View source for Kavad I

{{Short description|Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire from 488 to 531}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{use British English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox royalty
|name        = {{plainlist|
* Kavad I
* {{lang|pal|𐭪𐭥𐭠𐭲}}
}}
|title       = [[King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians]]
|image       = Plate with king hunting rams (white background).jpg
|image_size  = 250px
|caption     = Plate of a Sasanian king hunting rams, perhaps Kavad I
|succession  = [[List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire|Shahanshah]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]]
|reign1      = 488–496
|reign-type1 = 1st reign
|predecessor1= [[Balash]]
|successor1  = [[Jamasp]]
|reign2      = 498/9–531
|reign-type2 = 2nd reign
|predecessor2= Jamasp
|successor2  = [[Khosrow I]]
|spouse      = {{plainlist|
* [[Sambice]]
* [[Hephthalite]] princess
* [[Ispahbudhan]] noblewoman
}}
|royal house = [[House of Sasan]]
|father      = [[Peroz I]]
|birth_date  = 473
|birth_place = 
|death_date  = {{death date and age|531|9|13|473|df=y}}
|death_place = 
|religion    = [[Zoroastrianism]]
|issue       = {{plainlist|
* [[Kawus]]
* [[Jamasp (son of Kavad I)|Jamasp]]
* [[Xerxes (Sasanian prince)|Xerxes]]
* [[Khosrow I]]
}}
}}
'''Kavad I''' ({{langx|pal|𐭪𐭥𐭠𐭲}} {{Transliteration|pal|Kawād}}; 473 – 13 September 531) was the [[Sasanian]] [[King of Kings]] of Iran from 488 to 531, including a two or three-year interruption. A son of [[Peroz I]] ({{reign|459|484}}), he was crowned by the nobles to replace his deposed and unpopular uncle [[Balash]] ({{reign|484|488|show=none}}).

Inheriting a declining empire where the authority and status of the Sasanian kings had largely weakened, Kavad tried to reorganize his empire by introducing many reforms whose implementation was completed by his son and successor, [[Khosrow I]]. They were made possible by Kavad's use of the [[Mazdakite]] preacher [[Mazdak]], leading to a [[social revolution]] that weakened the authority of the nobility and the clergy. Because of this, and the execution of the powerful king-maker [[Sukhra]], Kavad was deposed and imprisoned in the [[Castle of Oblivion]]. He was replaced by his brother [[Jamasp]]. However, with the aid of his sister and an officer named [[Siyawush]], Kavad and some of his followers fled east to the territory of the [[Hephthalite]] king, who provided him with an army. This enabled Kavad to restore himself to the throne in 498/9.

The empire had been bankrupted by his absence and Kavad requested the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]] for assistance. The Byzantines had originally paid the Iranians voluntarily to maintain the defense of the [[Caucasus]] against attacks from the north. Anastasius refused to help, which led Kavad to invade his domains, thus starting the [[Anastasian War]]. Kavad first seized [[Erzurum|Theodosiopolis]] and [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]], and then [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] after holding the city under [[siege]] for three months. The two empires made peace in 506, with the Byzantines agreeing to pay the Sasanians for the maintenance of the fortifications in the Caucasus in return for Amida. Around this time, Kavad also fought a lengthy war against his former allies, the Hephthalites; by 513 he had re-taken the region of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] from them.

In 528, the [[Iberian War]] erupted between the Sasanians and Byzantines in what is now eastern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] because the Byzantines refused to acknowledge Khosrow as Kavad's heir and because of a dispute over [[Lazica]]. Although Kavad's forces suffered two notable losses at the battles of [[Battle of Dara|Dara]] and [[Battle of Satala (530)|Satala]], the war was largely indecisive, with both sides suffering heavy losses. In 531, while the Sasanian army was [[Siege of Martyropolis (531)|besieging Martyropolis]], Kavad died from an illness. He was succeeded by Khosrow I, who inherited a reinvigorated and mighty empire equal to that of the Byzantines.

Because of the many challenges and issues Kavad successfully overcame, he is considered one of the most effective and successful kings to rule the Sasanian Empire. In the words of the [[Iranologist]] Nikolaus Schindel, he was "a genius in his own right, even if of a somewhat [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavellian]] type."

