View source for Kannada literature

{{Short description|Written forms of the Kannada language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
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{{History of literature by era}}
[[File:6th century Kannada inscription in cave temple number 3 at Badami.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Old-Kannada inscription dated 578 CE (Badami Chalukya dynasty) outside Badami cave temple no.3]]

'''Kannada literature''' is the [[Text corpus|corpus]] of written forms of the [[Kannada language]], which is spoken mainly in the Indian state of [[Karnataka]] and written in the [[Kannada script]].<ref>
Krishnamurti (2003), p. 78; Steever (1998), p. 129, 131.</ref>

Attestations in [[literature]] span one and a half millennia,<ref>
Ramanujan, A. K. (1973), ''Speaking of Śiva'' Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 11, {{ISBN|0-14-044270-7}}</ref><ref name="metrical">
R.S. Mugali (2006), ''The Heritage of Karnataka'', pp. 173–175 {{ISBN|1-4067-0232-3}}</ref><ref>[http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9044579 Kannada literature]. (2008). [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]: "The earliest records in Kannada are full length inscriptions dating from the 5th century AD onward. The earliest literary work is the Kavirajamarga (c. AD 850), a treatise on poetics based on a Sanskrit model."</ref><ref>[[David Crystal]]'s ''Dictionary of Language'', {{Harv|Crystal|2001|p=177}}, "...&nbsp;with inscriptions dating from the late 6th century AD,&nbsp;...</ref><ref>Other scholars have dated the earliest Kannada inscription to 450 A.D.{{Harv|Master|1944|pp=297–307}}, 500 A.D. {{Harv|Mugaḷi|1975|p=2}}, and "about 500" {{Harv|Pollock|2006|pp=331–332}}.  Epigraphist [[G. S. Gai]] has dated it to the "end of the fifth century A. D. or the beginning of the 6th century A.D." {{Harv|Gai|1992|pp=300–301}}; epigraphist, [[D. C. Sircar]] to "about the end of the 6th century," ({{Harvnb|Sircar|1996|p=48}})</ref>
with some specific literary works surviving in rich manuscript traditions, extending from the 9th century to the present.<ref>[[Kamil Zvelebil|Zvelebil]] (2008), p.2</ref>
The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present);<ref>
Steever, S.B. (1998), p. 129; Krishnamurti (2003), p. 23; Pollock (2007), p. 81; Sahitya Akademi, ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, vol. 2'' (1988), p. 1717</ref>
and its literary characteristics are categorised as [[Jainism|Jain]], [[Lingayatism]] and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]]—recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language, until the advent of the modern era.<ref name="ancient">
Kittel in Rice E.P. (1921), p. 14</ref><ref name="oldest">Sastri 1955, pp. 355–365</ref><ref name="oldest1">Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 17, 61</ref>
Although much of the literature prior to the 18th&nbsp;century was religious, some secular works were also committed to writing.<ref name="sec">Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 61–65</ref><ref name="styles">Rice E. P, (1921), p. 16</ref>

Starting with the ''[[Kavirajamarga]]'' ({{circa|850}}), and until the middle of the 12th&nbsp;century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the [[Jainism|Jains]], who found eager patrons in the [[Chalukya]], [[Western Ganga Dynasty|Ganga]], [[Rashtrakuta]], [[Hoysala]]<ref name="bud">
Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 1, 65; Sastri (1955), pp. 355–366</ref><ref name="bud1">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 17; Kamath (1980), pp. 49–50, 67, 88–90, 114–115, 132–134</ref> and the [[Yadavas of Devagiri|Yadava]] kings.<ref name="dal">Dalby (1998), p. 300; Masica (1993), pp. 45–46; Kamath (1980), pp. 143–144</ref>
Although the ''Kavirajamarga'', authored during the reign of [[Amoghavarsha|King Amoghavarsha]], is the oldest extant literary work in the language, it has been generally accepted by modern scholars that prose, verse and grammatical traditions must have existed earlier.<ref>
Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474–1475; Sastri (1955), p. 355; Steever (1998), p. 4</ref><ref>N.S. Lakshminarayan Bhatta in Kavirajamarga, Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, Volume 3, 1994, pp. 2033–2034; Mugali (1975), p. 13</ref><ref name="gram">Seshagiri Rao (1994), pp. 2278–2283; B.L.Rice  (1897), pp. 496–497; Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 2; E.P.Rice: (1921), p. 25</ref>

The [[Lingayatism]] movement of the 12th century created new literature which flourished alongside the Jain works.<ref name="body"/> With the waning of Jain influence during the 14th-century [[Vijayanagara empire]],  a new [[Vaishnava]] literature grew rapidly in the 15th century; the [[Bhakti movement|devotional movement]] of the itinerant [[Haridasa]] saints marked the high point of this era.<ref name="devaranama"/>

After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in the 16th century, Kannada literature was supported by the various rulers, including the [[Wodeyar]]s of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] and the [[Nayakas of Keladi]].  In the 19th century, some literary forms, such as the prose narrative, the novel, and the short story, were borrowed from English literature. Modern Kannada literature is now widely known and recognised: during the last half century, Kannada language authors have received 8 [[Jnanpith]] awards, 68 [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Kannada|Sahitya Akademi awards]] and 9 [[List of Sahitya Akademi fellows|Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]s in India.<ref name="jnanpith"/><ref name="award">Murthy (1997), p. 190</ref><ref name="sahitya"/> In 2025, [[Banu Mushtaq]] won the coveted [[International Booker Prize]] for her book ''[[Heart Lamp]]'', a collection of short stories in Kannada.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-21 |title=Heart Lamp: Banu Mushtaq makes history with International Booker Prize win |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c308qjpz9y2o |access-date=2025-05-21 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

[[File:Halmidi OldKannada inscription.JPG|right|200px|thumb|upright| The [[Halmidi inscription]], usually dated to the fifth century, is the earliest example of written Kannada.<ref>See [[Halmidi inscription#Discovery and dating|Discovery and dating of the Halmidi inscription]].</ref>]]

==Content and genre==
{{Main|List of milestones in Kannada literature | List of epics in the Kannada language|List of Yakshagana plays in the Kannada language}}

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Native Kannada prosody from 7th century CE
|-
! Literature
! Period
|-
|[[Tripadi]]
|7th century
|-
|Chattana
|pre 9th century 
|-
|Bedandegabbam
|pre 9th century 
|-
|Melvadu
|pre 9th century 
|-
|Bajanegabbam 
|pre 9th century 
|-
|Gadyakatha 
|pre 9th century
|-
|Akkara
|pre 9th century
|-
|Ragale 
|10th century
|-
|[[Vachana]]
|11th century 
|-
|Shara [[Shatpadi]]
|11th century 
|-
|Kusuma Shatpadi
|11th century 
|-
|Bhoga Shatpadi
|11th century 
|-
|Bhamini Shatpadi
|11th century
|-
|Parivardhini Shatpadi
|11th century 
|-
|Vardhaka Shatpadi
|11th century 
|-
|Bedagu 
|1160 
|-
|Hadugabba
|1160 
|-
|Sangatya 
|1232 
|-
|Suladi
|16th century
|-
|Ugabhoga
|16th century
|-
|Mundige 
|16th century 
|-
|}

In the early period and beginning of the [[medieval period]], between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly [[Jainism|Jain]]s and [[Lingayatism|Lingayat]]s. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Lingayats from that period have survived.<ref name="poetics11"/> Jain authors wrote about [[Tirthankara]]s and other aspects of religion. The Veerashaiva authors wrote about [[Shiva]], his 25 forms, and the expositions of [[Shaivism]]. Lingayat poets belonging to the [[vachana sahitya]] tradition advanced the philosophy of [[Basava]] from the 12th century.<ref name="body"/>

