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{{short description|New Zealand psychologist and sexologist (1921–2006)}}
{{For|the aeronaut|John Money (aeronaut)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2023}}
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{{Infobox scientist
| name              = John Money
| image             = John Money (1996) (cropped, unblurred).jpg
| caption           = Money in 1996
| birth_name        = John William Money
| birth_date        = {{Birth date|df=yes|1921|7|8}}
| birth_place       = [[Morrinsville]], New Zealand
| death_date        = {{Death date and age|2006|7|7|1921|7|8|df=yes}}
| death_place       = [[Towson, Maryland]], U.S.
| residence         =
| citizenship       = 
| ethnicity         = 
| fields            = [[Psychology]]
| workplaces        = [[Johns Hopkins University]]
| alma_mater        = [[Victoria University of Wellington]]<br>[[Harvard University]]
| doctoral_advisor  = 
| academic_advisors = 
| doctoral_students = 
| notable_students  = 
| known_for         = 
| awards            = [[James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award]] {{small|(1992)}}
| signature         = 
| footnotes         =  
}}
'''John William Money''' (8 July 1921 – 7 July 2006)<ref name="carey2">{{Cite news |last=Carey |first=Benedict |date=2006-07-11 |title=John William Money, 84, Sexual Identity Researcher, Dies |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/us/11money.html |access-date=2023-11-24 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> was a [[New Zealand Americans|New Zealand American]] psychologist, [[sexologist]] and professor at [[Johns Hopkins University]] known for his research on [[human sexual behavior]] and [[gender]].

Money researched unusual sexual interests including pedophilia, and pioneered the use of drug treatment to extinguish the [[libido]] of sex offenders.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Downing |first1=Lisa |url=https://academic.oup.com/chicago-scholarship-online/book/19434 |title=Fuckology |last2=Morland |first2=Iain |last3=Sullivan |first3=Nikki |date=2014 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18661-0 |language=en |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226186757.001.0001}}</ref> He advanced the use of more accurate terminology in sex research, coining the terms ''[[gender role]]'' and ''[[sexual orientation]]''.<ref name="John Money, Ph.D">{{Cite journal |last=Ehrhardt |first=Anke A. |date=August 2007 |title=John Money, PhD |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490701580741 |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=223–224 |doi=10.1080/00224490701580741 |jstor=20620298 |pmid=3050136 |s2cid=147344556 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Tosh |first=Jemma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pRcWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 |title=Perverse Psychology: The pathologization of sexual violence and transgenderism |date=25 July 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317635444 |language=en}}</ref> Despite popular belief, Money did not coin the term ''gender identity''.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Byrne |first=Alex |date=5 June 2023 |title=The Origin of "Gender Identity" |url=https://rdcu.be/ddPj8 |format=PDF |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=52 |issue=7 |pages=2709–2711 |doi=10.1007/s10508-023-02628-0 |pmid=37277576 |hdl=1721.1/153064 |s2cid=259090258 |url-access=limited |via=[[Springer Nature]]|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Money was a proponent of genital surgeries for children with intersex conditions; justified by his belief that gender was malleable during the first two years of life, and that raising a child outside the male–female binary was harmful. The practice proved controversial when many intersex people later rejected the gender assigned to them. Money also applied the protocol to [[David Reimer]], who lost his penis in a botched circumcision, and advised his parents to raise him as a girl. Reimer struggled and exhibited masculine behavior, reverted to living as a male when he became aware of the treatment, and later died by suicide after his brother's suicide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Patricia |date=2002 |title=Moving toward an international standard in informed consent: The impact of intersexuality and the Internet on the standard of care |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1061&context=djglp |journal=Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy |volume=9 |pages=135–169 |pmid=14986668}}</ref><ref name="PCSS" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Colapinto |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/asnaturemadehim00john |title=As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl |publisher=Harper Perennial |year=2001b |isbn=978-0-06-092959-6 |location=New York |publication-date=2006 |pages=86–88 |author-link=John Colapinto |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Money believed that [[transgender]] people had an ''[[Idée fixe (psychology)|idée fixe]]'', and established the [[Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic]] in 1965. Money screened adult patients for two years prior to granting them a medical transition, and believed sex roles should be de-stereotyped, so that masculine women would be less likely to desire transition.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=181-182}} His views have been criticized by transgender scholars and activists.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=89}} 

Today, Money is a subject of academic scrutiny among psychologists, ethicists, and intersex rights activists for his handling of the Reimer case. Money was defended by his colleague [[Richard Green (sexologist)|Richard Green]], who believed Money aimed to help rather than "experiment" on Reimer, and operated under accepted medical knowledge of the time. Money's writing has been translated into many languages and includes around 2,000 articles, books, chapters and reviews. He received around 65 honors, awards and degrees in his lifetime.<ref name="John Money, Ph.D" />

