-2662-7}}
*{{cite book|title=Food at the Time of the Bible: From Adam's Apple to the Last Supper|last=Feinberg Vamosh|first=Miriam|year=2007|publisher=Palphot|location=Israel|isbn=978-965-280-115-9}}
*{{cite book |title= Nature in Our Biblical Heritage |last= Hareuveni |first= Nogah |year= 1980 |publisher= Neot Kedumim |location= Israel |isbn= 965-233-002-7 |url= https://archive.org/details/natureinourbibli00hare }}
*{{cite book|last=Gur|first= Jana|title=The Book of New Israeli Food: A Culinary Journey| publisher=Schocken|location= New York|year= 2008|isbn=978-0-8052-1224-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Kraemer|first= David|title= Jewish eating and identity throughout the ages|publisher= Routledge advances in sociology vol.29|location= New York|year= 2007|isbn=978-0-415-95797-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Marks|first=Gil|title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Food|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn=978-0-470-39130-3|location=New Jersey }}
*[[Gil Marks|Marks, Gil]], ''The World of Jewish Cooking: More than 500 Traditional Recipes from Alsace to Yemen'', New York, Simon & Schuster, 1996, {{ISBN|0-684-83559-2}}
*{{cite book|title=[[What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?|What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times]]|last=Macdonald|first=Nathan|year=2008|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8028-6298-3}}
*[[Claudia Roden|Roden, Claudia]], ''The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand to New York'', New York, Knopf, 1997, {{ISBN|0-394-53258-9}}
*Schwartz, Oded, ''In Search of Plenty: A History of Jewish Food'', London, Kyle Cathie Ltd., 1992, {{ISBN|1-85626-025-9}}
*Sternberg, Robert, ''The Sephardic Kitchen: The Healthful Food and Rich Culture of the Mediterranean Jews'', HarperCollins, 1996, {{ISBN|0-06-017691-1}}

=== Historical ===
*Atrutel, J., ''Book of Jewish Cookery'', London, 1874
*Greenbaum, Florence Kreisler, ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12350 The International Jewish Cookbook]'', New York, [[Bloch Publishing]], 1919
*Kander, Mrs. Simon ([[Lizzie Black Kander]]), [http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_52.cfm ''The Settlement Cookbook''], Milwaukee, The Settlement, 1901
*Kramer, Bertha M. ("Aunt Babette"), [http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_41.cfm ''Aunt Babette's Cook Book''] Cincinnati, [[Bloch Publishing]], 1889
*Montefiore, Lady Judith (attr), ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12327 The Jewish Manual]'', London, 1846
*''Aunt Sarah's Cookery Book for a Jewish Kitchen'', Liverpool, 1872; 2d ed., 1889

==Further reading==
*Jackson, Judy (1998) ''Classic Jewish''. London: Hermes House {{ISBN|1-84038-065-9}} 
{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Jewish cuisine}}
{{Cuisines}}
{{Middle Eastern cuisine}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jewish Cuisine}}
[[Category:Jewish cuisine| ]]
[[Category:Cuisine by culture]]
[[Category:Cuisine by ethnicity]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern cuisine]]
[[Category:Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes]]