View source for John J. McCloy

{{Short description|American lawyer and banker (1895–1989)}}
{{Other people|John McCloy}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = John McCloy
| image               = John McCloy, U.S. High Commissioner for Germany - NARA - 200186 (cropped).jpg
| caption             = McCloy in 1950
| office1             = Chairman of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
| term_start1         = 1953
| term_end1           = 1970
| predecessor1        = [[Russell Cornell Leffingwell]]
| successor1          = [[David Rockefeller]]
| office2             = [[Allied High Commission|American High Commissioner for Occupied Germany]]
| president2          = [[Harry S. Truman|Harry Truman]]
| term_start2         = September 21, 1949
| term_end2           = August 1, 1952
| predecessor2        = Position established
| successor2          = [[Walter J. Donnelly]]
| office3             = 2nd [[President of the World Bank Group]]
| term_start3         = March 17, 1947
| term_end3           = June 30, 1949
| predecessor3        = [[Eugene Meyer (financier)|Eugene Meyer]]
| successor3          = [[Eugene R. Black Sr.|Gene Black]]
| office4             = [[United States Assistant Secretary of War]]
| president4          = [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]<br />[[Harry S. Truman]]
| term_start4         = April 22, 1941
| term_end4           = November 24, 1945
| predecessor4        = [[Robert P. Patterson]]
| successor4          = [[Howard C. Petersen]]
| birth_name          = John Snader McCloy
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1895|3|31}}
| birth_place         = [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1989|3|11|1895|3|31}}
| death_place         = [[Cos Cob, Connecticut]], U.S.
| party               = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]<ref>[http://www.worldbank.org/en/about/archives/history/past-presidents/john-jay-mccloy "John Jay McCloy: 2nd World Bank President, 1947-1949"]. ''[[World Bank]]''. Retrieved 2022-06-15.</ref>
| spouse              = {{marriage|Ellen Zinsser|1930|1986|reason=died}}
| children            = 2
| education           = [[Amherst College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])<br/>[[Harvard Law School|Harvard University]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]])
| awards              = [[File:Presidential Medal of Freedom with Distinction (ribbon).svg|border|23px]] [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] with Distinction (1963)
}}

'''John Jay McCloy''' (March 31, 1895 – March 11, 1989) was an American lawyer, diplomat, banker, and high-ranking bureaucrat. He served as [[United States Assistant Secretary of War|Assistant Secretary of War]] during [[World War II]] under [[Henry L. Stimson|Henry Stimson]]. In this capacity he dealt with German sabotage and political tensions in the [[North African Campaign|North Africa Campaign]]. He was both the prime mover of [[Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese internment]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manchester |first=William |title=The glory and the dream: a narrative history of America, 1932-1972 |date=1990 |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0-553-34589-6 |location=New York |pages=299}}</ref> as well as a high-ranking Federal bureaucrat who opposed the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombings]] of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-23 |title=John J. McCloy, 1895-1989 {{!}} Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/john-j-mccloy-1895-1989 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240123160814/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/john-j-mccloy-1895-1989#selection-1507.329-1507.956:~:text=.%22%20John%20McCloy%20proceeded,Hiroshima%20and%20Nagasaki. |url-status=dead |archive-date=2024-01-23 |access-date=2024-12-07 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Atomic Bombing Of Hiroshima and Nagasaki |url=https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/sa/sa_aug01zum01.html#:~:text=McCloy%20said,%20%22We%20ought%20to%20have%20heads%20examined%20if%20we%20don't%20explore%20some%20other%20method%22%20to%20bring%20about%20the%20surrender%20of%20Japan. |access-date=2024-12-07 |website=ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu}}</ref> After the war, he served as the president of the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]], [[Allied High Commission|U.S. High Commissioner]] for [[Germany]], chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], chairman of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], a member of the [[Warren Commission]], and a prominent adviser to all presidents from [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to [[Ronald Reagan]].

McCloy was one of a group of important foreign policy advisers whose activities are detailed in the 1986 book ''[[The Wise Men (book)|The Wise Men]]'', by [[Walter Isaacson]] and [[Evan Thomas]], who describe McCloy as "the most influential private citizen in the United States."
{{TOC limit}}