== Name ==
Due to increased Sasanian interest in [[Kayanian dynasty|Kayanian]] history, Kavad was named after the mythological Kayanian king [[Kay Kawad|Kavi Kavata]].{{sfn|Boyce|2001|p=127}} The name is transliterated in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''Kabates'',{{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=128 (note #329)}} ''Chü-he-to'' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]],{{sfn|Pulleyblank|1991|pp=424–431}} and ''Qubādh'' in [[Arabic]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=128 (note #329)}} ''Qobād'' (also ''Ghobād'' with a [[ghayn]] instead of [[Qoph#Arabic qāf|qaf]]) is the form used in [[New Persian]].{{Sfn|Dehkhoda|2020}}

== Background and state of Sasanian Iran ==
[[Image:The Discomfiture and Death of Piroz, from a Manuscript of the Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Firdawsi LACMA M.73.5.23.jpg|thumb|alt= A 15th-century Shahnameh illustration showing the defeat and death of Peroz I | 15th-century [[Shahnameh]] illustration of the defeat and death of [[Peroz I]]]]
The son of the Sasanian [[shah]] [[Peroz I]] ({{reign|459|484}}), Kavad was born in 473.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{efn|According to Greek chronicler [[John Malalas]], Kavad died at the age of 82, whilst the medieval Persian poet [[Ferdowsi]] states that he died at 80, which would put his year of birth sometime between 449 and 451.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The Greek historian [[Procopius]] states that Kavad was not old enough to take part in Peroz I's Hephthalite war in 484, and describes him as being around the age of 14 to 16. This also corresponds with account of the 9th-century Muslim historian [[Abu Hanifa Dinawari]], who stated that Kavad was 15 years-old when he became shah.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} [[Sasanian coinage]] portray Kavad as a young man during his first reign, with short whiskers and no moustache.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} This is unusual, since Sasanian shahs are generally bearded on their coinage. Besides Kavad, the only Sasanian shahs not to have a bearded portrait are the child-rulers [[Ardashir III]] ({{reign|628|630|show=no}}) and [[Khosrow III]] ({{reign|630|630|show=no}}).{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} This implies that Kavad most likely ascended the throne at a rather young age, which puts his birth in 473.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}}} The Sasanian family had been the monarchs of Iran since 224 after the triumph of the first Sasanian shah [[Ardashir I]] ({{reign|224|242|show=no}}) over the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian (Arsacid) Empire]].{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} Although Iranian society was greatly militarised and its elite designated themselves as a "warrior nobility" (''arteshtaran''), it still had a significantly smaller population, was more impoverished, and was a less centralized state compared to the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} As a result, the Sasanian shahs had access to fewer full-time fighters, and depended on recruits from the nobility instead.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} Some exceptions were the royal cavalry bodyguard, garrison soldiers, and units recruited from places outside Iran.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}}

The bulk of the high nobility included the powerful [[Parthia]]n noble families (known as the ''[[wuzurgan]]'') that were centered on the [[Iranian plateau]]. They served as the backbone of the Sasanian "[[Feudalism|feudal]]" army and were largely autonomous.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|loc=p. 604 "The backbone of Sasanian military power, the Iranian ('Aryan') cavalry, was, for lack of a more accurate term, a 'feudal' army organized around the banners of the aristocratic ''azadan'' ('the free'), most prominently the ''vuzurgan'' ('great families') of Parthian descent"}} The Sasanian shahs had noticeably little control over the ''wuzurgan''; attempts to restrict their self-determination usually resulted in the murder of the shah.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=604 (see also note 3)}} Ultimately, the Parthian nobility worked for the Sasanian shah for personal benefit, personal oath, and, conceivably, a common awareness of the "Aryan" (Iranian) kinship they shared with their [[Persian people|Persian]] overlords.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=604}}

Another vital component of the army was the Armenian cavalry, which was recruited from outside the ranks of the Parthian ''wuzurgan''.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=307}} However, the [[Battle of Avarayr|revolt of Armenia]] in 451 and the loss of its cavalry had weakened the Sasanians' attempts to keep the Hunnic tribes (i.e., the [[Hephthalites]], [[Kidarites]], [[Chionites]] and [[Alkhans]]){{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|pp=85–87}} of the northeastern border in check.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=305}}{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=613}}{{efn|Armenian soldiers, however, would serve the Sasanians again in the 6th and 7th centuries.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=305}}}} Indeed, Kavad's grandfather [[Yazdegerd II]] ({{reign|438|457|show=no}}) had managed to hold off the Kidarites during his wars against them, which had occupied him throughout most of his reign.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=613}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=23}}{{sfn|Daryaee}} Now, however, Sasanian authority in [[Central Asia]] began to decay.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=613}}

First in 474 and again in the late 470s/early 480s, Peroz was defeated and captured by the Hephthalites.{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=295}}{{sfn|Bonner|2020|pp=136–137}} In his second defeat, he offered to pay thirty mule packs of silver [[Dram (unit)|drachms]] in ransom, but could only pay twenty. Unable to pay the other ten, he sent Kavad in 482 as a hostage to the Hephthalite court until he could pay the rest.{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=295}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=127}}{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=137}} He eventually managed to gain the ten mule packs of silver by imposing a poll tax on his subjects, and thus secured the release of Kavad before he mounted his third campaign in 484.{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=137}} There, Peroz was [[Hephthalite–Sasanian War of 484|defeated and killed]] by a Hephthalite army, possibly near [[Balkh]].{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=305}}{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{sfn|Schippmann|1999|pp=631–632}} His army was completely destroyed, and his body was never found.{{sfn|Payne|2015b|p=287}} Four of his sons and brothers had also died.{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=295}} The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]−[[Nishapur]], [[Herat]] and [[Merv|Marw]] were now under Hephthalite rule.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