During the period between the 13th and 15th centuries, there was decline in Jain writings and an increase in the number of works from the Lingayat tradition; there were also contributions from Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Lingayat and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] writers dominated Kannada literature. Vaishnava writers focused on the Hindu epics – the [[Ramayana]], the [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Bhagavata]] – as well as [[Vedanta]] and other subjects from the [[Puranas|Puranic]] traditions.<ref name="sec"/><ref name="poetics11">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 17</ref><ref name="topics"/> The devotional songs of the [[Haridasa]] poets, performed to [[Haridasas and Carnatic music|music]], were first noted in the 15th century.<ref name="yathi trayaru"/> Writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period.<ref name="topics"/>

An important change during the [[Bhakti]] "devotion" period starting in the 12th century was the decline of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the ''vachana'' and ''kirthane'', forms that were more accessible to the common man.<ref name="hayday">Shiva Prakash (1997) p. 163</ref> Writings eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes waned, with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with musicality being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient ''[[champu]]'' form of writing as late as the 17th century.<ref name="sing">Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 167, 202</ref>
[[File:Kappe Arabhatta inscription at Badami.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Kannada poetry on stone–7th century [[Kappe Arabhatta]] inscription]]
The ''champu'' Sanskritic metre (poems in verses of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose, also known as ''champu-kavya'') was the most popular written form from the 9th century onwards, although it started to fall into disuse in the 12th century.<ref name="rag"/> Other Sanskritic metres used were the ''saptapadi'' (seven line verse), the ''ashtaka'' (eight line verse) and the ''shataka'' (hundred-line verse).<ref name="ashtaka100">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248</ref><ref name="sapta"/><ref name="kadur1">Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 210</ref> There were numerous translations and adaptations of Sanskrit writings into Kannada and, to a lesser extent, from Kannada into Sanskrit.<ref name="few"/> The medieval period saw the development of literary [[Meter (poetry)|metres]] indigenous to the Kannada language. These included the ''[[tripadi]]'' (three-line verse, in use from the 7th century), one of the oldest native metres; the ''shatpadi'' (six-line verse, first mentioned by [[Nagavarma I]] in ''Chhandombudhi'' of c.&nbsp;984 and in use from 1165), of which six types exist; the ''ragale'' (lyrical narrative compositions, in use from 1160); the ''sangatya'' (compositions meant to be sung with a musical instrument, in use from 1232) and the ''akkara'' which came to be adopted in some [[Telugu literature|Telugu]] writings.<ref name="rag">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 59</ref><ref name="rag1">Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p. 203</ref><ref name="akka">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 27</ref><ref name="chandom">Sahitya Akademi (1996), pp. 4002–4003</ref> There were rare interactions with Tamil literature, as well.<ref name="few">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 29</ref>

Though religious literature was prominent, literary genres including romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables, musical treatises and musical compositions were popular. The topics of Kannada literature included grammar, philosophy, prosody, [[rhetoric]], chronicles, biography, history, drama and cuisine, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias.<ref name="topics">Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 61–64</ref><ref name="topics1">Karmarkar (1947), p. 124</ref> According to critic Joseph T. Shipley, over fifty works on scientific subjects including medicine, mathematics and astrology have been written in the Kannada language.<ref name="fifty">Shipley (2007), p. 528</ref>

Kannada literature of this period was mainly written on palm leaves. However, more than 30,000 more durable inscriptions on stone (known as ''shilashasana'') and copper plates (known as ''tamrashasana'') have survived to inform modern students of the historical development of Kannada literature.<ref name="butuga">Sahitya Akademi (1988),  p. 1717</ref> The [[Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena]] (7th century),<ref>{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20INSCRIPTIONS%20HTML/SHRAVANABELAGOLA%20INSCRIPTION%20HTML.htm
 |title       = Inscriptions
 |work        = Official website of the [[Central Institute of Indian Languages]], Government of India
 |publisher   = Classicalkannada.org
 |access-date  = 2012-02-29
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130624002227/http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20INSCRIPTIONS%20HTML/SHRAVANABELAGOLA%20INSCRIPTION%20HTML.htm
 |archive-date = 2013-06-24
}}</ref> [[Kappe Arabhatta]] inscription (c.&nbsp;700), and the Hummacha and Soraba inscriptions (c.&nbsp;800) are good examples of poetry in ''tripadi'' metre,<ref name="soraba">Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4392</ref> and the Jura ([[Jabalpur]]) inscription of [[Krishna III|King Krishna III]] (964) is regarded as an [[Epigraph (literature)|epigraph]]ical landmark of classical Kannada composition, containing poetic diction in ''kanda'' metre, a form consisting of a group of stanzas or chapters.<ref name="krishna">Kamath (1980), p. 83</ref>

Elegiac poetry on hundreds of ''veeragallu'' and ''maastigallu'' ([[hero stone]]s) written by unknown poets in the ''kanda'' and the ''vritta'' (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives and the bravery of women who performed ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]''.<ref name="masti">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1150</ref> According to the scholar [[T. V. Venkatachala Sastry]], the book ''Karnataka Kavicharitre'' compiled by Kannada scholar R. Narasimhachar lists over one thousand anonymous pieces of Kannada literature that cover an array of topics under religious and secular categories. Some fifty ''Vachana'' poets are known only by the pen names (''ankita'') used in their poems. Most Jain writings included in the list are from the period 1200–1450 CE, while Lingayat and Vaishnava writings are from later periods. Secular topics include mathematics, medicine, science of horses and elephants, architecture, geography and hydrology.<ref name="anonymous">Sahtiya Akademi (1987), pp. 183–184</ref>

The pace of change towards more modern literary styles gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by the modern literature of other languages, especially English.<ref name="changes">Murthy (1997), p. 167</ref> Modern English education and liberal democratic values inspired social changes, intertwined with the desire to retain the best of traditional ways.<ref name="evident">Kamath (2001), pp. 277–278</ref> New genres including short stories, novels, literary criticism, and essays, were embraced as Kannada prose moved toward modernisation.<ref name="dramatic">Murthy (1997), pp. 189–190</ref>

==Classical period==
===Rashtrakuta court===
{{Main|Extinct Kannada literature|Rashtrakuta literature|Western Ganga literature}}
[[File:Stanza from Kavirajamarga.svg|thumb|300px|right|A stanza from [[Kavirajamarga]] (c. 850) in [[Kannada]] praising the people for their literary skills]]
The reign of the imperial [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] and their powerful [[vassal|feudatory]], the [[Western Ganga Dynasty|Gangas]], marks the beginning of the classical period of writings in the Kannada language under royal patronage, and the end of the age of [[Sanskrit epics]].<ref name="rayal">Kamath (1980), p. 89</ref>

There was an emphasis on the adoption of Sanskritic models while retaining elements of ''deshi'' literary traditions, a style that prevailed in Kannada literature throughout the classical period.<ref name="influence:Sanskrit">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1699</ref> ''Kavirajamarga'', written during this period, is a treatise on the Kannada speaking people, their poetry and their language.<ref name="glowing">Rice B.L. (1897), p. 326</ref> A portion of the writing qualifies as a practical grammar. It describes defective and corrective examples (the "do's and don't's") of versification and native composition styles recognised by earlier poets (''puratana kavis''). These composition meters are the  ''bedande'', the ''chattana'' and the ''gadyakatha''&nbsp;– compositions written in various interspersed [[Metre (poetry)|metres]]. In some contexts, the term ''puravcharyar'', which may refer to previous grammarians or rhetoricians, have also been mentioned.<ref name="metrical"/><ref name="poetics11"/><ref name="versi">Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474–1475</ref> Some historians attribute ''Kavirajamarga'' to the Rashtrakuta king [[Amoghavarsha I]], but others believe that the book may have been inspired by the king and co-authored or authored in full by Srivijaya, a Kannada language theorist and court poet.<ref name="kavi100">Rice E.P., (1921), pp. 25, 28</ref><ref name="gun100">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 18</ref><ref name="pathak">Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474, 1699</ref>

The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is ''[[Vaddaradhane]]'' ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by [[Shivakotiacharya]].<ref name="siva">Sastri (1955), p. 356</ref> It contains 19 lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as "The Sage and the Monkey". Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing ''Brihatkatha Kosha'', it is about Jain tenets and describes issues of [[Reincarnation|rebirth]], [[karma]], the plight of humans on earth, and social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstition, and the condition of women in society.<ref name="fable">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1253</ref>