==Early life==
John McCloy was born in [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, the son of John J. McCloy (1862–1901) and Anna (née Snader) McCloy (1866–1959). His father was an insurance man who died when McCloy was five. His mother was a hairdresser in Philadelphia, with many high-society clients. McCloy's family was poor; he would later often say he grew up on the "wrong side of the tracks," and describe himself as being outside the establishment circles in which he would later move.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U9UgyWiCcrAC|title=The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made|last=Thomas|first=Evan|author-link=Evan Thomas|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1986|isbn=978-0-671-50465-6}}</ref><ref>[[Finder, Joseph]] (Apr 12, 1992) [https://archive.org/download/finder-joseph-ultimate-insider-ultimate-outs-obituary-john-j.-mc-cloy-new-york-t/Finder%2C%20Joseph%20-%20Ultimate%20Insider%2C%20Ultimate%20Outs%20%5BObituary%2C%20John%20J.%20McCloy%5D%20%28New%20York%20Times%2C%20Apr.%2012%2C%201992%29.%20Section%207%2C%20pp.%201%2C%2023-24.pdf "Ultimate Insider, Ultimate Outsider"]. ''[[New York Times]]'', Section 7, [https://archive.org/download/finder-joseph-ultimate-insider-ultimate-outs-obituary-john-j.-mc-cloy-new-york-t/Finder%2C%20Joseph%20-%20Ultimate%20Insider%2C%20Ultimate%20Outs%20%5BObituary%2C%20John%20J.%20McCloy%5D%20%28New%20York%20Times%2C%20Apr.%2012%2C%201992%29.%20Section%207%2C%20pp.%201%2C%2023-24.pdf pp. 1, 23-24.] [https://web.archive.org/web/20220402084016/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/12/books/ultimate-insider-ultimate-outsider.html?pagewanted=all Archived] from [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/12/books/ultimate-insider-ultimate-outsider.html?pagewanted=all the original.]</ref>  His original name was "John Snader McCloy".<ref name=citizenmccloy>[[Max Holland|Holland, Max]] (Autumn 1991). [http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/sites/default/files/articles/WQ_VOL15_A_1991_Article_01_1.pdf "Citizen McCloy: The Rise and Fall of the American Establishment"]. ''[[The Wilson Quarterly]]'', vol. 15, no. 4. [http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/sites/default/files/articles/WQ_VOL15_A_1991_Article_01_1.pdf pp. 22–42.] [http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/file/download/46 Full issue.] {{JSTOR|40258158}}.</ref> It was later changed to "John Jay McCloy", probably to sound more aristocratic.<ref name="Harvard 1921. pg. 606">Mead, Frederick S. (1921). [https://books.google.com/books?id=YlAQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA606 ''Harvard's Military Record in the World War''.] Boston, Mass.: [[Harvard Alumni Association]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YlAQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA606 p. 606.]</ref>

McCloy was educated at the [[Peddie School]] in New Jersey, and [[Amherst College]] from which he graduated in 1916. He was an above-average student who excelled at tennis and moved smoothly among the sons of the nation's elite.<ref>[[Kai Bird|Bird]] (1992), pp. 24-41.</ref> McCloy was a brother of [[Beta Theta Pi]] fraternity at Amherst.

In 1930, McCloy married Ellen Zinsser, a native of Hastings-on-Hudson, New York and a 1918 graduate of [[Smith College]]. She was active in volunteer and civic organizations, such as volunteer nursing programs and served on the board of the New York chapter of the Girls Clubs of America, the Bellevue Hospital nursing school, and the New York chapter of the [[American Red Cross]]. They had two children: John J. McCloy II and Ellen Z. McCloy.

==World War I==
McCloy enrolled in [[Harvard Law School]] in 1916, and he was an average student. He was profoundly influenced by his experience at the [[Citizens' Military Training Camp|Plattsburg Preparedness camps]]. When the [[American entry into World War I|US entered the war in April 1917]], he joined the [[United States Army]] in May and was trained at [[Plattsburgh, New York]] and was commissioned as a [[second lieutenant]] in the Artillery on August 15, 1917. He was promoted to [[first lieutenant]] on December 29. In May 1918 he was assigned as an aide to Brigadier General [[Guy H. Preston]], commander of the 160th Field Artillery Brigade of the [[85th Infantry Division (United States)|85th Division]]. He sailed for France for service with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] (AEF) on July 29, 1918. He saw combat service in the last weeks of the war, as commander of an artillery battery during the [[Meuse–Argonne offensive]].<ref name="Harvard 1921. pg. 606"/>

After the [[armistice of 11 November 1918]], he was transferred to General Headquarters of the AEF in [[Chaumont, Haute-Marne]], [[France]], on March 1, 1919. He was then sent to the Advance General Headquarters in [[Trier, Germany]] and was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]] on June 29. McCloy returned to the US on July 20 and resigned from the army on August 15, 1919. He then returned to Harvard where he received his LL.B. degree in 1921.<ref name="Harvard 1921. pg. 606"/>

==Wall Street lawyer==
[[File:Black Tom explosion - electrical poles - 1916.jpg|thumb|left|Undercover German agents sabotaged a munitions factory to prevent arms supplies to Allied countries. This is the aftermath of the Black Tom explosion, which John McCloy helped uncover.]]

McCloy went to New York to become an associate in the firm of [[Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft]], which was then one of the nation's most prestigious law firms. He moved to [[Cravath, Swaine & Moore|Cravath, Henderson, & de Gersdorff]] in 1924, where he worked with many wealthy clients, such as the St. Paul Railroad. In 1934, McCloy found new evidence allowing him to re-open an action for damages against Germany for the destruction caused by the 1916 [[Black Tom explosion]].<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/news/a-terrorist-attack-on-the-city-85-years-moc ''New York Observer'' article (July 2006)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203055137/http://www.bookrags.com/news/a-terrorist-attack-on-the-city-85-years-moc/ |date=2012-02-03 }}, bookrags.com; accessed March 14, 2018.</ref>

He undertook much work for corporations in [[Nazi Germany]] and advised the major German chemical combine [[IG Farben|I.G. Farben]], later the manufacturer of the [[Zyklon B]] gas. By the time he left for government service in 1940, McCloy earned about $45,000 a year ($835,000 in 2020 dollars) and had savings of $106,000 ($2,000,000 in 2020 dollars). His involvement in litigation over a World War I sabotage case gave him a strong interest in intelligence issues and in German affairs.<ref>Kai Bird, ''The Chairman'' (1992), chapters 5-6.<!-- ISSN/ISBN, publisher needed --></ref>

==World War II==
[[File:John J. McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, arrived at Gatow Airport in Berlin, Germany to attend the Potsdam... - NARA - 198844.jpg|thumb|McCloy arrives at [[RAF Gatow]] in Berlin to attend the [[Potsdam Conference]] in 1945.]]
[[File:Secretary of War Henry Stimson shakes hands with Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy at Gatow Airport in... - NARA - 198873.jpg|thumb|Secretary of War Henry Stimson greets his assistant John McCloy at RAF Gatow.]]