==Early life==
Money was born in [[Morrinsville]], New Zealand, to a [[Christian fundamentalism|Christian fundamentalist]]{{sfn|Goldie|2014|p=17}} family of English and Welsh descent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=John William Money, PhD, 1921–2006 |url=http://www.sexualhealth.umn.edu/education/john-money/bio |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724204551/http://www.sexualhealth.umn.edu/education/john-money/bio |archive-date=24 July 2015 |access-date=24 July 2015 |website=Program in Human Sexuality, Department of Family Medicine and Community Health |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref> His parents were members of the [[Plymouth Brethren Christian Church]].{{sfn|Goldie|2014|p=17}} He attended [[Hutt Valley High School]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomson |first=Ainsley |date=12 May 2004 |title=NZ psychologist silent on former patient |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/nz-psychologist-silent-on-former-patient/REF36VGPN4UZHFC7IRZFR2SOVA/ |website=[[New Zealand Herald]]}}</ref> and initially studied psychology at [[Victoria University of Wellington]],<ref name="nzhobit">{{Cite news |date=10 July 2006 |title=Kiwi sexologist dies in US hospital |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/category/story.cfm?c_id=204&ObjectID=10390550 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930012155/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/category/story.cfm?c_id=204&ObjectID=10390550 |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> graduating with a double master's degree in psychology and education in 1944.<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Money, PhD |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/John+Money,+Ph.D.-a0168586760 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520133013/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/John+Money,+Ph.D.-a0168586760 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |access-date=15 April 2008 |publisher=Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Money |first=John |title=Career or culture? : a study of the relation of vocation & culture in education |degree=Masters thesis |publisher=Open Access Repository Victoria University of Wellington |url=https://openaccess.wgtn.ac.nz/articles/thesis/Career_or_culture_a_study_of_the_relation_of_vocation_culture_in_education/17061158/1 |doi=10.26686/wgtn.17061158 |doi-access=free |year=1944}}</ref> He was a junior member of the psychology faculty at the [[University of Otago]] in [[Dunedin]].

Author [[Janet Frame]] attended some of Money's classes at the University of Otago, as part of her teacher training. Frame was attracted to Money, and eager to please him.<ref name="King2000-64">King, Michael. ''An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.'' Penguin (NZ), 2002. pp. 64-5.</ref> In October 1945, after Frame wrote an essay mentioning her thoughts of suicide,<ref name="Angel">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2010 |title=Frame, Janet Paterson |encyclopedia=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/6f1/frame-janet-paterson/print |last=Evans |first=Patrick}}</ref> Money convinced Frame to enter the psychiatric ward at [[Dunedin Hospital]], where she was misdiagnosed as suffering from [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Frame1991p375">Frame, Janet. ''An Autobiography.'' (collected edition). Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989; New York: George Braziller, 1991. pp. 374–5</ref><ref name="King2000-186">King, Michael. ''An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.'' Penguin (NZ), 2002. p. 69, 70, 97, 105, 111, 112, 186,</ref> Frame then spent eight years in psychiatric institutions, during which she was subjected to [[electroconvulsive therapy|electroshock]] and [[insulin shock therapy]].<ref name="Autobio">{{Cite book |last=Janet |first=Frame |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkIoBgAAQBAJ |title=An Angel at My Table |date=2015 |publisher=Little, Brown Book Group |isbn=9780349006697}}</ref><ref name="King2000-186" /> Frame narrowly missed being [[lobotomized]].<ref name="Frame1991p222">Frame, Janet. ''An Autobiography.'' (collected edition). Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989; New York: George Braziller, 1991. pp. 222–23</ref><ref name="King2000-186" /><ref name="Autobio" /> In Frame's autobiography, ''An Angel at My Table'', Money is referred to as John Forrest.<ref name="Angel" />

== Career and views ==
In 1947, at the age of 26, Money emigrated to the United States to study at the Psychiatric Institute of the [[University of Pittsburgh]]. In 1948, he became a doctoral candidate at [[Harvard University]], and earned his PhD in 1952.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=34}}

Money became a professor of [[pediatrics]] and [[medical psychology]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]], where he worked from 1952 until his death.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Money proposed and developed several theories related to the topics of [[gender identity]] and [[gender roles]], and coined terms like gender role<ref name="diamond2">{{Cite journal |last=Diamond |first=Milton |year=2004 |title=Sex, gender, and identity over the years: a changing perspective |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/PCSS/online_artcls/historical/OverTheYears.htm |journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=591–607 |doi=10.1016/j.chc.2004.02.008 |pmid=15183375 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203153327/http://www.hawaii.edu/PCSS/online_artcls/historical/OverTheYears.htm |archive-date=3 December 2008|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[lovemap]]. He popularized the term ''paraphilia'' (appearing in the [[DSM-III]], which would later replace ''perversions'') and introduced the term ''sexual orientation'' in place of ''sexual preference'', arguing that attraction is not necessarily a matter of free choice.<ref name="John Money, Ph.D" /><ref name=":0" /> Although often misattributed to him, Money did not coin the term ''<nowiki/>'gender identity'''.<ref name=":4" />