The works of Jain writers [[Adikavi Pampa]], [[Sri Ponna]] and [[Ranna (Kannada poet)|Ranna]], collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century.<ref name="topics1"/><ref name="siva" /> Pampa, who wrote ''[[Adipurana]]'' in 941, is regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers.<ref name="laks">Bhat (1993), p.  105</ref> Written in ''champu'' style, ''Adipurana'' narrates the life history of the first Jain Thirtankar, [[Rishabhadeva]]. In this spiritual saga, Rishabhadeva's soul moves through a series of births before attaining [[emancipation]] in a quest for the liberation of his soul from the cycle of life and death.<ref name="arike">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1180</ref> Pampa's other classic, ''[[Vikramarjuna Vijaya]]'' (or ''Pampa Bharata'', 941), is loosely based on the Hindu epic the [[Mahabharata]].<ref name="siva"/><ref name="wife">Rice E.P. (1921), p.  31</ref><ref name="foible"/>

Sri Ponna, patronised by [[Krishna III|King Krishna III]], wrote  ''Santipurana'' (950), a biography of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha. He earned the title ''Ubhaya Kavichakravathi'' ("supreme poet in two languages") for his command of both Kannada and Sanskrit.<ref name="ubhaya">Narasimhacharya 1934, p.  18</ref><ref name="rhetoric">Kamath (1980), p. 90</ref><ref name="ghata">Rice, E.P. (1921), pp. 31–32</ref> Although Sri Ponna borrowed significantly from [[Kalidasa]]'s earlier works, his ''Santipurana'' is considered an important Jain [[purana]].<ref name="grace"/>

===Chalukya court===
{{Main|Western Chalukya literature in Kannada}}
[[File:Handwriting (10th century) of Kannada poet Ranna at Shravanabelagola.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Inscribed handwriting of 10th-century poet [[Ranna (Kannada poet)|Ranna]] reads ''Kavi Ratna'' (''gem among poets'') in [[Shravanabelagola]]]]
From the late 10th century, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], the [[Western Chalukyas]] and their feudatories: the [[Hoysalas]], the southern [[Kalachuris of Kalyani]]s, the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri]] and Silharas of [[Karad]].<ref name="progress">Kamath (1980), pp. 114, 132–134, 143–144</ref><ref name="horse"/> The skill of Kannada poets was appreciated in distant lands. [[Bhoja|King Bhoja]] of [[Malwa]] in [[central India]] presented [[Nagavarma I]], a writer of [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] and romance classics, with horses as a mark of his admiration.<ref name="horse">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 68</ref>

Ranna was the court poet of the Western Chalukya kings [[Tailapa II]] and [[Satyashraya]]. He was also patronised by [[Attimabbe]], a devout Jain woman.<ref name="siva"/> Ranna's poetic writings reached their zenith with ''Sahasa Bhima Vijaya'' ("Victory of the bold Bhima", also called ''Gada Yudda'' or "Battle of Clubs", 982),  which describes the conflict between [[Bhima]] and [[Duryodhana]] in his version of the Mahabharata epic, one of the earliest poetic elegies in the Kannada language.<ref name="grace">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620</ref><ref name="run">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 32</ref><ref name="valour">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149</ref> Unlike Pampa, who glorified [[Arjuna]] and [[Karna]] in his writing, Ranna eulogised his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compared him to Bhima, whom he crowned at the end of the Mahabharata war. His other well-known writing is the ''[[Ajitha purana]]'' (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha.<ref name="kanda">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1024</ref> Ranna was bestowed the title ''Kavi Chakravathi'' ("Emperor among poets") by his patron king.<ref name="siva"/>

Among grammarians, [[Nagavarma II|Nagavarma-II]], ''Katakacharya'' (poet laureate) of the Chalukya king [[Jagadhekamalla II]] made significant contributions with his works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary; these are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged.<ref name="kataka">Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 64–65,</ref><ref name="naga">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 34</ref> Among his other writings, the ''Kavyavalokana'' on grammar and rhetoric and the ''Karnataka Bhashabhushana'' (1145) on grammar are historically significant.<ref name="vastu">Sastri 1955, p. 358</ref> However, the discovery of ''Vardhamana Puranam'' (1042), which has been ascribed by some scholars to Nagavarma II, has created uncertainty about his actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by  [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]].<ref name="varadamana">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1475</ref>

==Hoysala period==
{{Main|Hoysala literature}}
[[File:Hero Stone with old-Kannada inscription at Arasikere.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Hero stone]] (''virgal'') with ''old Kannada'' elegiac inscription (1220) at the Ishwara temple in [[Arasikere]], Karnataka]]

In the late 12th century, the [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysalas]], a powerful [[hill tribe]] from the [[Malnad]] region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertainty in the Deccan to gain dominance in the region south of the [[Krishna River]] in southern India.<ref name="dom1">Derret and Coelho in Kamath (1980), pp. 124–126</ref> A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as [[Janna]], [[Harihara (poet)|Harihara]], [[Rudrabhatta]], [[Raghavanka]], [[Keshiraja]] and others.<ref name="ragha">Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 19–21</ref> An important achievement during this period was the establishment of native metres in literature (the ''ragale'', the ''tripadi'', the ''sangatya'' and the ''shatpadi'').<ref name="rag" />

Two renowned philosophers who lived during this time, [[Ramanujacharya]] and [[Madhvacharya]], influenced the culture of the region.<ref name="ramanuja">Kamath (1980), pp. 50–52, 54–56</ref> The conversion of the Hoysala [[Vishnuvardhana|King Vishnuvardhana]] in the early 12th century from Jainism to Vaishnavism was to later prove a setback to Jain literature. In the decades to follow, Jain writers faced competition from the Veerashaivas, to which they responded with rebuttals,<ref name="rebut">Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366</ref> and from the 15th century, from the writers of the Vaishnava cadre. These events changed the literary landscape of the Kannada-speaking region forever.<ref name="decline">Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 45–46</ref><ref name="decline1">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 66</ref>

One of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the ''Vachana'' literary tradition, poet Harihara (or Harisvara) came from a family of ''karnikas'' (accountants), and worked under the patronage of [[Narasimha I|King Narasimha I]]. He wrote ''Girijakalyana'' in ten sections following the [[Kalidasa]] tradition, employing the old Jain ''champu'' style, with the story leading to the marriage of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]].<ref name="Parvati">Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362</ref><ref name="kavichakra"/> In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. He is credited with more than 100 poems in ''ragale'' metre, called the ''Nambiyanana ragale'' (or ''Shivaganada ragale'', 1160) praising the saint Nambiyana  and  [[Shiva|Virupaksha]] (a form of Hindu god Shiva).<ref name="har">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 60</ref> For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific ''utsava kavi'' ("poet of exuberance").<ref name="harish"/>

Harihara's nephew, Raghavanka, was the first to introduce the ''shatpadi'' metre into Kannada literature in  his epic ''Harishchandra Kavya'' (1200), considered a classic despite occasionally violating strict rules of [[Kannada grammar]].<ref name="kavichakra"/><ref name="hari">Sastri (1955), p. 362</ref> Drawing on his skill as a dramatist, Raghavanka's story of [[Harishchandra|King Harishchandra]] vividly describes the clash of personalities between sage [[Vishvamitra]] and sage [[Vashistha|Vashisht]] and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that this interpretation of the story of Harishchandra is unique to Indian literature. The writing is an original and does not follow any established epic traditions.<ref name="harish">Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1181</ref> In addition to Hoysala patronage, Raghavanka was honoured by [[Kakatiya]] king Prataparudra I.<ref name="horse"/>

Rudrabhatta,  a [[Smartha]] Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well-known [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahminical]] writer, under the patronage of Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II.<ref name="kavichakra"/> Based on the earlier work of ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', he wrote ''Jagannatha Vijaya'' (1180) in  the ''champu'' style, relating the life of [[Krishna|Lord Krishna]] leading up to his fight with the demon [[Banasura]].<ref name="brahminical">Sastri (1955), p. 364</ref>