US [[Secretary of War]] [[Henry Stimson]] hired McCloy as a consultant in September 1940, even though McCloy was a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] supporter and opposed [[Franklin Roosevelt]] for the upcoming November 1940 presidential election.<ref>Bird. ''The Chairman'' (1992), pg. 113.</ref> Stimson was particularly interested in McCloy due to McCloy's extensive experience with German sabotage in [[Black Tom explosion|the Black Tom]] case. Stimson knew that the Germans would once again try to sabotage American infrastructure if a war against the United States were to break out. Working for Stimson, McCloy became immersed in war planning.

On April 22, 1941, he was made Assistant Secretary of War but held only civilian responsibilities, especially the purchase of war materials for the Army, [[Lend Lease]], the draft, and issues of intelligence and sabotage.<ref>Bird. ''The Chairman'' (1992), pp. 117-268.</ref> Once the USA entered the war, McCloy was a crucial voice in setting US military priorities and played a key role in several notable decisions.

=== Creating a wartime security apparatus ===
An indefatigable committee member, McCloy during the war served on the government task forces that built the Pentagon, created the [[Office of Strategic Services]], which eventually became the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and he proposed both the [[United Nations]] and the war crimes tribunals. He chaired the predecessor to the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]].

===Internment of Japanese-Americans===
In February 1942, his involvement in combating sabotage made McCloy heavily involved in the decision to forcibly remove Japanese-Americans from their homes on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] to inland internment camps. [[Kai Bird]] wrote in his biography of McCloy:

<blockquote>More than any individual, McCloy was responsible for the decision, since the (U.S.) President had delegated the matter to him through (U.S. Secretary of War) Stimson.</blockquote>

The generals on the scene had insisted on mass relocation to prevent sabotage, and the Army's G-2 (intelligence division) concluded that it was needed. A key document was a [[Magic (cryptography)|Magic]]-decrypted interception of a Japanese diplomat in [[Los Angeles]], who reported, "We also have connections with our second generations working in airplane plants for intelligence purposes."<ref>[[Kai Bird|Bird, Kai]]. ''The Chairman'' (1992), pp. 155-56.</ref>

The Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), however, disagreed with the Army; in a concurrent report prepared by Commander Kenneth Ringle, ONI had argued against mass internment because most of the Japanese-American citizens suspected of espionage or sabotage were already under surveillance or in FBI custody.<ref>Irons. ''The Courage of Their Convictions'' (1988), p. 44</ref> McCloy was responsible for supervising the evacuations to the camps, but the camps were run by a civilian agency.<ref>Bird. ''The Chairman'' (1992) pp 147-74</ref>

The actions were unanimously upheld by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]].<ref>''Gordon Hirabayashi v. United States'' 320 U.S. 81 (1943)</ref> By 1945, the judicial consensus had eroded considerably. Three justices dissented in a similar internment challenge brought by [[Fred Korematsu]]. The dissenters were led by Justice [[Frank Murphy]]'s reversal of his reluctant concurrence in the earlier case of [[Gordon Hirabayashi]].<ref>Irons. ''The Courage of Their Convictions'' (1988), pp 45-46.</ref>

Historian Roger Daniels says McCloy was strongly opposed to reopening the judicial verdicts on the constitutionality of the internment.<ref>Roger Daniels, ''Unfinished Business: The Japanese-American Internment Cases'' (1986)[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092136/]</ref> The dissent eventually led to judicial reversal of the criminal convictions of Hirabayashi, Korematsu, and others on the basis of government misconduct including the deliberate suppression of the ONI's Ringle report during the Supreme Court's deliberations in 1943.<ref>Irons. ''The Courage of Their Convictions'' (1988) pp. 44-48.</ref>

Edward Ennis, a former colleague and Justice Department lawyer tasked with the preparation of the government's briefs to the Supreme Court in the Hirabayashi case, would directly accuse McCloy of personal deception in testimony before the Seattle Federal Court's 1985 [[coram nobis]] review.<ref>Irons (1988). ''The Courage of Their Convictions'', p. 48</ref>

That led directly to the final resolution, in 1987, of the internment cases before the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which fully exonerated Hirabayashi and other Japanese-American citizens, who fought the wartime curfews and forced relocations resulting from Army orders which the three-judge panel unanimously held were "based upon racism rather than military necessity."<ref>Irons. ''The Courage of Their Convictions'' (1988) p. 49; quoting 46 F. Supp. 657 (9th Cir. 1987) (per Schroeder, J.)</ref>