In 1960 and 1961, he co-authored two papers with [[Richard Green (sexologist)|Richard Green]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Richard |last2=Money |first2=John |date=August 1960 |title=Incongruous Gender Role: Nongenital Manifestations in Prepubertal Boys |url=https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Citation/1960/08000/INCONGRUOUS_GENDER_ROLE__NONGENITAL_MANIFESTATIONS.9.aspx |journal=[[The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease]] |language=en-US |volume=131 |issue=2 |pages=160–168 |doi=10.1097/00005053-196008000-00009 |issn=0022-3018 |pmid=13708206 |s2cid=45302178|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Richard |last2=Money |first2=John |date=February 1961 |title=Effeminacy in prepubertal boys. Summary of eleven cases and recommendations for case management |url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/27/2/286/41125/EFFEMINACY-IN-PREPUBERTAL-BOYS-Summary-of-Eleven?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] |volume=27 |pages=286–291 |doi=10.1542/peds.27.2.286 |issn=0031-4005 |pmid=13708205 |s2cid=245091693|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Believing that gender identity was malleable within the first two years of life, Money advocated for the surgical "normalization" of the genitalia of [[intersex]] infants.<ref name=":7" />

=== Sex offenders ===
Money pioneered the use of [[Chemical castration|drug treatment for sex offenders]] to extinguish their sex drives.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":9" /> According to a 1987 paper, he employed the drug Depo-Provera ([[medroxyprogesterone acetate]]) for use on sex offenders at Johns Hopkins beginning in 1966. The practice later spread in the United States and Europe.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Downing |first=Lisa |date=2015-01-04 |title=Pervert or sexual libertarian?: Meet John Money, "the father of f***ology" |url=https://www.salon.com/2015/01/04/pervert_or_sexual_libertarian_meet_john_money_the_father_of_fology/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=Salon |language=en}}</ref>

===Sex reassignment of David Reimer===
{{Main|David Reimer}}

In 1966, a botched [[circumcision]] left eight-month-old Reimer without a penis. Money persuaded the baby's parents that [[sex reassignment surgery]] would be in Reimer's best interest. At the age of 22 months, Reimer underwent an [[orchiectomy]], in which his testicles were surgically removed. He was reassigned to be raised as female and his name changed from Bruce to Brenda. Money further recommended hormone treatment, to which the parents agreed. Money then recommended a surgical procedure to create an artificial vagina, which the parents refused. Money published a number of papers reporting the reassignment as successful. David Reimer was raised under the "[[optimum gender rearing model]]" which was the [[medical model|common model]] for sex and gender socialization/[[medicalization]] for [[intersex]] youth. The model was heavily criticized for being [[sexist]], and for assigning an arbitrary [[gender binary]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Dreger |first1=Alice |author-link1=Alice Dreger |last2=Herndon |first2=April |date=2009 |title=Progress and Politics in the Intersex Rights Movement: Feminist Theory in Action |url=http://www.aisia.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Dreger__Herndon_2009.pdf |journal=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=199–224 |doi=10.1215/10642684-2008-134 |issn=1064-2684 |s2cid=145754009}}</ref>

According to [[John Colapinto]]'s biography of David Reimer, when Reimer and his twin Brian were six years old, Money showed the brothers pornography and instructed the two to rehearse sexual acts. Money instructed David position himself on all fours, and Brian was told to "come up behind [him] and place his crotch against [his] buttocks". Money also forced Reimer, in another sexual position, to have his "legs spread" with Brian on top. Reimer alleged that on "at least one occasion" Money took a photograph of the two children performing these acts.<ref name="Colapinto86">{{Cite book |last=Colapinto |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780732274337/mode/1up |title=As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl |publisher=Harper Perennial |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-092959-6 |location=New York |publication-date=2006 |author-link=John Colapinto |url-access=registration}}</ref> Colapinto speculated that Money's rationale for his treatment of the children was his belief that "childhood 'sexual rehearsal play{{'}} at thrusting movements and copulation" was important for a "healthy adult gender identity".<ref name=":1" /> Money was reportedly angered when they resisted. The Reimers recalled that Money was mild-mannered around their parents, but ill-tempered when alone with them. They also alleged that Money made the two children undergo "genital inspections"; when they resisted inspecting each other's genitals, Money got very aggressive. Reimer says, "He told me to take my clothes off, and I just did not do it. I just stood there. And he screamed, 'Now!' Louder than that. I thought he was going to give me a whupping. So I took my clothes off and stood there shaking."<ref name="Colapinto86" /> 

At 14 years old and in extreme psychological agony, David Reimer was told the truth by his parents. He chose to begin calling himself David, and he underwent surgical procedures to revert the female bodily modifications.<ref name="Colapinto86" />

Money reported on Reimer's progress as the "John/Joan case", describing apparently successful female gender development and using this case to support the feasibility of [[Sex reassignment therapy|sex reassignment]] and [[Sex reassignment surgery|surgical reconstruction]] even in non-[[intersex]] cases.<ref name="Puluka">{{Cite journal |last=Puluka |first=Anne |date=2015 |title=Parent versus State: Protecting Intersex Children from Cosmetic Genital Surgery |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/mslr2015&id=2127&div=&collection= |journal=Michigan State Law Review |volume=2015 |pages=2095}}</ref>