In 1209, the  [[Jain]] scholar and army commander Janna wrote ''Yashodhara Charite'', a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of the stories, a king intended to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to Mariamma, a local deity. After hearing the boys' tale, the king is moved to release them and renounce the practice of human sacrifice.<ref name="scarifice">Sastri (1955), pp. 358–359</ref><ref name="jan">Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 43–44</ref> In honour of this work, Janna received the title ''Kavichakravarthi'' ("Emperor among poets")  from [[Veera Ballala II|King Veera Ballala II]].<ref name="kavichakra">Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20</ref> His other classic, ''Anathanatha Purana'' (1230), deals with the life of the 14th Tirthankar Ananthanatha.<ref name="grace"/>

==Vijayanagara period==
{{Main|Vijayanagara literature in Kannada}}
[[File:Vijayanagara.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Krishnadevaraya|King Krishnadevaraya]], patron of Kannada literature]]
The [[14th century]] saw major upheavals in [[geo-politics]] of [[South India|southern India]] with Muslim empires invading from the north.  The [[Vijayanagara Empire]] stood as a bulwark against these invasions and created an atmosphere conducive to the development of the fine arts.<ref name="golden">Kamath (1980), p. 157</ref>
In a golden age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of [[Deva Raya II|King Deva Raya II]]. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.<ref name="ganapathi">Sastri (1955), p. 363</ref> The king himself was no less a writer, the romantic stories ''Sobagina Sone'' (''lit'' "The Drizzle of Beauty") and ''Amaruka'' are assigned to him.<ref name="sone">Sinopoli (2003) pp. 130–131</ref><ref name="amruka">{{cite web
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|title=Sobagina Sone
|work=Official website of the [[Central Institute of Indian Languages]], Government of India
|publisher=Classicalkannada.org
|access-date=2012-02-26
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

To this period belonged [[Kumara Vyasa]] (the pen name of Naranappa), a doyen of medieval epic poets and one of the most influential Vaishnava poets of the time.  He was particularly known for his sophisticated use of [[metaphor]]s and had even  earned the title ''Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti'' ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). In 1430, he wrote the ''Gadugina Bharata'', popularly known as ''Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari'' or ''Kumaravyasa Bharata'' in the [[Vyasa]] tradition.  The work is a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic ''Mahabharata'' and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Lord [[Krishna]], portraying all characters with the exception of Krishna to suffer from  human foibles.<ref name="foible">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 37</ref> An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marked a transition of Kannada literature to a more modern genre and heralded a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration.<ref name="brahminical" /> The remaining ''parvas'' (chapters) of ''Mahabharata'' were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of [[Krishnadevaraya|King Krishnadevaraya]]. The poet named his work ''Krishnaraya Bharata'' after his patron king.<ref name="brahminical"/>

Kumara Valmiki (1500) wrote the first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic [[Ramayana]], called ''Torave Ramayana''. According to the author, the epic he wrote merely narrated God Shiva's conversation with his consort Parvati. This writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the ''[[Yakshagana]]'', which has made use of its verses as a script for enacting episodes from the great epic.<ref name="torave"/> In Valmiki's version of the epic, [[Ravana|King Ravana]] is depicted as one of the suitors at [[Sita]]'s ''[[Swayamvara]]'' (''lit.'' a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). His failure to win the bride's hand results in jealousy towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses, [[Hanuman]], for all his services to Rama, is exalted to the status of "the next creator".  Towards the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realises that his adversary is none other than the God Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation.<ref name="torave">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 38–39</ref>

[[Chamarasa]], a [[Veerashaiva]] poet, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His eulogy of the saint [[Allama Prabhu]], titled ''Prabhulinga Lile'' (1430), was later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king. In the story, the saint was considered an incarnation of Hindu God [[Ganapathi]] while [[Parvati]] took the form of a princess of Banavasi.<ref name="ganapathi" />

Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period, increased. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well-known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. In fact, so well versed in Kannada were some Telugu poets, including [[Dhurjati]], that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity" with Kannada, that the notable writer [[Srinatha]] even called his Telugu, "Kannada". This process of interaction between the two languages continued into the 19th century in the form of translations by bilingual writers.<ref name="viceversa">Srinatha called himself "Karnatadesakataka" (Narasimhacharya 1934, pp.  27–28)</ref>

==Mystic literature==
{{Main|Haridasa|Haridasas and Carnatic music|Dasa Sahitya|Lingayatism|Basavanna}}

===Veerashaiva===
[[File:Plam leaf of 11th and 12th Century with Vachanas.jpg|thumb|left|Palm leaf with 11th–12th century Vachana poems in old Kannada]]
[[File:Akkamahadevi Udathadi1.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Akka Mahadevi, 12th century female poet]]
[[File:Bronze bust of Basaveswara on Albert Embankment in London, facing Parliament.JPG|thumb|upright|The bust of Basaveswara, unveiled in [[London]] in 2015, facing the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament]]]]
In the late 12th century, the [[Kalachuris of Kalyani|Kalachuris]] successfully rebelled against their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexed the capital [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]]. During this turbulent period, a new religious faith called [[Veerashaivism]] (or Lingayatism) developed as a revolt against the existing social order of Hindu society. Some of the followers of this faith wrote literature called ''[[Vachana Sahitya]]'' ("Vachana literature") or ''Sharana Sahitya'' ("literature of the devotees") consisting of a unique and native form of poetry in [[free verse]] called ''[[Vachana]]''.<ref name="body">Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 166–187</ref><ref name="body1">Kamath (1980), p. 108</ref> [[Basavanna]] (or Basava, 1134–1196), the prime minister of Kalachuri [[Bijjala II|King Bijjala II]], is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement.<ref name="spear">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 42</ref> Devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences at a centre for religious discussion called [[Anubhava Mantapa]] ("hall of experience") in Kalyani.<ref name="sang"/> Here, they expressed their devotion to God Shiva in simple ''vachana'' poems. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, [[satire|satirical]] prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of [[Plato]].<ref name="epi">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1324</ref><ref name="plat">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191</ref>

Basavanna, [[Allama Prabhu]], Devara Dasimayya, [[Channabasavanna|Channabasava]], Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among numerous poets (called ''Vachanakaras'') who wrote in this genre. [[Akka Mahadevi]] was prominent among the several women poets; in addition to her poetry, she is credited with two short writings, ''Mantrogopya'' and ''Yogangatrividhi''. Siddharama is credited with writings in ''tripadi'' metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).<ref name="kavichakra"/><ref name="vachana">Rice B.L. in Sastri 1955, p. 361</ref><ref name="rythem">Shiva Prakash 1997, pp. 167–168, 178, 181</ref><ref name="rythem10">Nagaraj, 2003, p. 348</ref>

The Veerashaiva movement experienced a setback with the assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the ''sharanas'' (devotees) from Kalyani; further growth of ''Vachana'' poetry was curtailed until the 15th century when another wave of writings began under the patronage of the rulers of [[Vijayanagara]].<ref name="sang">Kamath (2001), p. 153</ref> Chieftain [[Nijaguna Shivayogi]] originated a new philosophy called ''Kaivalya'', founded on the [[advaitha]] (monistic) philosophy of [[Adi Shankara]], synthesised with an offshoot of the Veerashaiva faith. A prolific writer, Shivayogi composed devotional songs collectively known as the ''Kaivalya sahitya'' (or ''Tattva Padagalu'', literally "songs of the pathway to emancipation").<ref name="devaranam1"/> His songs were reflective, philosophical and concerned with [[Yoga]]. Shivayogi also wrote a highly respected scientific encyclopaedia called the ''Vivekachintamani''; it was translated into [[Marathi language]] in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The encyclopaedia includes entries on 1,500 topics and covers a wide range of subjects including poetics, dance and drama, musicology and erotics.<ref name="eros">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1165</ref>

Other well-known poet saints of the Veerashaiva tradition include Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the ''Subodhasara'', Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.<ref name="devaranam1"/>