===Bombing of Auschwitz===
The [[US Department of War|War Department]] was petitioned throughout late 1944 to help save Nazi-held prisoners by ordering the bombing of the railroad lines leading to [[Auschwitz]] and the gas chambers in the camp. McCloy responded in a letter dated 4 July 1944 to John W. Pehle of the [[War Refugee Board]], "The War Department is of the opinion that the suggested air operation is impracticable. It could be executed only by the diversion of considerable air support essential to the success of our forces now engaged in decisive operations and would in any case be of such doubtful efficacy that it would not amount to a practical project." "In fact, long range American bombers stationed in Italy had flown over Auschwitz several times that spring in search of the I.G. petrochemical plant nearby."<ref>{{cite book |last=Goodwin|first = Doris Kearns|title=No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II |date=1994 |publisher=Simon and Schuster}}</ref> In another series of letters, A. Leon Kubowitzki of the [[World Jewish Congress]] requested on 9 August 1944 that McCloy consider a message sent to them by Ernest Frischer of the Czechoslovak State Council from the War Refugee Board. Frischer believed that "destruction of gas chambers and crematoria in [[Oświęcim|Oswiecim]] by bombing would have a certain effect," and that "bombing of railway communications in this same area would also be of importance and of military interest." On the 14 August 1944 McCloy responded to Kubowitzki with a letter detailing how the operation would "be of such doubtful efficacy that it would not warrant the use of our resources," adding that "even if practicable, might provoke even more vindictive action by the Germans."<ref>{{Cite web |title=War Department Rejects World Jewish Congress Request to Bomb Auschwitz (August 1944) |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/war-department-rejects-world-jewish-congress-request-to-bomb-auschwitz-august-1944 |access-date=2024-12-12 |website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}} </ref> Later, on 8 November 1944, McCloy received another letter from Pehle, now urging McCloy to speak with the War Department and reconsider their refusal to conduct the bombings. Pehle described how he was "hesitant to urge the destruction of these camps by direct, military action," but felt differently after reading a report from two escapees from Auschwitz who described the conditions of the death camp.<ref>{{Cite web |title=War Refugee Board Director John Pehle to Assistant Secretary of War John McCloy |url=https://perspectives.ushmm.org/item/war-refugee-board-director-john-pehle-to-assistant-secretary-of-war-john-mccloy |access-date=2024-12-12 |website=perspectives.ushmm.org |language=en}} </ref> McCloy had no direct authority over the [[Army Air Forces]] and could not overrule its choice of targets; the Army Air Forces, led by General [[Hap Arnold]] was adamantly opposed to any outside civilian group choosing its targets. Roosevelt himself rejected any such proposals.<ref>{{cite book|last=Beschloss|first=Michael R.|author-link=Michael Beschloss|title=The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZNha4UcszYC&pg=PA66|year=2003|publisher=New York: [[Simon & Schuster]]|page=66|isbn=978-0-7432-4454-1}}</ref>

=== Preserving Rothenburg ob der Tauber ===
In March 1945, [[Rothenburg ob der Tauber]] was defended by German soldiers. Since McCloy knew about the historic importance and beauty of Rothenburg, he ordered US Army General [[Jacob L. Devers]] not to use artillery in taking Rothenburg. Battalion commander [[Frank Burke (Medal of Honor)|Frank Burke]], a future [[Medal of Honor]] winner, ordered six soldiers of the [[12th Infantry Regiment (United States)|12th Infantry Regiment]], 4th Division to march into Rothenburg on a three-hour mission and negotiate the surrender of the town.

When stopped by a German soldier, one of the six soldiers, Private Lichey, who spoke fluent German and served as the group's translator, held up a white flag and explained, "We are representatives of our division commander. We bring you his offer to spare the city of Rothenburg from shelling and bombing if you agree not to defend it. We have been given three hours to get this message to you. If we haven't returned to our lines by 1800 hours, the town will be bombed and shelled to the ground." The local military commander Major Thömmes gave up the town, ignoring the order of Hitler for all towns to fight to the end and thereby saving it from total destruction by artillery. American troops of the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division occupied the town on April 17, 1945, and in November 1948, McCloy was named an honorary citizen ([[German language|German]]: ''Ehrenbürger'') of Rothenburg.

===Ending war with Japan===
McCloy tried to convince President Truman that an [[Operation Downfall|invasion of Japan]] was not sensible. By mid-1945, the Japanese emperor began looking for ways to unwind the war, going as far as asking the Soviet Union to broker a peace between the United States and Japan. Through Magic intercepts, McCloy had known that the emperor was prepared to surrender if assurances to preserve the Japanese monarchy were given. As such, he advised Truman to offer terms of surrender that offered such a guarantee bundled with the implied threat of using the [[atomic bomb]] against Japan.<ref>[[Jeremy Isaacs]] (1974). [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1129882/ ''The World at War—The Bomb: February–September 1945''.]</ref> He argued that by doing so, it would enable the United States to claim a moral high ground, in the event that a bombing would be needed to thwart a Japanese mainland invasion.{{cn|date=May 2024}} While traveling by boat to the Potsdam Conference, Secretary of State [[James F. Byrnes|James Byrnes]] convinced Truman to ignore McCloy's advice.{{cn|date=May 2024}} Eventually, Truman ordered the atomic bombs to be dropped as soon as they were ready.

=== Rejection of the Morgenthau Plan ===
In 1945, he and Stimson convinced President Truman to reject the [[Morgenthau Plan]] and to avoid stripping Germany of its industrial capacity.<ref>Wolf, 2000.</ref>

=== Ending segregation ===
As chairman of the Army's Advisory Committee on Negro Troop Policy, he at first opposed the civil rights spokesman who wanted the Army to end segregation. However, he changed his mind and in late 1945, just before leaving the government to return to Wall Street, he proposed ending segregation in the military. On March 17, 1949, McCloy and General [[Alvan Cullom Gillem, Jr.]] testified before the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

== Later career ==

===President of World Bank===
From March 1947 to June 1949, McCloy served as the second president of the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. At the time of his appointment, the World Bank was a new entity, having only been manned by one previous president, Eugene Meyer, who resigned six months into his tenure over disputes with the bank's executive directors. McCloy was brought in to resolve the situation and was determined to make the bank an entity that would fund economically efficient projects, not just consumption. Over this tenure, he would develop relationships with Wall Street to overcome their skepticism of these bonds from countries, selling over hundreds of millions of dollars in bonds. Eventually, McCloy would leave the World Bank, as the [[Marshall Plan]] would start giving vast sums of economic support in 1948 for Allied countries that would swamp the investment the World Bank could provide.