By the time this deception was discovered, the idea of a purely socially constructed gender identity and infant [[Intersex medical interventions]] had become the accepted medical and sociological standard.<ref name="Puluka" />

David Reimer's case came to international attention in 1997 when he told his story to [[Milton Diamond]], an academic [[sexology|sexologist]], who persuaded Reimer to allow him to report the outcome in order to dissuade physicians from treating other infants similarly.<ref name="PCSS">{{Cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Milton |last2=Sigmundson, HK |date=March 1997 |title=Sex reassignment at birth. Long-term review and clinical implications. |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/PCSS/biblio/articles/1961to1999/1997-sex-reassignment.html |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |volume=151 |issue=3 |pages=298–304 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015 |pmid=9080940 |access-date=15 May 2013|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Soon after, Reimer went public with his story, and [[John Colapinto]] published a widely disseminated and influential account in ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine in December 1997.<ref name="JohnJoan-pfc">{{Cite magazine |last=Colapinto |first=John |date=11 December 1997 |title=The True Story of John/Joan |url=http://www.pfc.org.uk/news/1998/johnjoan.htm |magazine=Rolling Stone |pages=54–97 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000815095602/http://www.pfc.org.uk/news/1998/johnjoan.htm |archive-date=15 August 2000 |access-date=27 September 2014}}</ref> This was later expanded into [[The New York Times Best Seller list|''The New York Times'' bestselling]] biography ''[[As Nature Made Him]]: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl'' (2000),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=Michaela |title=Discursive Intersexions: Daring Bodies between Myth, Medicine, and Memoir |publisher=Transcript Verlag |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-8394-3705-6 |series=Practices of Subjectivation |volume=9 |location=Bielefeld, Germany |page=143}}</ref> in which Colapinto described how—contrary to Money's reports—when living as Brenda, Reimer did not [[Gender identity|identify]] as a girl. He was ostracized and bullied by peers (who dubbed him "cavewoman"),<ref name="BBCHealthCheck">{{Cite news |date=23 November 2010 |title=Health Check: The Boy Who Was Raised a Girl |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11814300 |access-date=19 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Karkazis |first=Katrina |title=Fixing Sex: Intersex, Medical Authority, and Lived Experience |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8223-8921-7 |location=Durham, North Carolina |page=74 |author-link=Katrina Karkazis}}</ref> and neither frilly dresses{{sfn|Colapinto|2001|p=115}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Warnke |first=Georgia |title=After Identity: Rethinking Race, Sex, and Gender |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-511-39180-4 |location=Cambridge, England |page=21 |author-link=Georgia Warnke}}</ref> nor female hormones made him feel female.<ref name=":1" />

In July 2002, Brian was found dead from an overdose of antidepressants. In May 2004, David committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a sawed-off shotgun at the age of 38. According to his mother, "he had recently become depressed after losing his job and separating from his wife."<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 May 2004 |title=David Reimer, 38, Subject of the John/Joan Case |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/12/us/david-reimer-38-subject-of-the-john-joan-case.html}}</ref>

Money argued that media response to Diamond's exposé was due to right-wing [[media bias]] and "the antifeminist movement." He said his detractors believed "masculinity and femininity are built into the genes, so women should get back to the mattress and the kitchen".<ref name="reason">{{Cite web |last=Walker |first=Jesse |date=2004-05-24 |title=The Death of David Reimer |url=https://reason.com/2004/05/24/the-death-of-david-reimer/ |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Reason.com |language=en-US}}</ref> However, intersex activists also criticized Money, stating that the unreported failure had led to the surgical reassignment of thousands of infants as a matter of policy.<ref>[http://www.isna.org/faq/reimer Who was David Reimer (also, sadly, known as "John/Joan")?] via [[Intersex Society of North America]]. Retrieved 10 July 2006.</ref> Privately, Money was mortified by the case, colleagues said, and as a rule did not discuss it.<ref name="carey2" />

Money's colleague, Richard Green, defended Money's handling of the Reimer case, as a decision made under accepted medical knowledge of the time.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=187}}

=== Transgender people and the Johns Hopkins gender clinic ===
Money had a particular interest in gender dysphoria and transgender people.<ref name=":72">{{Cite book |last=Goldie |first=Terry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbjjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=The Man Who Invented Gender: Engaging the Ideas of John Money |date=2014 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2794-2 |language=en}}</ref> He maintained that transgender people had an [[Idée fixe (psychology)|''Idée fixe'']] which was unlikely to resolve on its own,<ref name=":72" />{{Rp|page=107}} and that psychotherapists had failed to alleviate gender dysphoria with therapy.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ward |first=Olivia |date=30 September 1979 |title=Sex-change operations: do they help transsexuals? |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/947156279/ |work=The Toronto Star |pages=21}}</ref>

