View source for Judge

{{short description|Official who presides over court proceedings}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox Occupation
| name= Judge
| image= ICJ-CJI_hearing_1.jpg
| caption= Judges at the [[International Court of Justice]]
| official_names= Judge, [[Justice (title)|justice]], [[magistrate]]
<!------------Details------------------->
| type= [[Profession]]
| activity_sector= [[Law]], [[Justice]]
| formation= University degree in law and experience as a lawyer
| employment_field= [[Court]]s
| related_occupation= [[Barrister]], [[prosecutor]]
| average_salary=
}}
A '''judge''' is a [[person]] who [[wiktionary:preside|presides]] over [[court]] proceedings, either alone or as a part of a [[judicial panel]]. In an [[adversarial system]], the judge hears all the [[witness]]es and any other [[Evidence (law)|evidence]] presented by the [[barrister]]s or [[solicitor]]s of the case, assesses the credibility and [[argument]]s of the parties, and then issues a [[Court order|ruling]] in the [[Case law|case]] based on their [[Judicial interpretation|interpretation]] of the law and their own personal judgment. A judge is expected to conduct the trial [[impartial]]ly and, typically, in an [[in open court|open court]].

The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different [[jurisdiction]]s. In some jurisdictions, the judge's powers may be shared with a [[jury]]. In [[inquisitorial system]]s of [[criminal investigation]], a judge might also be an [[examining magistrate]]. The presiding judge ensures that all court proceedings are lawful and orderly.

==Powers and functions==
The ultimate task of a judge is to settle a legal dispute in a final and publicly lawful manner in agreement with substantial partialities. Judges exercise significant governmental power. They can order police, military, or judicial officials to carry out searches, arrests, imprisonments, garnishments, detentions, seizures, deportations, and similar actions. However, judges also supervise trial procedures to ensure consistency and impartiality and to prevent arbitrariness. A judge’s powers are checked by higher courts, such as courts of appeal and supreme courts.

The court usually has three main legally trained court officials: the judge, the prosecutor and the defence attorney. The role of a judge can vary between legal systems. In an [[adversarial system]] (common law), as in effect in the U.S. and England, the judge functions as an impartial referee, mainly ensuring correct procedure, while the prosecution and the defense present their case to a [[jury]], often selected from common citizens. The main factfinder is the jury, and the judge will then finalize sentencing. Nevertheless, in smaller cases judges can issue [[summary judgment]]s without proceeding to a jury trial. In an [[inquisitorial system]] (civil law), as in effect in continental Europe, there is no jury and the main factfinder is the judge, who will do the presiding, judging and sentencing on their own. As such, the judge is expected to apply the law directly, as in the French expression ''Le juge est la bouche de la loi'' ("The judge is the mouth of the law"). Furthermore, in some systems even investigations may be conducted by the judge, functioning as an examining magistrate.

Judges may work alone in smaller cases, but in criminal, family and other significant cases, they work in a panel. In some civil law systems, this panel may include [[lay judge]]s. Unlike professional judges, lay judges are not legally trained, but unlike jurors, lay judges are usually volunteers and may be politically appointed. Judges are often assisted by [[law clerk]]s, [[Referendary|referendaries]] and notaries in legal cases and by [[bailiff]]s or similar with security.

===Requirements and appointment===
There are both volunteer and professional judges. A volunteer judge, such as an English [[Magistrate (England and Wales)|magistrate]], is not required to have legal training and is unpaid.<ref>{{cite web |title=Become a magistrate |url=https://www.gov.uk/become-magistrate/can-you-be-a-magistrate |website=GOV.UK |access-date=30 September 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Whereas, a professional judge is required to be [[Legal education|legally educated]]; in the U.S., this generally requires a degree of [[Juris Doctor]]. Furthermore, significant professional experience is often required; for example, in the U.S., judges are often appointed from experienced [[Attorney at law|attorney]]s. Judges are often appointed by the [[head of state]]. However in some jurisdictions, judges are elected in a political election.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kritzer |first=Herbert |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009425476 |title=Litigating Judicial Selection |date=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781009425476 |isbn=978-1-009-42547-6 }}</ref>

Impartiality is often considered important for [[rule of law]]. Thus, in many jurisdictions judges may be appointed for life, so that they cannot be removed by the executive. However, in non-democratic systems, the appointment of judges may be highly politicized and they often receive instructions on how to judge, and may be removed if their conduct does not please the political leadership.