===Vaishnava===
[[File:Kanakadasa art.jpg|thumb|x216px|right|Kanaka Dasa (c. 1509–1609)]]

The [[Vaishnava]] [[Bhakti]] (devotional) movement involving well-known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature starting in the 15th century, inspiring a body of work called ''Haridasa Sahitya'' ("Haridasa literature"). Influenced by the Veerashaivism of the 12th century, this movement touched the lives of millions with its strong current of devotion. The Haridasas conveyed the message of Vedantic philosopher [[Madhvacharya]] to the common man through simple Kannada language in the form of ''devaranamas'' and ''kirthanas'' (devotional songs in praise of god).<ref name="devaranama">Sastri (1955), p. 365</ref><ref name="devaranam1">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 200</ref> The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples including [[Naraharitirtha]], [[Jayatirtha]], [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Sripadaraya]], [[Vadirajatirtha]], [[Purandara Dasa]], and [[Kanaka Dasa]].<ref name="yathi trayaru">Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–200</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], a prominent saint from distant [[Bengal]], visited the region in 1510, further stimulating the devotional movement.<ref name="devaranama"/>

Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), a wandering bard, is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and [[Sanskrit language]]s, though only about 1,000 songs are known today. Composed in various ''[[ragas]]'', and often ending with a salutation to the Hindu deity [[Vittala]], his compositions presented the essence of the ''[[Upanishads]]'' and the ''[[Puranas]]'' in simple yet expressive language. He also devised a system by which the common man could learn [[Carnatic music]], and codified the [[musical composition]] forms ''[[Swarajatis|svaravali]]s'', ''alankaras'' ("figure of speech") and ''[[geethams]]''. Owing to such contributions, Purandara Dasa earned the honorific ''Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha'' ("Father of Carnatic Music").<ref name="alankara">Moorthy (2001), p. 67</ref><ref name="pita">Iyer (2006), p. 93</ref><ref name="pita1">Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 196–197</ref>

Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509–1609) of Kaginele (in modern [[Haveri district]]) was an [[ascetic]] and spiritual seeker who authored important writings such as ''[[Mohanatarangini]]'' ("River of Delight"), the story of the Hindu god Krishna in ''sangatya'' metre; ''Nrisimhastava'', a work dealing with glory of god [[Narasimha]]; ''Nalacharita'', the story of [[Nala]], noted for its narration; and ''Hari Bhaktisara'', a spontaneous writing on devotion in ''shatpadi'' metre. The latter writing, which deals with ''niti'' (morals), ''bhakti'' (devotion) and  ''vairagya'' (renunciation) has become popular as a standard book of learning for children.<ref name="niti">Rice E.P. (1921), p. 80</ref> Kanaka Dasa authored a unique allegorical poem titled  ''Ramadhanya Charitre'' ("Story of Rama's Chosen Grain"), which exalts [[Finger millet|ragi]] over [[rice]].<ref name="devaranama" /> Apart from these classics, about 240 songs written by the Kanaka Dasa are available today.<ref name="Ayyappapanicker">Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 198–200</ref>

The Haridasa movement returned to prominence from the 17th through 19th centuries, producing as many as 300 poets in this genre; well known among them are [[Vijaya Dasa]] (1682–1755), Gopala Dasa (1721–1769), [[Jagannatha Dasa (Kannada poet)|Jagannatha Dasa]] (1728–1809), Mahipathi Dasa (1750), Helavanakatte Giriamma and others.<ref name="devaranam1"/><ref name="pro10">Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 200–201</ref> Over time, the movement's devotional songs inspired a form of religious and [[didactic]] performing art of the Vaishnava people called the [[Harikatha]] ("Stories of Hari"). Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Veerashaiva faith who popularised the ''Shivakatha'' ("Stories of Shiva").<ref name="harikatha">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1551</ref>

==Mysore and Keladi period==
{{Main|Mysore literature|Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore}}
[[File:Chikkadevaraja.jpg|thumb|right|King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704), writer and patron of Kannada literature]]
With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) (1565–1947) and the kingdom of the [[Keladi Nayaka]]s (1565–1763) rose to power in the southern and western regions of modern Karnataka respectively. Production of literary texts covering various themes flourished in these courts.<ref name="themes">Nagaraj (2003) p. 377</ref> The Mysore court was adorned by eminent writers who authored encyclopaedias, epics, and religious commentaries, and composers and musicians. The Keladi court is better known for writings on Veerashaiva doctrine.<ref name="doc">Nagaraj (2003), p. 378</ref> The Mysore kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions.<ref name="kan1">Pranesh (2003), preface chapter p. i–iii</ref><ref name="lak">Kamath (2001), pp. 229–230</ref><ref name="sri">Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 23–26</ref> A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called ''[[Yakshagana]]'' gained popularity in the 18th century.<ref name="sri"/><ref name="surya">Kamath (1980), p. 281</ref>

''Geetha Gopala'', a well-known treatise on music, is ascribed to King [[Chikka Devaraja|Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar]] (1673–1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, who went by the honorific ''Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam'' ("Expert in literature").<ref name="chikka">Pranesh (2003), p. 20</ref> Inspired by Jayadeva's  ''Geetha Govinda'' in Sanskrit, it was written in ''saptapadi'' metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.<ref name="sapta">Pranesh (2003), p. 21</ref>

Also writing in this period<ref name="assign">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 24</ref><ref name="life">Prasad (1987), p. 16</ref> was [[Sarvajna]] (''lit.'' "The all knowing")—a [[mendicant]] and drifter Veerashaiva poet who left a deep imprint on Kannada speaking region and its people.  His didactic ''Vachanas'', penned in the ''tripadi'' metre, constitute some of Kannada's most celebrated works.  With the exception of some early poems, his works focus on his spiritual quest as a drifter.<ref name="quest">Prasad (1987), pp. 9–10</ref>  The pithy ''Vachanas'' contain his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world.<ref name="hirekerur">Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191</ref> He was not patronised by royalty, nor did he write for fame; his main aim was to instruct people about morality.<ref name="morals">Prasad (1987), pp. 5–6</ref>

The writing of Brahmin author [[Lakshmisa]] (or Lakshmisha), a well-known story-teller and a dramatist, is dated to the mid-16th or late 17th century.<ref name="kadur1"/><ref name="kadur">Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 59</ref> The ''Jaimini Bharata'', his version of the epic Mahabharata written in ''shatpadi'' metre, is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period.<ref name="assign"/>  A collection of stories, the poem includes the tale of the ''Sita Parityaga'' ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author successfully converted a religious story into a very human tale; it remains popular even in modern times.<ref name="valmiki">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182</ref>

The period also saw advances in dramatic works.  Though there is evidence that theatre was known from the 12th century or earlier, modern Kannada theatre is traced to the rise of ''Yakshagana'' (a type of field play), which appeared in the 16th century.<ref name="amateur">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077</ref>  The golden age of ''Yakshagana'' compositions was tied to the rule of [[Narasaraja Wodeyar II|King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II]] (1704–1714). A polyglot, he authored 14 ''Yakshaganas'' in various languages, although all are written in the Kannada script.<ref name="wod">Pranesh (2003), p. 37–38</ref> He is credited with the earliest ''Yakshaganas'' that included ''sangeeta'' (music), ''nataka'' (drama) and ''natya'' (dance).<ref name="kan5">Pranesh (2003), p. 37</ref>

[[Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar]] (1794–1868), the ruler of the [[princely state]] of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], was another prolific writer of the era.<ref name="bhoja">Pranesh (2003), p. 53</ref> More than 40 writings are attributed to him, including a poetic romance called ''Saugandika Parinaya'' written in two versions, ''sangatya'' and a drama.<ref name="sou">Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 26</ref> His reign signalled the shift from classical genres to modern literature which was to be complemented by the influence of colonial period of India.

==Modern period==
{{Main|Modern Kannada literature}}
[[File:jcrw1.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Maharaja and writer, [[Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur]] (1940–1947) with Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]]]
The development of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early [[19th century]] when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IIIand his court poets moved away from the ancient ''champu'' form of prose toward prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's ''Mudramanjusha'' ("Seal Casket", 1823) is the first modern novel written in Kannada.