In 1965, Money co-established the [[History of transgender care at Johns Hopkins Hospital|Gender Identity Clinic at Johns Hopkins]] with the endocrinologist [[Claude Migeon]]. Money screened adult patients for two years prior to granting them a medical transition, and reported that none regret the procedure.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=96}} The hospital began performing sexual reassignment surgery in 1966, and was the first clinic in the United States to do so.<ref name="The Journal of Sex Research3">{{Cite journal |last=Bullough |first=Vern |year=2003 |title=The Contributions of John Money: A Personal View |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490309552186 |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |publisher=Taylor and Francis, Ltd. |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=230–236 |doi=10.1080/00224490309552186 |jstor=3813317 |pmid=14533016 |s2cid=22122271 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Day |first=Meagan |date=2016-11-15 |title=How one of America's best medical schools started a secret transgender surgery clinic |url=https://timeline.com/americas-first-transgender-clinic-b56928e20f5f |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518120858/https://timeline.com/americas-first-transgender-clinic-b56928e20f5f |archive-date=18 May 2022 |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=Timeline |language=en}}</ref>

According to Goldie, Money is seen as a "negative figure" among transgender people.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=89}} In one paper, Money described trans women as "devious, demanding and manipulative in their relationships with people on whom they are also dependent" and “possibly also incapable of love.”<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Money |first1=John |last2=Brennan |first2=John G. |date=1970 |title=Heterosexual vs. homosexual attitudes: Male partners' perception of the feminine image of male transexuals∗ |url=https://transreads.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/2023-06-05_647e170a395a4_JohnMoney.pdf |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=201 |doi=10.1080/00224497009550666 |issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wills |first=Matthew |date=2020-10-01 |title=A History of Transphobia in the Medical Establishment |url=https://daily.jstor.org/a-history-of-transphobia-in-the-medical-establishment/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=JSTOR Daily |language=en-US}}</ref>

Money believed that de-stereotyping sex roles might prevent people from wanting to transition, arguing “a tomboy-ish girl, prenatally androgenized, grows up to be a career-minded woman, not a transsexual who claims to need sex reassignment”.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|p=181-182}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Money |first=John |date=1977-07-01 |title=Destereotyping sex roles |url=https://rdcu.be/dqtiq |format=PDF |journal=Society |language=en |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=25–28 |doi=10.1007/BF02700823 |issn=1936-4725 |s2cid=145021324 |url-access=limited}}</ref>

=== Homosexuality and sexual orientation ===
John Money was a leading proponent of the idea that human sexual orientation develops through learning and gendered socialization.<ref name="LeVay_2016">{{Cite book |last=LeVay |first=Simon |author-link=Simon LeVay |url=https://archive.org/details/gaystraightreaso0000leva_e5c2/mode/1up?view=theater |title=Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-029737-4 |pages=20–21 |ol=26246092M |url-access=registration |via=[[Open Library]] |ol-access=free}}</ref> He believed that males, if surgically reassigned and raised as girls around birth, would grow up to be attracted to males and live as heterosexual women.{{Sfn|Colapinto|2001|p=272-273}} However, in the case of David Reimer, he grew up to be attracted to women.<ref name="LeVay_2016" /> A 2016 academic review found that in seven total cases of boys surgically reassigned and raised as girls (due to botched circumcision or [[cloacal exstrophy]]), all were strongly attracted to women, not men, inconsistent with this learning theory of homosexuality.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=J. Michael |author-link1=J. Michael Bailey |last2=Vasey |first2=Paul L. |last3=Diamond |first3=Lisa M. |last4=Breedlove |first4=S. Marc |last5=Vilain |first5=Eric |last6=Epprecht |first6=Marc |date=2016 |title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=72–74 |doi=10.1177/1529100616637616 |issn=1529-1006 |pmid=27113562 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Money proposed that sexual rehearsal and play between children may be important for a healthy heterosexual development. He referred to aboriginal tribes where he apparently observed sex rehearsal between prepubescent children, and speculated that homosexuality could be prevented entirely if such a practice was embraced.{{Sfn|Goldie|2014|pp=123-124}} In a 1975 opinion piece published in ''[[The New York Times]]'', Money argued that "The forces of antisex cry in moral outrage when confronted with the evidence of sexual disabilities, and blame the new freedom. In fact they should blame the excess of inhibition and punishment regarding sex during the child hood of those whose sexuality is now disabled."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Money |first=John |date=13 September 1975 |title=Recreational — and Procreational — Sex |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/09/13/archives/recreational-and-procreational-sex.html |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

===Chronophilias===
Money coined the term [[chronophilia]] and [[nepiophilia]] (sexual attraction to toddlers and infants) in 1986. In two 1983 [[case study]] publications, Money stated that pedophilia, among other chronophilias, could be characterized as combining "devotion, affection, and limerence", "comradeship with a touch of hero-worship" and ultimately as "harmless... in most instances".''<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Janssen |first=Diederik |date=2017 |title=John Money's "Chronophilia": Untimely Sex between Philias and Phylisms |url=http://www.sexual-offender-treatment.org/162.html |journal=Sexual Offender Treatment |volume=12 |issue=1}}</ref>''