=== US High Commissioner for Germany ===
[[File:Photograph of President Truman with John J. McCloy, United States High Commissioner for Germany (center), and... - NARA - 200185.jpg|thumb|John McCloy meets President Truman and Secretary of State Dean Acheson for talks in the Oval Office.]]

On September 2, 1949, McCloy replaced the previous five successive military governors for the US Zone in Germany as the first [[Allied High Commission|US High Commissioner]] for [[Germany]] and held the position until August 1, 1952. He oversaw the further creation of the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] after May 23, 1949. 

At the strong urging of the West German government, and under massive pressure from the West German public, McCloy approved recommendations (including from the [[David_W._Peck#"Peck_Panel"|Peck Panel]]) for commuting of sentences of Nazi criminals including those of the prominent industrialist [[Alfried Krupp]], General [[Hellmuth Felmy]],and Einsatzgruppe commanders [[ Gustav Adolf Nosske]] and [[Martin Sandberger]].<ref name="Lee2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZ_cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=The Beast Reawakens: Fascism's Resurgence from Hitler's Spymasters to Today's Neo-Nazi Groups and Right-Wing Extremists|author=Martin A. Lee|date=23 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-28124-3|pages=69–71}}</ref> McCloy granted the restitution of Krupp's entire property. He also commuted the sentence of [[Ernst von Weizsäcker]] at the urging of [[Winston Churchill]].<ref name="Lee2013" /> Another commutation handed down was for [[Edmund Veesenmayer]], who played a role in mass deportations.<ref>[[Robert S. Wistrich|Wistrich, Robert S.]] (2013). [[iarchive:whoswhoinnaziger0000wist/page/266/|''Who's Who in Nazi Germany'']]. England: [[Routledge]]. [[iarchive:whoswhoinnaziger0000wist/page/266/|p. 266.]] {{ISBN|978-1-136-41388-9}}.</ref><ref>McDonald, Gabrielle Kirk (2000). ''Substantive and Procedural Aspects of International Criminal Law: The Experience of International and National Courts''. BRILL. p. 2180. {{ISBN|978-90-411-1134-0}}.</ref>

Nuremberg judge [[William J. Wilkins (judge)|William J. Wilkins]] wrote,

<blockquote>Imagine my surprise one day in February 1951 to read in the newspaper that John J. McCloy, the high commissioner to Germany, had restored all the Krupp properties that had been ordered confiscated.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/14/obituaries/w-j-wilkins-98-was-judge-at-trial-of-nazi-industrialists.html|title = W. J. Wilkins, 98; Was Judge at Trial of Nazi Industrialists|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|date = 14 September 1995|last1 = Hevesi|first1 = Dennis}}</ref></blockquote>

McCloy did reject requests for an amnesty. He also refused to commute the death sentences of five men whom he called "the worst of the worst": [[Oswald Pohl]], [[Otto Ohlendorf]], [[Paul Blobel]], [[Werner Braune]], and [[Erich Naumann]]. Two other death sentences from the [[Dachau trials]] were upheld by [[Thomas T. Handy|General Thomas T. Handy]], that of [[Georg Schallermair]] and [[Hans-Theodor Schmidt]]. There were mass protests by hundreds of thousands amongst the West German public and government. Many were outraged that full amnesty had not been granted to the condemned, and it reached the point that McCloy's family started receiving death threats. Nevertheless, all seven men were executed at [[Landsberg Prison]] on June 7, 1951.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heller |first=Kevin Jon |title=The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law |date=2011-06-01 |chapter=Aftermath |pages=331–368 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/4824/chapter/147161010 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199554317.003.0016|isbn=978-0-19-955431-7 }}</ref>[[File:HfGUlmbuilding.jpg|thumb|Ulm School of Design (Hochschule für Gestaltung—HfG Ulm) 1953–68]]

McCloy supported the initiative of [[Inge Scholl|Inge Aicher-Scholl]] (the sister of [[Sophie Scholl]]), [[Otl Aicher]] and [[Max Bill]] to found the [[Ulm School of Design]].<ref>[http://www.hfg-archiv.ulm.de/english/the_hfg_ulm/ Ulm School of Design HfG Ulm: Archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012031112/http://www.hfg-archiv.ulm.de/english/the_hfg_ulm/ |date=2018-10-12 }}</ref> HfG Ulm is considered to be the most influential design school in the world after the [[Bauhaus]]. The founders sought and received support in the USA (via [[Walter Gropius]]) and within the American High Command in Germany. McCloy saw the endeavor as ''Project No. 1'' and supported a college and campus combination along US examples. In 1952 Scholl received from McCloy a check for one million [[Deutschmark]]s.<ref>[http://www.wortbild.de/index.php?id=54 Background of HFG],  wortbild.de; accessed 14 March 2018. {{in lang|de}}</ref>

McCloy had served as the first US High Commissioner. His final successor in the post was the fourth US High Commissioner, [[James B. Conant]]; the office was terminated on May 5, 1955.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-08-15|title=Records of the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany [USHCG]|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/466.html|access-date=2022-01-25|website=National Archives|language=en}}</ref>

===Return to Wall Street===
Following his service in Germany, he served as chairman of the [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] from 1953 to 1960 (operating as "Chase National Bank" prior to 1955), and as chairman of the [[Ford Foundation]] from 1958 to 1965; he was also a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] from 1946 to 1949, and then again from 1953 to 1958, before he took up the position at Ford.