===Judge as an occupation===
Judges must be able to research and process extensive lengths of documents, witness testimonies, and other case material, understand complex cases and possess a thorough understanding of the law and legal procedure, which requires excellent skills in logical reasoning, analysis and decision-making. Excellent writing skills are also a necessity, given the finality and authority of the documents written. Judges work with people all the time; by the nature of the job, good dispute resolution and interpersonal skills are a necessity.<ref name="thebalance" /> Judges are required to have [[good moral character]], i.e. there must be no history of crime. Professional judges often enjoy a high salary, in the U.S. the median salary of judges is $101,690 per annum,<ref name="thebalance">{{cite web|url=https://www.thebalance.com/judge-job-description-career-profile-2164303|title=What Does It Take to Be a Judge? Job Description and Career Profile|website=thebalance.com|access-date=18 March 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930131934/https://www.thebalance.com/judge-job-description-career-profile-2164303|archive-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> and federal judges earn $208,000–$267,000 per annum.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-compensation|title=Judicial Compensation|work=United States Courts|access-date=2018-08-20|language=en}}</ref>

===Gender effects===
In many [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] countries in Europe the majority of judges are women: in 6 countries ([[Slovenia]], [[Serbia]], [[Latvia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Greece]] and [[Hungary]]) women make more than 70% of judges of the first instance. In contrast, in [[common law]] countries ([[UK]], [[Ireland]], [[Malta]] and the United States) the situation is reverse: over 70% of judges of the first instance are men.<ref name="Bench 2020">Clearing the Bench: Using Mandatory Retirement to Promote Gender Parity in the U.S. and the EU Judiciaries. 2020. C.C. Goodma</ref>

On the other hand, women are underrepresented in the supreme courts of the United States and [[European Union]] member-states, except for in Romania, where over 80% of the judges of the [[High Court of Cassation and Justice]] are women.<ref name="Bench 2020"/>

===Age and retirement===
In the United States, federal judges are appointed "for good behavior", which means in practice, that federal judges work until they die, voluntarily retire or are impeached.<ref>Douglas Keith, Impeachment and Removal of Judges: An Explainer, BRENNAN CTR. FOR JUST. (Mar. 23, 2018), https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/impeachment-and-removal-judges-explainer</ref> The death of [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] in the office in 2020 and suspension of [[Pauline Newman]] in 2023 reinvigorated the discussion about mandatory retirement age for federal judges, but such change would require a [[constitutional amendment]] and is unlikely to be implemented soon.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/09/supreme-court-retirement-age/616458/ | title=No Other Western Democracy Allows This | website=[[The Atlantic]] | date=25 September 2020 }}</ref>

States have more flexibility in establishing a mandatory retirement age for judges, as was confirmed by the [[SCOTUS]] in its 1991 decision [[Gregory v. Ashcroft]]. As of 2015, 33 States and the District of Columbia had mandatory retirement ages for State court judges, which ranged from 70 to 75 for most (but is as high as 90 in [[Vermont]]).<ref>William E. Raftery, Increasing or Repealing Mandatory Judicial Retirement Ages, NAT’L CTR. FOR STATE CTS., https://www.ncsc.org/sitecore/content/microsites/{{Dead link|date=January 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
trends/home/monthly-trends-articles/2016/increasing-or-repealing-mandatory-judicialretirement-ages.aspx (last visited Feb. 27, 2020).</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.governing.com/assessments/when-it-comes-to-judges-how-old-is-too-old.html | title=When It Comes to Judges, How Old is Too Old? | date=22 January 2021 }}</ref>

A 2020 study by the [[National Bureau of Economic Research]] found significant positive effects on the performance of state Supreme Courts with mandatory retirement age for judges. The authors advocated the adoption of mandatory retirement ages for all federal and state judges, although they felt, that the individual authorities should decide on the specific age for themselves.<ref>Mandatory Retirement for Judges Improved Performance on U.S. State Supreme Courts. 2020. E. Ash, W.B. Macleod. doi: 10.3386/w28025.</ref>

==Symbols of office==
[[Image:Don Diego del Corral y Arellano, por Diego Velázquez.jpg|upright|thumb|17th century [[Spain|Spanish]] judge in full gowns, by Velázquez]]
{{Main|Court dress}}
A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation. [[Gavel]]s (a ceremonial hammer) are used by judges in many countries, to the point that the gavel has become a symbol of a judge. In many parts of the world, judges wear long [[robe]]s (often in black or red) and sit on an elevated platform during trials (known as the bench).

American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial [[gavel]]s, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs and ''[[contempt of court]]'' power as their main devices to maintain decorum in the courtroom. However, in some of the [[Western United States]], like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of [[state supreme court]]s, such as the [[Maryland Supreme Court]] wear distinct dress. In Italy and [[Portugal]], both judges and lawyers wear particular black robes.

In some countries, especially in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], judges wear [[Wig (hair)|wigs]]. The long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries.  A short wig resembling but not identical to a [[barrister]]'s wig (a Bench Wig) would be worn in court.  This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/B/BRITAIN_JUDGES_WIGS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT |title=Hosted.ap.org |access-date=2007-07-12 |archive-date=2021-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428215507/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/B/BRITAIN_JUDGES_WIGS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In [[Oman]], the judge wears a long stripe (red, green white), while the attorneys wear the black gown.

In Portugal and in the former [[Portuguese Empire]], the judges used to carry a staff that was red for ordinary judges and white for the [[Juiz de fora (office)|judges from the outside]].

==Titles and forms of address==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2021}}

===Asia===

==== Hong Kong ====
In [[Hong Kong]], court proceedings are conducted in either English or [[Hong Kong Cantonese]] (a dialect of [[Yue Chinese]]). Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials.