He stated{{Where|date=September 2023}} that both sexual researchers and the public do not make distinctions between affectional pedophilia and [[Sexual sadism disorder|sadistic]] pedophilia. According to Colapinto, Money told <nowiki>''</nowiki>Paidika<nowiki>''</nowiki>, a now defunct Dutch journal of pedophilia, that:

{{blockquote|"If I were to see the case of a boy aged 10 or 12 who's intensely attracted toward a man in his 20s or 30s, if the relationship is totally mutual, and the bonding is genuinely totally mutual, then I would not call it pathological in any way."<ref name="paidika">Interview: John Money. ''PAIDIKA: The Journal of {{Not a typo|Paedophilia}}'', Spring&nbsp;1991, vol.&nbsp;2, no.&nbsp;3, p.&nbsp;5.</ref><ref name="The True Story of John / Joan">{{Cite magazine |last=Colapinto, John |date=December 1997 |title=The True Story of John / Joan |url=https://www.healthyplace.com/gender/inside-intersexuality/the-true-story-of-john-joan |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |pages=54–97}}</ref>}}

Also in 1986, Money postulated the existence of multiple chronophilic forms of erotic [[Ageplay|age-roleplaying]], or age impersonation, which he named ''"''infantilism", "juvenilism", "adolescentilism", "gerontilism"''.<ref name=":03" />''

==Books on sexology==
{{further|Sexual identity|Gender identity|Gender role}}
{{mi|section=yes|
{{more citations needed section|date=March 2015}}
{{Confusing section|reason=there are terms in this section that require explanation as they are technical jargon used in Money's theoretical conceptualizing and do not have broad understanding|date=March 2016}}
{{primary sources|section|date=August 2023}}
}}
Money co-edited a 1969 book, ''[[Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment]]'', which helped bring more acceptance to [[sexual reassignment surgery]] and [[transsexual]] individuals.<ref name="carey2" />

Money introduced numerous definitions related to gender in journal articles in the 1950s, many of them as a result of his studies of [[intersex]] morphology. His definition of [[gender]] is based on his understanding of sex differences among human beings. According to Money, the fact that one sex produces [[ovum|ova]] and the other sex produces [[sperm]] is the irreducible criterion of sex difference. However, there are other ''sex-derivative differences'' that follow in the wake of this primary dichotomy. These differences involve the way urine is expelled from the human body and other questions of [[sexual dimorphism]]. According to Money's theory, ''sex-adjunctive differences'' are typified by the smaller size of females and their problems in moving around while [[Breastfeeding|nursing]] infants. This then makes it more likely that the males do the roaming and hunting.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

''Sex-arbitrary differences'' are those that are purely conventional: for example, color selection (baby blue for boys, [[Pink is for girls|pink for girls]]). Some of the latter differences apply to life activities, such as career opportunities for men versus women. Finally, Money created the now-common term ''[[gender role]]'', which he differentiated from the concept of the more traditional terminology ''sex role''. This grew out of his studies of intersex people.

In his studies of intersex people, Money alleged that there are six variables that define sex. While in the average person all six would line up unequivocally as either all "male" or "female", in an intersex person any one, or more than one, of these could be inconsistent with the others, leading to various kinds of anomalies. In his seminal 1955 paper, he defined these factors as:<ref name="MHH-1955">{{Cite journal |last1=Money |first1=John |author-link1=John Money |last2=Hampson |first2=Joan G |last3=Hampson |first3=John |date=October 1955 |title=An Examination of Some Basic Sexual Concepts: The Evidence of Human Hermaphroditism |journal=Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=301–19 |pmid=13260820}}</ref>
# assigned sex and sex of rearing
# external genital morphology
# internal reproductive structures
# hormonal and secondary sex characteristics
# gonadal sex
# chromosomal sex

and added: {{blockquote|"Patients showing various combinations and permutations of these six sexual variables may be appraised with respect to a seventh variable:
7. Gender role and orientation as male or female, established while growing up."<ref name="MHH-1955" />}}

He then defined gender role as:
{{blockquote|"all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes, but is not restricted to, sexuality in the sense of eroticism. Gender role is appraised in relation to the following: general mannerisms, deportment and demeanor; play preferences and recreational interests; spontaneous topics of talk in unprompted conversation and casual comment; content of dreams, daydreams and fantasies; replies to oblique inquiries and projective tests; evidence of erotic practices, and, finally, the person's own replies to direct inquiry."<ref name="MHH-1955" />}}

Money made the concept of ''gender'' a broader, more inclusive concept than one of masculine/feminine. For him, gender included not only one's status as a man or a woman, but was also a matter of personal recognition, social assignment, or legal determination; not only on the basis of one's genitalia, but also on the basis of somatic and behavioral criteria that go beyond genital differences. In 1972, Money presented his theories in ''Man and Woman, Boy and Girl'', a college level textbook. The book featured [[David Reimer]] as an example of gender reassignment.<ref>{{cite web | title=Man & woman, boy & girl : the differentiation and dimorphism of gender identity from conception to maturity / by John Money and Anke A. Ehrhardt. | website=Wellcome Collection | date=23 January 2021 | url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/p6c882nw | ref={{sfnref | Wellcome Collection | 2021}} | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