Following the 1953 death of [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Fred M. Vinson]], President Eisenhower considered appointing McCloy in his place, but he was viewed as too favourable to big business.<ref>Brandt, Raymond P.; 'A New Chief Justice: Eisenhower Must Make Historic Decision – Will President Appoint the Best Man Available or Will He Listen to Partisan Politicians'; ''[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]'', September 27, 1953, p. 1C</ref>

From 1954 to 1970, he was chairman of the prestigious [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in New York, to be succeeded by [[David Rockefeller]], who had worked closely with him at the Chase Bank. McCloy had a long association with the [[Rockefeller family]], going back to his early Harvard days when he taught the young Rockefeller brothers how to sail. He was also a member of the [[Draper Committee]], formed in 1958 by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]].

He later served as adviser to [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Lyndon Johnson]], [[Richard Nixon]], [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Ronald Reagan]], and was the primary negotiator on the Presidential Disarmament Committee.
[[File:John j mccloy.jpg|thumb|John McCloy discusses his views in the [[Cabinet Room (White House)|Cabinet Room]].]]
From 1966 to 1968, he was Honorary Chairman of the Paris-based [[Atlantic Institute]].<ref name="whoswho">{{cite book|title=Who Was Who|publisher=A&C Black|year=2007}}</ref>

In late 1967 McCloy was considered by US President [[Lyndon Johnson]] for the position of US Ambassador to the [[United Nations]] and was approached by Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] on this matter, however McCloy turned down the offer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://discoverlbj.org/item/tel-12502|title = Telephone conversation # 12502, sound recording, LBJ and DEAN RUSK, 12/8/1967, 11:39PM · Discover Production}}</ref>
[[File:Warren Commission presenting report on assassination of John F. Kennedy to Lyndon Johnson.jpg|thumb|John McCloy (far left) and the Warren Commission present their report to President Johnson.]]

===Warren Commission===
McCloy was selected by President [[Lyndon Johnson]] to serve on the [[Warren Commission]] in late November 1963. McCloy believed that the commission ought to "show the world that America is not a [[banana republic]], where a government can be changed by conspiracy".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bird |first1=Kai |title=The Chairman: John J McCloy & The Making of the American Establishment |date=2017 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |pages=V-VI}}</ref> Notably, he was initially skeptical of the lone gunman theory, but a trip to Dallas with CIA veteran [[Allen Dulles]], an old friend also serving on the commission, convinced him of the case against [[Lee Harvey Oswald]].{{cn|date=April 2025}} To avoid a minority dissenting report, McCloy brokered the final consensus and the crucial wording of the primary conclusion of the final report.{{cn|date=April 2025}}  He stated that any possible evidence of a conspiracy was "beyond the reach" of all of America's investigatory agencies, principally the [[FBI]] and the [[CIA]] as well as the Commission itself.<ref>Bird, ''The Chairman'' p 565</ref> In a 1975 interview with [[Eric Sevareid]] of [[CBS]], McCloy stated, "I never saw a case that I thought was more completely proven than... the assassination."<ref name="Observer-Reporter; July 21, 1975">{{cite news|author=Staff|title=McCloy Still Feels Oswald Acted Alone|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BW5eAAAAIBAJ&pg=2975%2C2884469|newspaper=[[Observer-Reporter]]|location=Washington, Penn.|agency=[[Associated Press]]|page=[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BW5eAAAAIBAJ&pg=2975%2C2884469 D3]|date=July 21, 1975|access-date=April 11, 2015}}</ref>

He described writings that propagated [[John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories|assassination conspiracies theories]] as "just nonsense."<ref name="Observer-Reporter; July 21, 1975"/>

=== Return to law firm ===
McCloy became a name partner in the Rockefeller-associated prominent New York law firm [[Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy]]. He would serve there from 1945 to 1947, and then after serving on the Warren Commission, remained a general partner for 27 years, until he died in 1989. In that capacity, he acted for the "[[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|Seven Sisters]]", the leading multinational oil companies, including [[Exxon]], in their initial confrontations with the nationalization movement in [[Libya]] as well as negotiations with [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[OPEC]]. Because of his stature in the legal world and his long association with the [[Rockefeller family|Rockefellers]] and as a presidential adviser, he was sometimes referred to as the "Chairman of the American Establishment".{{cn|date=August 2025}}

== Death ==
McCloy died of [[pulmonary edema]] at his home in [[Cos Cob, Connecticut|Cos Cob]], a neighborhood of [[Greenwich, Connecticut]], on March 11, 1989. His wife had died at 87 a few years earlier of [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name=":1" />

==Legacy==
[[File:Remarks at a Ceremony Celebrating the 90th Birthday of John J. McCloy.png|thumb|John McCloy accepts an award for an honorary citizen of Berlin as President von Weizsacker and President Ronald Reagan look on.]]

Without regard to partisanship, he served under presidents of both parties. Although a Republican, he was the second-highest-ranking official in the War Department during World War II. Like his fellow "Wise Men," McCloy often heeded the call to service. Despite having lucrative jobs on Wall Street, he left his positions to serve in government, whether to serve in the War Department or as the High Commissioner in Germany.

McCloy is also remembered for his role in forming the predecessor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. He was tasked by Henry Stimson in the early 1940s to sort out the political tensions in the pre-war intelligence community, which was marked by political infighting and jurisdictional disputes among the chiefs of the Army and Navy and the FBI director, J. Edgar Hoover. To sort out the issue, he and William Donovan created a new intelligence program, Office of Strategic Services, that attempted to fuse and streamline those forms of intelligence and is modeled after the British intelligence agencies. The centralization of the war intelligence office became a blueprint for the founding of the Central Intelligence Agency under the [[National Security Act of 1947]].