In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as ''Your worship'', and district court judges as ''Your Honour''.

In the superior courts of record, namely the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal]] and the [[High Court of Hong Kong]] (which consists of the [[Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)|Court of Appeal]] and the [[Court of First Instance (Hong Kong)|Court of First Instance]]), judges are addressed as ''My Lord'' or ''My Lady'' and referred to as ''Your Lordship'' or ''Your Ladyship'', following the English tradition.

In writing, the post-nominal letters ''PJ'' is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and ''NPJ'' to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation ''JA'' is used to denote a justice of appeal, and the letter ''J'' refers to a judge of the Court of First Instance.

[[Master (judiciary)|Masters]] of the High Court are addressed as ''Master''.

When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as ''Fat Goon Dai Yan'' ({{Langx|yue|法官大人|lit=Judge, your lordship|translit= faat3 gun1 daai6 jan4 |label=[[Hong Kong Cantonese]]}}) before the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as ''Fat Goon Gok Ha'' ({{Langx|yue|法官閣下|links=no|lit=Judge, your honour|translit=faat3 gun1 gok3 haa6|label= Hong Kong Cantonese}}) since 1997. ''Fat Goon'' ({{Langx|yue|法官|links=no|lit=Judge|translit=faat gun1|label=Hong Kong Cantonese}}) means the word "judge".

==== India ====
[[File:The Native Judges.jpg|thumb|These drawings were taken from life in 1758. From left to right, top row: 1. Interpreter, Rhowangee Sewagee. 2. Judge of the Hindoo Law, Antoba Crustnagee Pundit. 3. Hindoo Officer, Lellather Chatta Bhutt. From left to right, bottom row: 4. Officer to the Mooremen, Mahmoud Ackram of the Codjee order or priesthood of the cast of Moormens. 5. Judge of the Mohomedan Law, Cajee Husson. 6. Haveldar, or summoning Officer, Mahmound Ismael'.]]
In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as ''Your Lordship'' or ''My Lord'' and ''Your Ladyship'' or ''My Lady'', a tradition directly attributable to England. The [[Bar Council of India]] had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49(1)(j) in the [[Legal practice laws in India|Advocates Act]]. As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as ''Your Honour'' and refer to it as ''Honourable Court''. If it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as ''sir'' or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the words such as ''My Lord'' and ''Your Lordship'' were "relics of the colonial past". The resolution has since been circulated to all state councils and the Supreme Court for adoption but over five years now, the resolution largely remained on paper.

However, in an unprecedented move in October 2009, one of the judges of [[Madras High Court|Madras HC]], Justice K Chandru had banned lawyers from addressing his court as ''My Lord'' and ''Your Lordship''.

====Israel====
{{main|Hebrew Bible judges}}
In Israel, the judges ({{Langx|he|שופט{{popdf}}|lit=judge|translit=shofét}}) of all courts are addressed as ''Sir'', ''Madam'' ({{Langx|he|אדוני{{popdf}}/גבירתי{{popdf}}|link=no|translit=adoni/geverti}}) or ''Your Honor'' ({{Langx|he|כבודו{{popdf}}/כבודה{{popdf}}|link=no|translit=kevodo/kevoda}}). Typically after every naming you will hear ''haShofét'', meaning "the judge" after the respective address. For example, ''Your Honor the Judge'' would be {{Langx|he|כבוד השופט{{popdf}}|label=none}} (''kevod haShofét'').

==== [[Kazakh Khanate]] ====
[[Biy]] - elected judges using [[adat]] [[Zheti Zhargy]]. The {{ill|Council of biys|kk|Билер кеңесі|ru|Совет биев}} was the highest council, a kind of [[senate]].

==== Malaysia ====
In Malaysia, judges of the subordinate courts are addressed as ''Tuan'' or ''Puan'' ("Sir", "Madam"), or ''Your Honour''. Judges of the superior courts are addressed as ''Yang Arif'' ({{lit.|Learned One}}) or ''My Lord'', ''My Lady'', etc.; and ''Your Lordship'' or ''My Ladyship'' if the proceedings, as they generally are in the superior courts, are in English.

==== Pakistan ====
In Pakistan, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are addressed as ''Your Lordship'' or ''My Lord'' or ''Lordship'' and ''Your Ladyship'' or ''My Lady'', a tradition directly attributable to England. There is some resistance to this on religious grounds but more or less continues till this day. In lower courts, judges are addressed as ''sir'', ''madam'' or the [[Urdu]] equivalent ''Janab'' or ''Judge Sahab''.

==== Sri Lanka ====
In [[Sri Lanka]], judges of most courts are addressed as ''Your Honour''; however, the [[Chief Justice of Sri Lanka|Chief Justice]] is addressed as ''Your Lordship''. Judges of the [[Supreme Court of Sri Lanka|Supreme Court]] and the Appeal Court receives the title ''The Honourable''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

====Vietnam====
Judges in [[Vietnam]] are addressed as ''{{lang|vi|Quý tòa}}'' (literally the "Honorable Court").