In his book ''Gay, Straight and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation'', Money develops a conception of "[[bodymind]]".<ref name="GayStraight-p116">Money 1988, p. 116.</ref> "Bodymind" is a way for scientists, in developing a science about sexuality, to move on from the platitudes of dichotomy between [[nature versus nurture]], innate versus the acquired, biological versus the social, and psychological versus the physiological. He suggested that all of these capitalize on the ancient, pre-Platonic, pre-biblical conception of body versus the mind, and the physical versus the spiritual. In coining the term "bodymind", in this sense, Money wishes to move beyond these very ingrained principles of our folk or vernacular psychology.

Money also developed a view of "Concepts of Determinism" which, transcultural, transhistorical, and universal, all people have in common, sexologically or otherwise.<ref name="GayStraight-p114-119">Money 1988, pp. 114–119.</ref> These include pairbondage, troopbondage, abidance, ycleptance, foredoomance, with these coping strategies: adhibition (engagement), inhibition, explication. Money suggested that the concept of "threshold"<ref name="GayStraight-p115">Money 1988, p. 115.</ref> – the release or inhibition of sexual (or other) behavior – is most useful for sex research as a substitute for any concept of motivation. Moreover, it confers the distinct advantage of having continuity and unity to what would otherwise be a highly disparate and varied field of research. It also allows for the classification of sexual behavior. For Money, the concept of threshold has great value because of the wide spectrum to which it applies. "It allows one to think developmentally or longitudinally, in terms of stages or experiences that are programmed serially, or hierarchically, or cybernetically (i.e. regulated by mutual feedback)."<ref name="GayStraight-p116" />

== Personal life ==
[[File:Forleo e moglie con John Money (1996).jpg|thumb|Money (right) with sexologist [[Romano Forleo]] and his wife in Rome, 1996]] Money was briefly married in the 1950s and never had any children.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2006-07-09 |title=Dr. John Money, pioneer in sexual identity, dies |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/dr-john-money-pioneer-sexual-identity-dies-flna1C9439208 |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref> He was reportedly [[bisexual]].<ref name=":9" />

According to his friends, Money lived an "eccentric lifestyle." He only bought secondhand clothing and rarely threw things away he deemed reusable. For over 40 years, Money lived in a house in [[Baltimore]] near the Johns Hopkins medical campus. His house had a collection of anthropological art from his travels abroad, including his studies of [[Aboriginal Australians|aboriginal communities in Australia]].<ref name="LATimes">{{cite web |last1=Brewington |first1=Kelly |title=John Money, 84; Doctor Pioneered Study of Gender Identity in 1950s |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-jul-13-me-money13-story.html |website=Los Angeles Times |access-date=24 March 2024 |date=13 July 2006}}</ref> Money was an early supporter and patron of many famous artists, including New Zealand artists [[Rita Angus]] and [[Theo Schoon]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Money Collection |url=https://www.esgallery.co.nz/john-money-collection |publisher=Eastern Southland Gallery}}</ref> and the American artist [[Lowell Blair Nesbitt|Lowell Nesbitt]], whom he provided with an [[x-ray]] for one artwork.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Green |first=Richard |date=2009 |title=The Three Kings: Harry Benjamin, John Money, Robert Stoller |url=https://rdcu.be/dmTAp |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |language=en |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=610–613 |doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9392-3 |issn=1573-2800 |pmid=18568308 |s2cid=27054069|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Money was also acquainted with [[Yoko Ono]], visiting her in London with Richard Green, and fashioning some of her sculptures.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Green |first=Richard |date=2006-12-01 |title=John Money, Ph.D. (July 8, 1921–July 7, 2006): A Personal Obituary |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=629–632 |doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9132-5 |issn=1573-2800 |pmid=17123149 |s2cid=44468647 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

In 2002, as his [[Parkinson's disease]] worsened, Money donated a substantial portion of his art collection to the [[Eastern Southland Art Gallery]] in [[Gore, New Zealand|Gore]], New Zealand.<ref name="sunobit2">{{Cite news |last=Brewington |first=Kelly |date=9 July 2006 |title=Dr. John Money 1921–2006: Hopkins pioneer in gender identity |work=[[Baltimore Sun]] |url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2006-07-09/news/0607090031_1_gender-johns-hopkins-john-money |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=13 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413172855/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2006-07-09/news/0607090031_1_gender-johns-hopkins-john-money |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2003, the New Zealand Prime Minister [[Helen Clark]] opened the John Money wing at the gallery.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=PM opens new wing at Eastern Southland Gallery |date=12 December 2003 |url=https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/pm-opens-new-wing-eastern-southland-gallery |access-date=18 September 2017 |author=Office of the Prime Minister}}</ref>