Modern Kannada literature was cross-fertilized by the colonial period in India as well.,<ref name="mudra">Murthy in George K.M(1992), p. 167</ref><ref name="dic"/> with translations of Kannada works and dictionaries into European languages as well as other Indian languages, and vice versa, and the establishment of European style newspapers and periodicals in Kannada. In addition, in the 19th century, interaction with European technology, including new printing techniques accelerated the development of modern literature.

The first Kannada newspaper  called ''Mangalore Samachara'' was published by [[Hermann Mögling]] in 1843; and the first Kannada periodical, ''Mysuru Vrittanta Bodhini'' was published by Bhashyam Bhashyacharya in Mysore around the same time. [[Hermann Mögling]] translated Kannada classics into a series called ''Bibliotheca Carnataca'' during 1848–1853.,<ref name="mogl">Kamath (1980), p. 279</ref> while British officers [[Benjamin L. Rice]] and J. H. Fleet edited and published critical editions of literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and inscriptions. Following the rich tradition of dictionaries in Kannada since the 11th century, the first dictionaries expressing meanings of Kannada words in European languages were published in the 19th century, the most prominent of them being [[Ferdinand Kittel]]'s Kannada-English dictionary in 1894.<ref name="dic">Kamath (1980), p. 280</ref>

There was a push towards original works in prose narratives and a standardisation of prose during the  late 19th century.<ref name="durgesh">Murthy (1992), pp. 168–169</ref> Translations of works from English, Sanskrit and other Indian languages like Marathi and Bengali continued and accelerated.  Lakshman Gadagkar's ''Suryakantha'' (1892) and Gulvadi Venkata Rao's ''[[Indira Bai]]'' (1899) signalled the move away from the highly stylised mores and aesthetics of prior Kannada works to modern prose, establishing the modern novel genre and fundamentally influencing the essay, literary criticism and drama genres.<ref name="surya" /><ref name="durgesh"/>

===Navodaya&nbsp;– A period of modern literature===
[[File:Kittel, Ferdinand (1832-1903).jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Ferdinand Kittel]] (1832–1903), Christian missionary and writer of Kannada-English dictionary]]
At the dawn of the [[20th century]], [[B. M. Srikantaiah]] ('B. M. Sri'), regarded as the "Father of modern Kannada literature",<ref name="greek">Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1077–78</ref> called for a new era of writing original works in modern Kannada while moving away from archaic Kannada forms.  This paradigmatic shift spawned an age of prolificacy in Kannada literature and came to be dubbed the ''Navodaya'' (''lit''. 'A new rise') period—a period of awakening.  B. M. Sri led the way with his ''English Geethagalu'' ("English Songs")—a collection of poems translated from English set the tone for more translations using a standardisation of a modern written idiom.<ref name="geeta">Murthy (1992), pp. 170–171</ref>  Original and seminal works which drew greatly from native and folk traditions also emerged alongside the translations.  Stalwarts like S. G. Narasimhachar, Panje Mangesha Rao and Hattiangadi Narayana Rao also contributed with celebrated efforts.<ref name="geeta"/> Literary subjects now veered from discussing kings and gods to more humanistic and secular pursuits.  Kannada writers experimented with several forms of western literature, the novel and the short story in particular.  The novel found an early champion in [[Shivaram Karanth]] while another prominent writer, [[Masti Venkatesh Iyengar]] ('Masti'), laid the foundation for generations of story tellers to follow with his ''Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu'' ("A few Short Stories", 1920) and ''Sanna Kathegalu'' ("Short Stories", 1924).<ref name="short">Murthy (1992), p. 172</ref>

The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered  by [[T. P. Kailasam]], with his ''Tollu Gatti'' ("The Hollow and the Solid", 1918).  Kailasam followed this with ''Tali Kattoke Cooline'' ("Wages for tying the [[Mangalsutra]]"), a critique on the [[Dowry#India|dowry]] system in marriage.<ref name="geeta"/> His plays mainly focused on problems affecting middle class [[Brahmin]] families: the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women.<ref name="amateur"/>  Novels of the early 20th century promoted a nationalist consciousness in keeping with the political developments of the time.  While  Venkatachar and Galaganath translated Bankim Chandra and Harinarayana Apte respectively, Gulvadi Venkata Rao, Kerur Vasudevachar and M. S. Puttanna initiated the movement toward realistic novels with their works.  Aluru Venkatarao's ''Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava'' had a profound influence on the movement for [[Unification of Karnataka|Karnataka's unification]].<ref name="short"/>

;1925–50&nbsp;– The Golden harvest
[[File:BugleRock DVG6.JPG|[[D. V. Gundappa]] statue in Bugle Rock Park, [[Basavanagudi]] area of Bangalore|thumb|right|x216px]]
While the first quarter of the 20th century was a period of experiment and innovation, the succeeding quarter was one of creative achievement.  This period saw the rise of acclaimed [[lyricist]]s whose works combined native folk songs and the mystic poetry of the medieval ''vachanas'' and ''kirthanas''   with influences from modern English romantics.<ref name="nara">Murthy (1992), p. 173–175</ref>  [[D. R. Bendre]], with his collection of 27 poems including such masterpieces as ''Gari'' ("Wing", 1932), ''Nadaleele'' (1938) and ''Sakhigeetha'' (1940), was perhaps the most outstanding Kannada lyricist of the period.<ref name="lyrical">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 413</ref> His poems covered a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor.<ref name="geeta1">Murthy (1992), p. 173</ref>  [[Govinda Pai]] narrated the story of Christ's crucifixion in his work ''Golgotha'' (1931).  The success of this work encouraged Pai to follow with three [[panegyric]]s in 1947; ''Vaishakhi'', ''Prabhasa'' and ''Dehali'', narrated the last days of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], God [[Krishna]] and [[Gandhi]] respectively.<ref name="vaisakhi">Das (1995), p. 148</ref> His ''Hebberalu'' ("Thumb", 1946) dramatises the story of [[Drona]] and [[Ekalavya]], characters from the epic Mahabharata.<ref name="bliss"/>

K.V. Puttappa ('[[Kuvempu]]'), who would subsequently become Kannada's first [[Jnanpith]] awardee, demonstrated great talent in writing blank verse with his ''magnum opus'' ''[[Sri Ramayana Darshanam]]'' (1949).<ref name="kattu">Murthy (1992), p. 174</ref>  This work marks the beginning of modern Kannada [[epic poetry]].<ref name="valmiki"/> The work, through the use of metaphors and similes, focuses on the concept that all living creatures will eventually evolve into perfect beings.<ref name="worthy">Punekar in Sahity Akademi (1992), pp. 4159–4160</ref>  Other important works of the period are Masti's ''Navaratri'' and P. T. Narasimhachar's ''Hanathe''.  [[D. V. Gundappa]]'s ''[[Mankuthimmana Kagga]]'' ("Dull Thimma's Rigmarole", 1943) harkened back to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna.<ref name="gund">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1057</ref>  A celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, [[K. S. Narasimhaswamy]] won critical acclaim for ''Mysore Mallige'' ("Mysore Jasmine", 1942), a description of the bliss of everyday marital life.<ref name="bliss">Murthy (1992), p. 175</ref>