=== Europe===
[[File:President Robert Spano.jpg|thumb|[[Róbert Ragnar Spanó]], president of the [[European Court of Human Rights]]]]

====Bulgaria====
In [[Bulgaria]] before 1989, during the communist regime, judges were addressed as ''drugarju'' ({{Langx|bg|другарю|lit=comrade}}).<ref>'''Корнажер, П.''' – "Съдебна реторика. Избрани съдебни речи", ИК Софи-Р, С., 2000, с. 77</ref> After 1989, ''gospodín sŭdiya'' ({{Langx|bg|господин съдия|links=no|lit=mister judge}}) or ''gospožo sŭdiya'' ({{Langx|bg|госпожо съдия|links=no|lit=madam judge}}) are used.

====Finland====
There is no special form of address; ordinary politeness is sufficient and the procedure lacks arcane rituals. Accordingly, the chairman of the panel is addressed as ''herra/rouva puheenjohtaja'' ("Mr./Ms. Chairman"). Finnish judges use gavels, but there are no robes or cloaks used in any Finnish courts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tieteentermipankki.fi/wiki/Oikeustiede:oikeudenk%C3%A4yntirituaalit/laajempi_kuvaus|title=Oikeustiede:oikeudenkäyntirituaalit/laajempi kuvaus – Tieteen termipankki|website=tieteentermipankki.fi|access-date=18 March 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929091935/http://tieteentermipankki.fi/wiki/Oikeustiede:oikeudenk%C3%A4yntirituaalit/laajempi_kuvaus|archive-date=29 September 2017}}</ref>

In a district court (''käräjäoikeus''), ordinary judges work with the title ''käräjätuomari'' and the chairman is ''laamanni'' ([[lawspeaker]]). They are assisted by notaries (''notaari''), assessors (''asessori'') and referendaries (''viskaali'') who may sometimes even chair sessions. In appeals courts (''hovioikeus'') an ordinary judge has the title ''hovioikeudenneuvos'', the chairman of a section is ''hovioikeudenlaamanni'' and the court is led by a ''presidentti''. In the Supreme Court, judges are titled ''oikeusneuvos'' and the court is led by a ''presidentti''.

====France====
In France, the presiding judge of a court is addressed as ''Monsieur le président'' or ''Madame le président'', whilst associated judges are addressed as ''Monsieur l'Assesseur'' or ''Madame l'Assesseur''. Out of the courtroom, judges are referred to as ''Monsieur le juge'' or ''Madame le juge''.

====Germany====
In Germany, judges are addressed as ''Herr Vorsitzender'' or ''Frau Vorsitzende'', which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman", or as ''Hohes Gericht'', which translates as "High Court".

====Hungary====
The male presiding judge of a court is addressed as ''tisztelt bíró úr'', which means "Honourable Mister Judge" and a female presiding judge is addressed as ''tisztelt bírónő'', which means "Honourable Madam Judge". The court as a body can be addressed as ''tisztelt bíróság'', which means "Honourable Court".

====Ireland====
Judges of the [[Supreme Court (Ireland)|Supreme Court]], [[Court of Appeal (Ireland)|Court of Appeal]], or [[High Court (Ireland)|High Court]] are officially titled ''The Honourable Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname'' ({{Langx|ga|An Breitheamh Onórach Uasal [surname]}}), and informally referred to for short as ''Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname''. In court, they are addressed either by their respective titles or styles, as ''The Court'' (''An Chúirt''), or simply ''Judge'' (''A Bhreithimh'').<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ireland |first1=Courts Service of |title=Rules and Fees: Mode of address : Court Rules : Courts Service of Ireland |url=http://www.courts.ie/rules.nsf/0c609d7abff72c1c80256d2b0045bb64/6d95cf3153a8b3c580256d2b0046a06d?OpenDocument |website=www.courts.ie}}</ref> In [[law reports]], the [[Chief Justice of Ireland]] has the postnominal ''CJ'', the Presidents of the other Courts have the postnominal ''P'', and all other judges ''J'', e.g. ''Smith J''.

Judges of the [[Circuit Court (Ireland)|Circuit Court]] are titled ''His/Her Honour Judge Surname'' and are addressed in Court as ''Judge''. Before 2006, they were addressed as ''My Lord'' (''A thiarna'') .

Judges of the [[District Court (Ireland)|District Court]] are titled ''Judge Surname'' and addressed in Court as ''Judge''. Before 1991 these judges were known as District Justices and addressed as ''Your Worship'' (''d'Onóra'').

====Italy====
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Falconebn.jpg|thumb|[[Giovanni Falcone]], one of the most influential European judges of the 20th century.]] -->
In Italy, the presiding judge of a court is addressed as ''Signor/Signora presidente della corte'' (Sir/Madame president of the court) or ''Vostro Onore'' (Your Honour).

====Netherlands====
In the [[Netherlands]], presiding judges of either sex are, in writing only, addressed ''edelachtbare'' ("Your Honour") for judges in the Court of First Instance, ''edelgrootachtbare'' ("Your Great Honour") for justices in the Court of Appeal and ''edelhoogachtbare'' ("Your High Honour") for justices in the High Council of the Netherlands (Supreme Court).