Money died on 7 July 2006, one day before his 85th birthday, in [[Towson, Maryland]], of complications from Parkinson's disease.<ref name="carey2" /> He was survived by eight nieces and nephews.<ref name=":6" />

==In media==
The ''[[Law & Order: Special Victims Unit]]'' episode "[[Identity (Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode)|Identity]]" (2005) was based on David and Brian Reimer's lives and their treatment by Money.<ref name="TV">{{cite web|title=Treatment of Circumcision on TV|url=http://www.circumstitions.com/TVSitcomsA-M.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081228111042/http://www.circumstitions.com/TVSitcomsA-M.html|archive-date=28 December 2008|access-date=1 February 2009|website=The Intactivism Pages}}</ref>

The Money and Reimer case was highlighted in the 2023 documentary ''[[Every Body]]'', in which intersex individuals describe growing up and their struggles due to their gender being mis-identified.''<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bugbee |first=Teo |date=2023-06-29 |title='Every Body' Review: Celebrating the 'I' in L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/29/movies/every-body-review.html |access-date=2023-11-24 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>''

==Selected works==
<!--When converting to {{Cite book}}, use |last=Money |first=John |authormask=3 to render the underscores.-->
*Money, John. (1952). ''Hermaphroditism: An Inquiry into the Nature of a Human Paradox''. Thesis (Ph.D.), [[Harvard University]].
*____, and Patricia Tucker. (1975). ''Sexual Signatures on Being a Man or a Woman.'' Little Brown & Co: {{ISBN|0-316-57825-8}}
*____ (1985). ''The Destroying Angel''. Prometheus. {{ISBN|0-879-75277-7}}
*____ (1986). ''Venuses Penuses''. Prometheus. {{ISBN|978-0879753276}}
*____ (1986). ''Lovemaps: Clinical Concepts of Sexual/Erotic Health and Pathology, Paraphilia, and Gender Transposition in Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity''. New York: Irvington. {{ISBN|0-8264-0852-4}}
*____ (1988) ''Gay, Straight, and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-505407-5}}
*____ (1989). ''Vandalized Lovemaps: Paraphilic Outcome of 7&nbsp;Cases in Pediatric Sexology''. Prometheus Books: {{ISBN|0-87975-513-X}}
*____ (1994). ''Sex Errors of the Body and Related Syndromes: A Guide to Counseling Children, Adolescents, and Their Families '', 2nd ed. Baltimore: P.H. Brooks Publishing Company. {{ISBN|1-55766-150-2}}
*____ (1995). ''Gendermaps: Social Constructionism, Feminism, and Sexosophical History''. New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|0-8264-0852-4}}
*____, and Anke Ehrhardt. (1996). ''Man & Woman, Boy & Girl: Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity''. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson. Originally published: 1972 {{ISBN|0-8018-1406-5}}
*____ (1999). ''The Lovemap Guidebook: A Definitive Statement''. Continuum. {{ISBN|0-8264-1203-3}}

==See also==
*''[[Comprachicos]]''
*''[[Intersexion]]'' – the impact of Money's theories on the treatment of intersex people is featured in this documentary
* [[Robert Stoller]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Ehrhardt, Anke A. 'John Money, PhD' ''[[Journal of Sex Research]]'' '''44.3''' (2007): 223–224.
*{{Cite book |last1=Downing |first1=Lisa |title=Fuckology: Critical Essays on John Money's Diagnostic Concepts |last2=Morland |first2=Iain |last3=Sullivan |first3=Nikki |date=26 November 2014 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=[[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]] |author-link1=Lisa Downing |author-link2=Iain Morland}}
*Terry Goldie (2014). ''The Man Who Invented Gender: Engaging the Ideas of John Money.''

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{IMDb name|1645119}}
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/library/money.html John Money Collection] via the [[Kinsey Institute]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060819025926/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/011/136eioki.asp Review of John Colapinto's book on John Money and David Reimer] from "[[The Weekly Standard]]"
* Joanne Silberner, [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5549668 The Legacy of Sex Researcher John Money], [[NPR]]
*[https://kinseyinstitute.org/collections/archival/john-money.php John Money Kinsey Institute]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Money, John}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:2006 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century New Zealand medical doctors]]
[[Category:American sexologists]]
[[Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease in Maryland]]
[[Category:Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni]]
[[Category:Intersex healthcare]]
[[Category:Johns Hopkins University faculty]]
[[Category:New Zealand art collectors]]
[[Category:New Zealand people of Welsh descent]]
[[Category:New Zealand people of English descent]]
[[Category:New Zealand psychiatrists]]
[[Category:New Zealand scientists]]
[[Category:People from Morrinsville]]
[[Category:People involved in scientific misconduct incidents]]
[[Category:Transgender studies academics]]
[[Category:University of Pittsburgh alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Otago]]
[[Category:Victoria University of Wellington alumni]]
[[Category:People educated at Hutt Valley High School]]
[[Category:James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award recipients]]