In recognition of his efforts to the United States, he was presented with the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] with Distinction by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on December 6, 1963. In the same year, he was awarded the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) Society's [[William J. Donovan]] Award.<ref>[https://www.osssociety.org/award.html William J. Donovan Award]. [[Office of Strategic Services|Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Society]]. [https://www.osssociety.org/ osssociety.org].</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=6 June 1963|title=Veterans of O.S.S. Award Donovan Medal to McCloy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/06/06/archives/veterans-of-oss-award-donovan-medal-to-mccloy.html|work=The New York Times|page=52|via=The New York Times Archives}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 1965|title=William J. Donovan Award|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpuHu5EZBaAC&q=john+j+mccloy+donovan+award&pg=PA4|journal=Army Information Digest|publisher=Department of the Army|volume=20|issue=1|page=4|via=Google Books}}</ref> Also in 1963, McCloy received the [[Sylvanus Thayer Award]] by the [[United States Military Academy]] for his service to the country. Furthermore, McCloy was a recipient of the Association Medal of the [[New York City Bar Association]] in recognition of exceptional contributions to the honor and standing of the Bar in the community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nycbar.org/the-association-medal-1|title=Association Medal|publisher=New York City Bar|access-date=2019-02-16|archive-date=2019-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217030418/https://www.nycbar.org/the-association-medal-1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On his 90th birthday on the White House lawn with President Ronald Reagan overlooking, John McCloy was named an honorary citizen of Berlin by German President [[Richard von Weizsäcker|Richard von Weizsacker]] and the mayor of Berlin, [[Eberhard Diepgen]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/research/speeches/40285c|title=40285c {{!}} Ronald Reagan Presidential Library - National Archives and Records Administration|website=www.reaganlibrary.gov|access-date=2019-02-18}}</ref> At the event, Ronald Reagan recalled how "John McCloy's selfless heart made a difference, an enduring difference, in the lives of millions" and thanked him on behalf of "for all [McCloy's] countrymen and the millions of people around the world whose lives [McCloy] helped make safer because of your devotion to duty and to the cause of humanity." The citation for his honorary citizenship reads "John McCloy is closely connected with the reconstruction and development of this city. His dedication contributed to a great extent to understanding of Berlin in the United States of America and to preservation of peace and freedom."<ref name=":0" /><ref>For McCloy's support for Berlin, see [[Andreas Daum]], ''Kennedy in Berlin''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-85824-3}}, pp. 35, 48‒49, 51, 80‒81.</ref>

== Publications ==
'''Articles'''
* "The World Seeks Peace". ''[[American Journal of Economics and Sociology]]'', vol. 20, no. 4 (Jul. 1961), p. 376. {{JSTOR|3484375}}.

'''Book contributions'''
* Introduction to ''Russia and America, Dangers and Prospects'', by Henry L. Roberts. New York: Published by [[HarperCollins|Harper]] on behalf of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] (1956).

'''Correspondence'''
* 1947–1949: As President of the [[World Bank]], [http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2014/1/43071388759446329/wbg-archives-1506591.pdf available at the World Bank Group Archive].

'''Public speaking'''
* [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/775321524837806539/Address-by-Mr-John-J-McCloy-President-of-the-Bank-in-presenting-the-third-annual-report-of-the-Bank-to-the-Board-of-Governors-at-the-second-session-September-29-1948 Address] as President of the [[World Bank]] presenting the third annual report of the Bank to the Board of Governors at the second session, September 29, 1948 (English). [[Washington, D.C.]]: [[World Bank Group]].