====Poland====
In Poland, presiding judges of either sex during trial are addressed ''Wysoki Sądzie'' ("High Court").

====Portugal====
In [[Portugal]], presiding judges during trial are addressed as ''Meretíssimo Juiz'' when a man or ''Meretíssima Juíza'' when a woman (meaning "Most Worthy Judge") or as ''Vossa Excelência'' ("Your Excellency") when not specifying gender.

====Romania====
In [[Romania]], judges during trial are addressed as ''Onorata Instanta'' (Your Honor).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.magnagratia.org/art20.html|title=Ce ai voie sa faci si ce nu la tribunal|website=MAGNA GRATIA - Literatură creștină de calitate. Totul gratuit.|date=July 2019 }}</ref>

====Russia====
In Russia, ''Vasha Chest'' ({{Langx|ru|Ваша Честь|lit=Your Honour}}) is used for criminal cases only with the one judge presiding.<ref name="Criminal Procedure Code of Russia. 257">{{cite web |url=http://www.consultant.ru/popular/upkrf/11_45.html#p4018 |title=Criminal Procedure Code of Russia, Article 257. Regulations of the court session |publisher=Consultant.ru |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123112318/http://www.consultant.ru/popular/upkrf/11_45.html#p4018 |archive-date=2013-01-23 }}</ref> For civil, commercial and criminal cases presided over by a panel of judges the right address is ''Honorable Court''.<ref name="Criminal Procedure Code of Russia. 257" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.consultant.ru/popular/gpkrf/8_17.html#p1335 |title=Civil Procedure Code of Russia, Article 158. Procedure of the court session |publisher=Consultant.ru |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708174029/http://www.consultant.ru/popular/gpkrf/8_17.html#p1335 |archive-date=2013-07-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.consultant.ru/popular/apkrf/9_22.html#p1801 |title=Arbitral Procedure Code of Russia, Article 154. Procedure of the court session |publisher=Consultant.ru |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512065707/http://www.consultant.ru/popular/apkrf/9_22.html#p1801 |archive-date=2013-05-12 }}</ref>

====Spain====
In Spain, magistrates of the Supreme Court, magistrates and judges are addressed to as "Your Lordship" (''Su Señoría''); however, in formal occasions, magistrates of the Supreme Court are addressed to as "Your Most Excellent Lordship" (''Vuestra Señoría Excelentísima'' or ''Excelentísimo Señor''/''Excelentísima Señora''); in those solemn occasions, magistrates of lower Courts are addressed as "Your Most Illustrious Lordship" (''Vuestra Señoría Ilustrísima'' or ''Ilustrísimo Señor''/''Ilustrísima Señora''); simple judges are always called "Your Lordship".

====Sweden====
In Sweden, the presiding judge of a court is traditionally addressed as ''Herr Ordförande'' or ''Fru Ordförande'', which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman".

====United Kingdom====
{{See also|Forms of address in the United Kingdom#Judiciary}}

=====England and Wales=====
In the [[Courts of England and Wales]], [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] judges are called Justices of the Supreme Court.  Justices of the Supreme Court who do not hold life peerages are now given the courtesy style "Lord" or "Lady".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.supremecourt.uk/docs/pr_1013.pdf |title=Courtesy titles for Justices of the Supreme Court |access-date=2010-12-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207071932/http://supremecourt.uk/docs/pr_1013.pdf |archive-date=2014-02-07 }}</ref>  Justices of the Supreme Court are addressed as "My Lord/Lady" in court.  In the law reports, the Justices of the Supreme Court are usually referred to as "Lord/Lady N", although the Weekly Law Reports appends the post-nominal letters "JSC" (e.g. "Lady Smith JSC"). The President and Deputy President of the Court are afforded the post-nominal letters PSC and DPSC respectively. Only experienced [[barrister]]s or [[solicitor]]s are usually appointed as judges.

Judges of the [[High Court]] and [[Court of Appeal]] are [[Forms of address in the United Kingdom|addressed]] (when sitting in those courts) as "My Lord" or "My Lady" and referred to as "Your Lordship" or "Your Ladyship".

Judges of the Court of Appeal, also called [[Lords Justice of Appeal]], are referred to as "Lord Justice N" or "Lady Justice N".  In legal writing, Lords Justices of Appeal are afforded the post nominal letters "LJ": for example, Smith LJ.

When a [[High Court judge (England and Wales)|Justice of the High Court]] who is not present is being referred to they are [[Mr Justice|described]] as "Mr./Mrs./Ms. Justice ''N.''"  In legal writing, the post-nominal letter "J" is used to denote a Justice (male or female) of the High Court; for example, a Justice Smith is referred to as Smith J.<ref name="Garner_Page_489">{{cite book |last1=Garner |first1=Bryan A. |authorlink1=Bryan A. Garner |title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195384208 |page=489 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1m1bI5vCooC&pg=PA489 |access-date=October 22, 2023}}</ref> Unlike American English, no comma is used to offset the letter J from the Justice's name.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> The full stop after the preceding examples terminates the sentence, not the abbreviation, and the abbreviation can be used mid-sentence in prose in formal legal writing.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" />  [[Master (judiciary)|Masters]] of the [[EWHC|High Court]] are addressed as "Master". [[Insolvency and Companies Court]] judges in the High Court are addressed as "Judge".