Growth in poetic drama was inspired  by B.M. Sri's ''Gadayuddha Natakam'' (1925), an adaptation of Ranna's medieval epic. While Kuvempu and B.M. Sri were inspired by old Kannada, Masti and later P. T. Narasimhachar ('Pu. Ti. Na') explored modern sensibilities in their ''Yashodhara'' (1938) and ''Ahalye'' (1940). The 1930s saw the emergence of Sriranga, who joined forces with [[Samsa (writer)|Samsa]] and Kailasam to pen some of the most successful plays in Kannada.<ref name="unbridle">Murthy (1992), p. 176</ref> [[Samsa (writer)|Samsa]] completed his trilogy about Ranadhira Kantirava, a Mysore king of yore, with his ''Vijayanarasimha'' (1936) and ''Mantrashakti'' (1938). Kailasam's mastery over wit and stage rhetoric come to the fore in his ''Home Rule'' (1930) and ''Vaidyana Vyadi'' ("A Doctors Ailment", 1940) while he explores his serious side in ''Bhahishkara'' (1929); with ''Soole'' ("Prostitute", 1945), he unleashed his contempt for outdated quasi-religious mores.<ref name="unbridle" /> Societal ills were also examined in Bendre's ''Nageya Hoge'' ("Fumes of Laughter", 1936), and in Karanth's ''Garbhagudi'' ("Sanctum", 1932), which decried the exploitation of society in the name of religion.<ref name="concern">Murthy (1992), p. 177</ref>

The novel came of age during this period, with Karanth (''Chomana Dudi'', 1933), Masti (''Subbanna'', 1928) and Kuvempu ("Subbamma Heggadathi of Kanur", 1936) leading the charge.<ref name="kanur">Murthy (1992), p. 178</ref>  Significantly, writers chose to carry on from where Puttanna, Gulvadi and Kerur had left off around the start of the 20th century rather than continue with popular translations in the style of Venkatachar and Galaganath.  Aesthetic concerns replaced the didactic and a sense of form developed.<ref name="concern" /> [[Devudu Narasimha Shastri]] distinguished himself with his ''Antaranga'' (1931) and '' Mayura'' (1928); the former was a much acclaimed work which delved into the psychology of the protagonist, while the latter was a historical novel tracing the emergence of the [[Kadamba dynasty]].  Another high point of this period is Karanth's ''Marali Mannige'' (1942), the saga of three generations of a family, reflecting the social, cultural and economic developments of over a hundred years.<ref name="marali">Murthy (1992), p. 178–179</ref>

[[Literary criticism]], which had its beginnings in the first quarter-century, also made significant progress.  B.M. Sri's ''Kannada Sahitya Charitre'' (1947), Gundappa's ''Sahitya Shakti'' (1950), Masti's ''Adikavi Valmiki'' (1935), Bendre's ''Sahitya Hagu Vimarshe'' ("Literature and Criticism", 1932) and Krishna Shastry's ''Samskrita Nataka'' (1937) are particularly notable.  The essay, another form adopted from western literature, was richly served by A N Murthy Rao (''Hagaluganasugalu'', 1937), Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar's ('Gorur') humorous ''Halliya Chitragalu'' (1930) and Karanth's ''Hucchu manassina Hattu mukhagalu'' (1948).<ref name="halli">Murthy (1992), p. 179</ref>

===Late Navodaya and the rise of the progressives===
As the ''Navodaya'' period waxed, the ''[[Pragatishila]]'' (progressives) movement led by novelist [[A. N. Krishna Rao]] ('Anakru') gained momentum in the early 1940s.<ref name="katti">Murthy (1992), p. 183</ref>  This left-leaning school contended that literature must be an instrument of social revolution and considered the ''Navodaya'' to be the product of aesthetes, too puritanical to be of any social relevance.  This movement drew both established and young writers into its fold and, while it produced no poetry or drama of special merit, its contributions to short story and novel forms were appreciable.  ''Pragatishila'' was credited with broadening readers' horizons; works produced during this period dealt extensively with subjects of everyday life, rural themes and the common man.  The language was less inhibited and made generous use of colloquialism and slang.  Anakru himself was a prolific writer of novels but the best works of this school are attributed to [[T. R. Subba Rao]] ('Ta Ra Su'), Basavaraju Kattimani and Niranjana.<ref>The Growth of the Novel in India 1950–1980, P. K. Rajan, p. 112, 1989, {{ISBN|81-7017-259-4}}</ref>  T. R. Subba Rao initially wrote short stories, although he later turned his talents to novels, which were popular. His early novels, ''Purushavatara'' and ''Munjavininda Munjavu'', told the stories of the underprivileged, the downtrodden and the outcast.<ref name="hoovu">Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4185</ref> Best known among his novels—some of whose plots are centred on his native [[Chitradurga]]—are ''Masanada Hoovu'' ("Flower from a cemetery"), a story about the plight of prostitutes, and historical novel  ''Hamsa Gite'' ("Swan Song"), a story about a dedicated musician of the late 18th century during annexation of Chitradurga by [[Tipu sultan]].<ref name="katti"/>

Marked as its influence had been, the ''Pragatishila'' wave was already in decline by the close of the 1950s.  Legendary writers of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the ''Navodaya'' style. In poetry, Bendre's ''Naku Tanti'' ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's ''Aniketana'' (1964) stand out. V.K. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in ''Indilla Nale'' (1965).<ref name="shoka">Murthy (1992), pp. 179–180</ref>  ''Navodaya''-style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Karanth's ''Mookajjiya Kanasugalu'' ("Mookajji's visions", 1968), where Karanth explored the origins of man's faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu's ''Malegallali Madumagalu'' ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every level of society.<ref name="august">Murthy (1992), p. 180</ref>

Masti's two classic novels of this era were ''Channabasavanayaka'' (1950), which describe the defeat of Bidanur's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka's coast) by [[Hyder Ali|Haider Ali]] in the late 18th century, and ''Chickavirarajendra'' (1950), which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of [[Coorg]] (ruled by [[Chikka Virarajendra]]) to  the [[British East India Company]].<ref name="anasuya1">Murthy (1992) p. 181</ref> The common theme in both works is the despotism and tyranny of the incumbent native rulers resulting in the intervention of a foreign power appearing on the scene to restore order, but with its own imperialistic intentions.<ref name="vira">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 689</ref>

[[S. L. Bhyrappa]], a charismatic young writer, first came to attention in the 1960s with his first novel ''Dharmasri'', although it was his ''Vamsavriksha'' ("Family Tree", 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long-held values. The protagonist's young and widowed daughter-in-law wishes to remarry, putting his family tradition at risk.<ref name="bhy">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 429</ref> Bhyrappa's best novel of the period was ''Grihabhanga'' ("Breaking of a Home", 1970), a story of a woman surviving under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language.<ref name="bhanga">Murthy (1992), p. 182</ref> His other important novel is ''[[Parva (novel)|Parva]]'', a major work in Kannada fiction acclaimed as an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.<ref name="fic">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 430</ref>

===Navya===
[[File:Stalwarts.jpg|right |thumb |upright |Seated L to R: [[Masti Venkatesh Iyengar]], [[D. V. Gundappa]], [[Kuvempu]], [[M. V. Seetharamiah]], [[K. Shivaram Karanth]], [[A.N. Krishna Rao]] (Anakru) and [[G.P. Rajarathnam]]]]
In the 1950s, even as the ''Pragatishila'' merged back into the ''Navodaya'' mainstream, a new modernist school of writing called ''Navya'' emerged.  Though formally inaugurated by [[V. K. Gokak]] with his ''Navya Kavitegalu'' ("Modern Poems", 1950), it was [[Gopalakrishna Adiga]] who best exemplified the ethos of the movement.  Poetry and, later, the short story became the most effective vehicles of the movement. With the passing of the Gandhian era and its influences, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived.  The ''Navya'' writers questioned the time-honoured standards of plot of the ''Navodaya''; life was seen not as a pursuit of already existing values, but as an introspective search for them, occasionally narrated in stream of consciousness technique.  Events and details were increasingly treated metaphorically and the short story grew closer to poetry.<ref name="Sahitya Akademi 1992, p. 4049">Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4049</ref><ref>Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India, Nalini Natarajan, Emmanuel Sampath Nelson, p. 170, 1996, {{ISBN|0-313-28778-3}}</ref> Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this form of expression with his ''Nadedu Banda Dari'' ("The Path Traversed", 1952) where he sought inspiration from [[T. S. Eliot]] and [[W. H. Auden]]. His other well-known poems include ''Gondalapura'' ("Pandemonium", 1954) and ''Bhoota'' (1959).<ref name="bhoota">Murthy (1992), p. 184</ref>