==See also==
* [[Chase Manhattan Bank]]
* [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
* [[Japanese American internment]]
* [[McCloy–Zorin Accords]]
* [[Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy]]
* [[David Rockefeller]]
* [[Rockefeller family]]
* [[The World at War#Episodes|''The World at War'' - "The Bomb"]]
* [[World Bank]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Bird, Kai]] (1992). [https://archive.org/download/KaiBirdTheChairmanJohnJ.McCloyTheMakingOfTheAmericanEstablishment2017SimonSchuster/Kai%20Bird%20-%20The%20Chairman_%20John%20J.%20McCloy%20%26%20The%20Making%20of%20the%20American%20Establishment%20%282017%2C%20Simon%20%26%20Schuster%29.pdf ''The Chairman: John J. McCloy & the Making of the American Establishment''.] New York: [[Simon & Schuster]]. {{ISBN|978-0-671-45415-9}}.
* Erdheim, Stuart (Fall 1997). [https://academic.oup.com/hgs/article-abstract/11/2/129/798525 "Could The Allies Have Bombed Auschwitz-Birkenau?"] ''[[Holocaust and Genocide Studies]]''. pp. 129–170. {{doi|10.1093/hgs/11.2.129}}.
* [[Gilbert, Martin]] (1981). [https://books.google.com/books?id=u2hsDwAAQBAJ ''Auschwitz and the Allies''.] Illinois: [[Holt, Rinehart, and Winston]]. {{ISBN|0-03-059284-4|978-0030592843}}.
* [[Max Holland|Holland, Max]] (Autumn 1991). [http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/sites/default/files/articles/WQ_VOL15_A_1991_Article_01_1.pdf "Citizen McCloy"]. ''[[The Wilson Quarterly]]'', vol. 15, no. 4. pp. 22–42. [http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/file/download/46 full issue.] {{JSTOR|40258158}}.
* [[Irons, Peter]] (1988). [[iarchive:courageoftheirco00iron|''The Courage of Their Convictions: Sixteen Americans Who Fought Their Way to the Supreme Court'']]. New York: [[Free Press (publisher)|The Free Press]]. {{ISBN|0-02-915670-X}}.
* [[Walter Isaacson|Isaacson, Walter]], and [[Evan Thomas]] (1986). ''[[The Wise Men (book)|The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made: Acheson, Bohlen, Harriman, Kennan, Lovett, and McCloy]]''. New York: [[Simon & Schuster]].
* Roberts, Priscilla (Dec. 1992). [https://archive.org/download/roberts-priscilla-all-the-right-people-the-historiography-of-the-american-foreig/Roberts%2C%20Priscilla%20-%20%E2%80%98All%20the%20Right%20People%E2%80%99%20-%20The%20Historiography%20of%20the%20American%20Foreign%20Policy%20Establishment%20%28Journal%20of%20American%20Studies%2C%20vol.%2026%2C%20no.%203%2C%20The%20United%20States%20and%20World%20Order%2C%20Dec.%201992%29%2C%20pp.%20409-434%20%5BJSTOR%201406545%5D.pdf {{"'}}All the Right People': The Historiography of the American Foreign Policy Establishment"]. ''[[Journal of American Studies]]'', vol. 26, no. 3. pp. 409–434. {{JSTOR|27555686}}.
* [[Rockefeller, David]] (2002). [[iarchive:memoirs0000rock|''Memoirs'']]. New York: [[Random House]]. {{ISBN|0-8129-6973-1|978-0812969733}}.
* [[Thomas A. Schwartz|Schwartz, Thomas Alan]] (1991). [[iarchive:americasgermanyj0000schw|''America's Germany: John J. McCloy and the Federal Republic of Germany'']]. Cambridge, Mass.: [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-674-03115-6}}.
* [[Thomas A. Schwartz|Schwartz, Thomas Alan]] (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8PWp1GpWdX8C&pg=PA433 "John J. McCloy and the Landsberg Cases" (Chapter 21).] In: Diefendorf, Jeffry M., and Axel Frohn, Hermann-Josef Rupieper (eds.). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8PWp1GpWdX8C ''American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany 1945–1955''.] New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-43120-0}}.
* Wilson, John Donald (1986). [[iarchive:chasechasemanhat0000wils|''The Chase: The Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A., 1945–85''.]] Boston: [[Harvard Business School Press]]. {{ISBN|0-87584-134-1}}.
* Wolf, Thomas P. (Feb. 2000). [http://www.anb.org/articles/07/07-00189.html "McCloy, John Jay, Jr"]. ''[[American National Biography Online]]''.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100804031426/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FMcCloy%2C+John+J. Works related to John J. McCloy] at the [[Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]]
* [https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/archives/history/past-presidents/john-jay-mccloy Biography of John McCloy (website)]
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/bombau.html Could The Allies Have Bombed Auschwitz-Birkenau?] by Mitchell Bard 
* [http://encyclopedia.densho.org/John%20McCloy/ John McCloy] at ''[[Densho Encyclopedia]]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030902060336/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19890301faessay5944/william-g-hyland/john-j-mccloy-1895-1989.html "John J. McCloy, 1895–1989"]—Spring 1989 ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' article by William G. Hyland
* [http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/biographies/bio_mccloy-john.htm John J. McCloy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422123839/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/biographies/bio_mccloy-john.htm |date=2017-04-22 }}, a biography on Nuclearfiles.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903165631/https://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Presidential+Medal+of+Freedom.htm Presidential Medal of Freedom] at [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]]
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/filmmore/reference/primary/bombjohn.html A letter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323041217/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/filmmore/reference/primary/bombjohn.html |date=2017-03-23 }} to John W. Pehle
* [http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/ga4-mccloy.htm "The Splendid Reconciliation"]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/011793}}
* [https://archivesspace.amherst.edu/repositories/2/resources/46 John J. McCloy (AC 1916) Papers] from the Amherst College Archives & Special Collections

{{s-start}}
{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Eugene Meyer (financier)|Eugene Meyer]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of the World Bank Group]]|years=1947–1949}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Eugene R. Black, Sr.|Gene Black]]}}
|-
{{s-new|office}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Allied High Commission|American High Commissioner for Occupied Germany]]|years=1949–1952}}
{{s-aft|after=[[James Bryant Conant|James Conant]]}}
|-
{{s-bus}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Winthrop W. Aldrich|Winthrop Aldrich]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chief Executive Officer of [[Chase (bank)|Chase]]|years=1953–1960}}
{{s-aft|after=[[George Champion (banker)|George Champion]]}}
|-
{{s-ach|aw}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Douglas MacArthur]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Recipient of the [[Sylvanus Thayer Award]]|years=1963}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Robert A. Lovett|Robert Lovett]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Allen Dulles]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Recipient of the [[William J. Donovan]] Award|years=1963}}
{{s-aft|after=Lt. General [[William W. Quinn]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{World Bank}}
{{WarrenCommission}}
{{USSecArm}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:McCloy, John J.}}
[[Category:1895 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Amherst College alumni]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Chairs of the Council on Foreign Relations]] 
[[Category:Civilian recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States)]]
[[Category:Cravath, Swaine & Moore people]]
[[Category:Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
[[Category:Harvard Law School alumni]] 
[[Category:Members of the Warren Commission]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Peddie School alumni]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania Democrats]]
[[Category:People associated with Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft]]
[[Category:People associated with Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients]]
[[Category:Presidents of the World Bank Group]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)]]
[[Category:Rockefeller Foundation people]]
[[Category:United States Army officers]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:United States assistant secretaries of war]]