[[Circuit judge (UK)|Circuit judges]] and [[Recorder (judge)|recorders]] are addressed as "Your Honour". Circuit judges are referred to as "His/Her Honour Judge N".  In writing, this title is occasionally abbreviated as "HHJ" or "HH Judge N", but not in legal writing. [[District judge (magistrates courts)|District judges]] and [[tribunal]] judges are addressed as "Judge".

[[Magistrate (England and Wales)|Magistrates]] are usually still addressed as "[[Your Worship]]" in much of England. Magistrates are also addressed as "Sir/Madam".

=====Scotland=====
In the [[Courts of Scotland]] judges in the [[Court of Session]], [[High Court of Justiciary]] and the [[sheriff court]]s are all addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady" and referred to as "Your Lordship" or "Your Ladyship".

[[Justice of the peace|Justices of the peace]] in [[justice of the peace court]]s are addressed and referred to as "Your Honour".

=====Northern Ireland=====
The judicial system of [[Northern Ireland]] is very similar to that of England and Wales, and superior court judges are addressed the same way as those in England and Wales. However, there are a few differences at the lower levels.

In Northern Ireland, the equivalent to a circuit judge is a [[county court]] judge, and they are addressed and titled the same way as a circuit judge is in England and Wales. The senior county court judges assigned to the county court divisions of [[Belfast]] and [[Derry]] have the titles of [[Recorder of Belfast]] and Recorder of Londonderry (or Derry) respectively, but are addressed the same as other county court judges. A district judge sitting in the County Court is addressed as "Your Honour".

A district judge (magistrates' court) is addressed as "Your Worship". A lay magistrate, in cases where they are present, is also addressed as "Your Worship", and may use the post-nominals "LM", e.g. "John Smith LM".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofLaw/Education/handbooks/Filetoupload,150353,en.pdf |title=A Guide to Judicial Careers in Northern Ireland |publisher=Northern Ireland Judicial Appointments Commission |date=April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118122017/http://www.law.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofLaw/Education/handbooks/Filetoupload%2C150353%2Cen.pdf |archive-date=2012-01-18 }}</ref>

===North America===

====Canada====
In general, Canadian judges may be addressed directly, depending on the province, as "My Lord", "My Lady", "Your Honour" or "Justice" and are formally referred to in the third person as "The Honourable Mr. (or Madam) Justice 'Forename Surname{{'"}}.  Less formally, judges of a Superior Court are referred to as "Justice 'Surname{{'"}}, not as "Judge 'Surname.{{'"}}  When referred to in a decision of a court, judges' titles are often abbreviated to the suffix "J.", so that Justice Smith will be referred to as Smith J.  Judges in some superior courts are addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://albertacourts.ab.ca/go/CourtServices/FamilyJusticeServices/tabid/139/Default.aspx |title=Albertacourts.ab.ca |publisher=Albertacourts.ab.ca |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425233046/http://albertacourts.ab.ca/go/CourtServices/FamilyJusticeServices/tabid/139/Default.aspx |archive-date=2012-04-25 }}</ref> In [[Ontario]], judges are rarely referred to as "My Lord" or "My Lady", but only as "Your Honour" at the [[Ontario Superior Court of Justice]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://ojen.ca/sites/ojen.ca/files/sites/default/files/resources/Jurisdiction%20of%20Ontario%20Courts.pdf|title = Ontario Justice Education Network Handout: The Jurisdiction of Ontario Courts|access-date = 2016-02-23|publisher = Ontario Justice Education Network|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160328080446/http://ojen.ca/sites/ojen.ca/files/sites/default/files/resources/Jurisdiction%20of%20Ontario%20Courts.pdf|archive-date = 2016-03-28}}</ref> Formerly, translations of these titles such as ''Votre Honneur'' ("your honour") or ''Votre Seigneurie'' ("your lordship") were used in French; today, only ''Monsieur le juge'' and ''Madame la juge'' are officially used. Both the titles "judge" and "justice" are translated ''juge''.

Generally, it is only appropriate to use the term "judge" when speaking of an anonymous or general position, such as "the trial judge", or when referring to a member of an inferior or provincial court such as the Ontario Court of Justice. The exception is [[Citizenship Judge]]s who are referred to only as "Judge 'Surname{{'"}} in accordance with their appointment as independent decision makers of the [[Department of Citizenship and Immigration Canada#Citizenship Commission|Citizenship Commission]].

Like other members of the Commonwealth, a [[justice of the peace#Canada|justice of the peace]] is addressed as "Your Worship", and a [[Master (judiciary)#Canada|Master of a Superior Court]] is referred to as "Master". As of December 7, 2018, Ontario Court Masters are addressed in English as "Your Honour" and in French as "Votre Honneur" and no longer as "Master".