[[G. S. Shivarudrappa]] made his mark in the Navya period with ''Mumbai Jataka'' ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966), which takes a closer look at urbanised society in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="ahmed"/> A protégé of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa's fame came the peak of popularity of romantic poems with his ''Samagma'' ("Songs of Equanimity", 1951), poems distinguished by an idealistic bent. He continued to write poems in the same vein, <!--   ''Cheluvu Olavu'' ("Beauty and Truth", 1953) and ''Devashilpa'' ("Divine Sculpture", 1959), commenting out, info not needed, is in child article--> although in his later poems there is a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god's creation.<ref name="creation">Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4031</ref> His critical essay, ''Anuranana'' (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets.<ref name="creation"/>

K. S. Narasimhaswamy remained prominent through this era, writing such landmark poems as ''Silalate'' ("The Sculptured Creeper", 1958)<!-- , ''Tereda Bagilu'' ("The Open Door", 1972), ''Malligeya Male'' ("Jasmine Garland", 1986), ''Idadiru Nanna Ninna Simhasanada Mele'' ("Place me not on your Throne") commenting out to thin list, other poems are in child article on author--> and ''Gadiyaradangadiya Munde'' ("Before the Clock Shop").<ref name="male">Murthy (1992), p. 665</ref> [[Chandrashekhara Kambar]], Chandrashekar Patil, [[P. Lankesh]], and [[K. S. Nissar Ahmed]] are among the best-known later generation Navya poets.<ref name="ahmed">Murthy (1992), p. 185</ref>

Outstanding playwrights from this period are [[Girish Karnad]], [[P. Lankesh]], Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad's ''Tughlaq'' (1964) portrays violence caused by idealism gone astray.<ref name="ahmed"/> Considered an important creation in Kannada theatre, the play depicts the 14th-century [[Sultan]] of [[Delhi]], [[Mohammad Tughlaq]] in contrasting styles, a tyrannical and whimsical ruler and at the same time, an idealist who sought the best for his subjects.<ref name="tug">Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4403</ref>  Most plays written by Karnad have either history or mythology as their theme, with a focus on their relevance to modern society.

The most acclaimed novel of the era was ''Samaskara'' by [[U.R.Anantha Murthy]] (1965).  The novel details the search for new values and identity by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who had sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his [[Heresy|heretic]] adversary.<ref name="heretic">Murthy (1992), p. 187</ref> Another notable work is the ''Swarupa'' (1966) by [[Poornachandra Tejaswi]]. Anantha Murthy's ''Prasne'' (1963) contains his best collection of short stories including ''Ghatashraddha'', which describes the tragedy that befell a young pregnant widow, from the point of view of a boy. His collection ''Mouni'' (1973) includes the stories ''Navilugulu'' ("Peacocks") and ''Clip Joint''.<ref name="dari">Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 165</ref>

The Navya movement was not without its critics.  The doubt, dilemmas and indecision in every turn of the plot resulted in increasingly sophisticated and complex narrations, which some readers found uninteresting.  It was derided as an intellectual exercise of the middle class intelligentsia; in its extreme sophistication, it was thought to have lost its touch with realities of life.  This led to a gradual waning of the Navya school as it was supplanted by emerging waves of ''Navyottara'', ''Bandaya'' (protest) and ''[[Dalit]]'' schools.<ref name="Sahitya Akademi 1992, p. 4049"/>

==Post-modern trends==
From the early 1970s, a segment of writers including many "Navya" writers started to write novels and stories that were anti-"Navya". This genre was called ''Navyottara'' and sought to fulfil a more socially responsible role.<ref name="rahasya">Sahitya Akademi (1992), p 4308</ref><ref name="farmer">Sahitya Akademi (1992), p 4309</ref> The best-known authors in this form of writing were [[Poornachandra Tejaswi]] and [[Devanur Mahadeva]]. In his preface to Abachurina Post Office, Tejaswi expressed a path breaking observation towards then prevailing literary movements. Tejaswi won the "most creative novel of the year" for his ''[[Karvalo]]'' in 1980 and ''Chidambara Rahasya'' in 1985 from the Sahitya Akademi.<ref name="rahasya"/><ref name="farmer"/>

Modernisation and westernisation continue to inform sensibilities and spawn new literary techniques and genres.<ref name="dalit">Murthy (1992), p 189</ref> The most striking developments in recent times have been the rise of the prose form to a position of predominance — a position earlier held by poetry — and the prodigious growth in dramatic literature.<ref name="dalit"/> More recently ''Bandaya'' (Rebellion) and [[Dalit literature]], in some ways a throwback to the ''Pragatishila'' ([[Progressivism]]) days, have come to the fore.  Mahadeva's ''Marikondavaru'' ("Those who sold themselves") and ''Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi'' ("Murder in the Eastern Region") are examples of this trend.<ref name="dalit"/>

Kannada writers have been presented with 8 [[Jnanpith|Jnanpith awards]], 63 [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Kannada|Sahitya Akademi awards]] and 9 [[List of Sahitya Akademi fellows|Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]s in India, and numerous other national and international awards since India's independence.<ref name="jnanpith">{{cite web|url=http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html |title=Awardees detail for the Jnanpith Award |work=Official website of Bharatiya Jnanpith |publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith |access-date=2008-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013122739/http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html |archive-date=2007-10-13 }}</ref><ref name="sahitya">{{cite web|url=http://www.iconofindia.com/sahitya-akademi/awa10307.htm#kannada |title=Sahitya Akademi–India's National Akademi of Letters |work=Awards and fellowships |access-date=2008-11-06 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216143254/http://www.iconofindia.com/sahitya-akademi/awa10307.htm |archive-date=2008-12-16 }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

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*{{cite book |last=Shiva Prakash|first=H.S.|editor=Ayyappapanicker|title=Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology |year= 1997|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-0365-0|chapter= Kannada}}
*{{Cite book|last = Sinopoli|first = Carla M.| title = The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India c. 1350–1650|year=2003|publisher = Cambridge University| isbn = 0-521-82613-6}}
*{{Cite book|last = Sircar|first = D. C.|author-link = D. C. Sircar| title = Indian Epigraphy|year = 1996 |orig-year=1965 | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publications| isbn =  81-208-1166-6}}
*{{Cite book | last = Steever | first = S. B. | contribution = Kannada | editor-last = Steever | editor-first = S. B.| title = The Dravidian Languages (Routledge Language Family Descriptions) | year = 1998 | pages = 129–157 | place = London | publisher = Routledge. Pp. 436 | isbn = 0-415-10023-2}}
*{{cite book| last = Thapar | first = Romila | year = 2004 | title = Early India: From the origins to AD 1300 | isbn = 0-520-24225-4 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&q=romilla+thapar+kannada+literature&pg=PA345| publisher = University of California Press| location = Berkeley|page=  586 }}
*{{cite book |last= Various|editor=Amaresh Datta|title= Encyclopaedia of Indian literature&nbsp;– vol 1|orig-year=1987|year=1987|publisher= Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-1803-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Various|editor=Amaresh Datta|title= Encyclopaedia of Indian literature&nbsp;– vol 2|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher= Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-1194-7}}
*{{cite book |last= Various|editor=Mohan Lal|title= Encyclopaedia of Indian literature&nbsp;– vol 5|orig-year=1992|year=1992|publisher= Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-1221-8}}
*{{cite book |last= [[T. V. Venkatachala Sastry]]|title= Sabdamanidarpanam of Kesiraja|orig-year=1897|year = 1994|publisher= Kannada Sahitya Parishad|location= Bangalore}}
* {{cite book |last= Warder|first= A.K.|author-link= A. K. Warder|title=  Indian Kavya Literature|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 81-208-0450-3}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | last = Zvelebil | first = Kamil V. | author-link = Kamil Zvelebil
|title = Dravidian Languages | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica| year = 2008
|url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74974/Dravidian-languages| access-date = 2008-04-08}}

{{Karnataka topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kannada Literature}}
[[Category:Kannada literature| ]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Literature of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Literature by language]]
[[Category:Indian literature by language]]