====United States====
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}
[[File:Supreme Court US 2010.jpg|thumb|The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] in 2010]]
In many [[U.S. state|states]] throughout the United States, a judge is addressed as "Your Honor" or "Judge" when presiding over the court. "Judge" may be more commonly used by attorneys and staff, while either may be commonly used by the plaintiff or defendant. Notably, the [[Superior Court of Los Angeles County]], the largest unified trial court in the United States, has a rule that the judge shall be addressed only as "Your Honor" while in court, and never as "Judge", "Judge (name)", "ma'am", or "sir".<ref>Rule 3.95, Los Angeles Superior Court Rules.</ref>  This is somewhat unusual as "Judge" and "Judge (name)" or similar forms of address are considered appropriate and respectful in many other courts.

The judges of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], and the judges of the [[state supreme court|supreme courts]] of several [[U.S. states]] and other countries are called "justices".  Justices of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] and Justices of other courts are addressed as "Justice (name)". The Chief Justice of the United States is formally addressed as "Mr. or Madam Chief Justice" but also may be identified and addressed as "Chief Justice (name)".

Regardless of the specific term employed (judge or justice), the formal title is reduced to the postnominal abbreviation "J." in [[case citation]]s and certain [[case law]] [[Law report|reporters]] when it is necessary to identify the author of a cited opinion.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> In [[American English]], the postnominal "J." is always divided from the judge's name by a comma and a space, so that a citation to a [[dissenting opinion]] by Associate Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] would warn that the cited opinion is not the majority opinion with the parenthetical notation "Scalia, J., dissenting".<ref name="Garner_Page_489" />  The plural form is JJ.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" />  Unlike British English, this abbreviation style is used only in case citations, and is not used mid-sentence in regular prose (as distinguished from case citations dropped into sentences as parentheticals).<ref name="Garner_Page_489" />  Thus, a prose sentence discussing the actual contents of a dissenting opinion right before a case citation to that opinion would refer to the reasoning of "Justice Scalia", not "Scalia, J."<ref name="Garner_Page_489" />

The justices of the supreme courts usually hold higher offices than any other judges in a jurisdiction, including a [[justice of the peace]], a judge who holds police court in some [[jurisdiction]]s and who may also try [[small claims court|small claims]] and [[misdemeanor]]s. However, the [[New York judiciary|State of New York]] inverts this usual order. The initial trial court in this state is called the Supreme Court of New York, and its judges are called "justices".  The next highest appellate court is the Supreme Court, Appellate Division, whose judges are also called "justices".  However, the highest court in New York is called the New York Court of Appeals, whose members are called "judges".

Judges in certain jurisdictions, such as New York and New Jersey, who deal with guardianships, trusts and estates are known as "[[Surrogate Court|surrogate]]s".

A ''[[senior status|senior judge]]'', in American practice, is a retired judge who handles selected cases for a governmental entity while in retirement, on a [[Part-time job|part-time]] basis.

Subordinate or inferior jurisdiction judges in American legal practice are sometimes called [[magistrate]]s, although in the federal judiciary of the United States, they are called [[United States magistrate judge|magistrate judges]]. Subordinate judges in American legal practice who are appointed on an ''[[ad hoc]]'' case-by-case basis, particularly in cases where a great deal of detailed and tedious evidence must be reviewed, are often called "masters" or "special masters".

Judges of courts of specialized jurisdiction (such as [[bankruptcy court]]s or [[juvenile court]]s) were sometimes known officially as "[[referee]]s", but the use of this title is in decline. Judges sitting in courts of equity in [[common law]] systems (such as judges in the equity courts of [[Delaware]]) are called "[[chancellor]]s".

Individuals with judicial responsibilities who report to an executive branch official, rather than being a part of the judiciary, are often called "[[administrative law judge]]s" (ALJs) in American practice. Historically, such officials were previously known as hearing examiners or referees before American English settled on the ALJ title. They commonly make initial determinations regarding matters such as [[workers' compensation]], eligibility for government benefits, regulatory matters, and immigration determinations.

Judges who derive their authority from a contractual agreement of the parties to a dispute, rather than a governmental body, are called [[arbitrator]]s. They typically do not receive the honorific forms of address nor do they bear the symbolic trappings of a publicly appointed judge. However, it is now common for many retired judges to serve as arbitrators, and they will often write their names as if they were still judges, with the parenthetical "(Ret.)" for "Retired".

Unlike many civil law countries which have some courts on which panels of judges with nearly equal status composed of both legally trained professional judges and lay judges who lack legal training and are not career judges, the United States legal system (like most Anglo-American legal systems) makes a clear distinction between professional judges and laypeople involved in deciding a case who are jurors who are part of a [[jury]]. Most but not all American judges have professional credentials as lawyers. Non-lawyer judges in the United States are often elected and are typically either justices of the peace or part-time judges in rural limited jurisdiction [[courts]]. A non-lawyer judge typically has the same rights and responsibilities as a lawyer who is a judge holding the same office and is addressed in the same manner.

===Oceania===

====Australia====
[[File:Susan Kiefel 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Susan Kiefel]], former Chief Justice of Australia]]
In [[Australia]] judges and, since 2007, magistrates, of all jurisdictions including the [[High Court of Australia]] are now addressed as "Your Honour". In legal contexts, they are referred to as "His/Her Honour" and "the Honourable Justice Surname" (for judges of superior courts) or "his/her Honour Judge Surname" (for inferior courts). Outside legal contexts, the formal terms of address are "Judge" (for puisne justices) or "Chief Justice" (for chief justices).

The title for most puisne judges is "Justice", which is abbreviated in law reports to a postnominal "J", in the form "Surname J". Chief Justices of the High Court and of state Supreme Courts are titled "Chief Justice", which is abbreviated in law reports to a postnomial "CJ". Judges in State Supreme Courts with a separate Court of Appeal division (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia) are referred to as Justices/Judges of the Appeal (abbreviated "Surname JA"), while the President of the Court of Appeal is referred to as "President" (abbreviated "Surname P").<ref>New South Wales Supreme Court, [http://www.supremecourt.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/supremecourt/judicialcontacts/addressing_judicial_officers.html Addressing Judicial Officers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818100909/http://www.supremecourt.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/supremecourt/judicialcontacts/addressing_judicial_officers.html |date=2013-08-18 }}</ref>

==== New Zealand ====
In [[New Zealand]], judges of the [[District Court of New Zealand]] generally referred to as "His/Her Honour" or "Sir/Madame".  Judges from the [[High Court of New Zealand|High Court]], [[Court of Appeal of New Zealand|Appeals Court]], and [[Supreme Court of New Zealand|Supreme Court]] are referred to as "Justice [Surname]".  In social settings, it is appropriate to use "Judge" in all cases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lawsociety.org.nz/practice-resources/new-zealand-law-society-guide-for-new-lawyers/appearing-in-courts-and-tribunals|title=New Zealand Law Society|website=www.lawsociety.org.nz|language=en|access-date=2017-03-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301092732/https://www.lawsociety.org.nz/practice-resources/new-zealand-law-society-guide-for-new-lawyers/appearing-in-courts-and-tribunals|archive-date=2017-03-01}}</ref>

===South America===

==== Brazil ====
[[File:Cms BANCOIMAGEMFOTOMINISTRO bancoImagemFotoMinistro AP 88800.jpg|thumb|Judges of the [[Supreme Federal Court]] of Brazil]]
In [[Brazil]], judges are simply called "Juiz" or "Juíza" (male and female forms of "judge") and traditionally addressed to as "Vossa Excelência" ({{literally|[[Your Excellency]]}}, translated as 'Your Honor') or "Meritíssimo" ('Honorable', but it is used as a pronoun also translated as 'Your Honor'). Judges that are part of a panel in a State Court, or Federal Court are called "desembargadores". Judges sitting in the higher courts ([[Supremo Tribunal Federal]], [[Superior Tribunal de Justiça]], [[Superior Labor Court|Tribunal Superior do Trabalho]], Superior Tribunal Militar and [[Tribunal Superior Eleitoral]]) are called "ministro" or "ministra" (male and female forms of "minister") and also referred to as "Vossa Excelência".

===International courts===
At the [[International Court of Justice]], judges may be addressed by the titles they received in their countries of origin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members of the Court {{!}} INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/members |access-date=2024-07-02 |website=www.icj-cij.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction to The International Court of Justice |url=https://www.amun.org/handbooks/2020/2020-handbook/introduction-to-the-international-court-of-justice/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=AMUN |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Judges of the International Criminal Court]] are referred to as "judge".{{Citation needed|date=February 2017}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Adjudicator]]
*[[Government by algorithm#AI judges|AI judge]]
*[[Barrister]]
*[[Biy]]
*[[Court dress]]
*[[Election judge]]
*[[Hebrew Bible judges]]
*[[Judicial activism]]
*[[Judicial deference]]
*[[Judicial immunity]]
*[[Judicial independence]]
*[[Judicial misconduct]]
*[[Judiciary]]
*[[Lawyer]]
*[[Lay judge]]
*[[Legal ethics]]
*[[List of jurists]]
*[[Magistrate]]
*[[Prosecutor]]
*[[Public defender]]
*[[Solicitor]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Judges}}
{{Wiktionary|judge}}
{{Wikiquote|Judges}}
* [http://cjp.ca.gov/ State of California Commission of Judicial Performance]
* [http://www.coe.int/cepej CEPEJ]  European commission for the efficiency of justice.
* [http://www.coe.int/ccje/ CCJE] European consultative council of judges.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111211194309/http://ybtj.cjsonline.gov.uk/ How sentencing works: You be the Judge]
* [http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/CrimeJusticeAndTheLaw/Goingtocourt/DG_196045 Directgov] Crown Court – what it does (Directgov, England and Wales)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Judges| ]]
[[Category:Legal professions]]
[[Category:Law enforcement]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]