[[Sukhra]], a member of the Parthian [[House of Karen]], one of the [[Seven Great Houses of Iran]], quickly raised a new force and stopped the Hephthalites from achieving further success.{{sfn|Payne|2015b|p=288}} Peroz's brother, [[Balash]], was elected as shah by the Iranian magnates, most notably Sukhra and the [[House of Mihran|Mihranid]] general [[Shapur Mihran]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} However, Balash proved unpopular among the nobility and clergy who had him blinded and deposed after just four years in 488.{{sfn|Chaumont|Schippmann|1988|pp=574–580}}{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=139}} Sukhra, who had played a key role in Balash's deposition,{{sfn|Chaumont|Schippmann|1988|pp=574–580}} appointed Kavad as the new shah of Iran.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=78}} According to [[Miskawayh]] ({{died in|1030}}), Sukhra was Kavad's maternal uncle.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

== First reign ==
===Accession and conditions of the empire===
[[File:Coin of the Sasanian king Kavad I, minted at Ahvaz during his first reign.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient drachma|Drachma]] of Kavad during his first reign, minted at [[Ahvaz|Hormizd-Ardashir]]]]
Kavad ascended the throne in 488 at the age of 15. His youth is emphasized on his coins, which show him with short whiskers.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} He inherited an empire that had reached its lowest ebb. The nobility and clergy exerted great influence and authority over the nation, and were able to act as king-makers, as seen by their choice to depose Balash.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|pp=25-26}} Economically, the empire was not doing well either, the result of drought, famine, and the crushing defeats delivered by the Hephthalites. They had not only seized large parts of its eastern provinces, but had also forced the Sasanians to pay vast amounts of [[tribute]] to them, which had depleted the royal treasury of the shah.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=58}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=26}}{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2016|p=50}} Rebellions were occurring in the western provinces including [[Sasanian Armenia|Armenia]] and [[Sasanian Iberia|Iberia]].{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=58}}{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=253}} Simultaneously, the country's peasant class was growing more and more uneasy and alienated from the elite.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=253}}

===Conflict with Sukhra over the empire===
[[Image:Sufaray (The Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp).png|thumb|alt=Illustration of Sukhra shown holding a sword in his right hand and a shield in his left | Illustration of [[Sukhra]]]]
The young and inexperienced Kavad was tutored by Sukhra during his first five years as shah.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} During this period, Kavad was a mere [[figurehead]], whilst Sukhra was the [[de facto]] ruler of the empire. This is emphasized by [[al-Tabari]], who states that Sukhra "was in charge of government of the kingdom and the management of affairs ... [T]he people came to Sukhra and undertook all their dealings with him, treating Kavad as a person of no importance and regarding his commands with contempt."{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=78}} Numerous regions and the representatives of the elite paid tribute to Sukhra, not to Kavad.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=79}} Sukhra controlled the royal treasury and the Iranian military.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=79}} In 493, Kavad, having reached adulthood, wanted to put an end to Sukhra's dominance, and had him exiled to his native [[Shiraz]] in southwestern Iran.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=79}} Even in exile, however, Sukhra was in control of everything except the kingly crown.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=79}} He bragged about having put Kavad on the throne.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=79}}

Alarmed by the thought that Sukhra might rebel, Kavad wanted to get rid of him completely. He lacked the manpower to do so, however, as the army was controlled by Sukhra and the Sasanians relied mainly on the military of the Seven Great Houses of Iran.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=79–80}} He found his solution in [[Shapur of Ray]], a powerful nobleman from the House of Mihran, and a resolute opponent of Sukhra.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=80}} Shapur, at the head of an army of his own men and disgruntled nobles, marched to Shiraz, defeated Sukhra's forces, and imprisoned him in the Sasanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=81}} Even in prison, Sukhra was considered too powerful and was executed.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=81}} This caused displeasure among some prominent members of the nobility, weakening Kavad's status as shah.{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=150}} It also marked the temporary loss of authority of the House of Karen, whose members were exiled to the regions of [[Tabaristan]] and [[Zabulistan]], which were away from the Sasanian court in Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2017}}{{efn|Although some of Sukhra's sons would later serve Kavad, the power of the Karens was first restored during the reign of Kavad's son and successor, [[Khosrow I|Khosrow I Anushirvan]] ({{reign|531|579}}), who reportedly regretted Kavad's approach to the family, and gave them the post of military commander (''[[spahbed]]'') of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2017}}}}

=== The Mazdakite movement and Kavad I's deposition ===
{{main|Mazdakism}}
According to classical sources, not long after Sukhra's execution, a [[mobad]] (priest) named [[Mazdak]] caught Kavad's attention. Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical movement called [[Mazdakism]]. Not only did it consist of theological teachings, but it also advocated for political and social reforms that would impact the nobility and clergy.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|pp=26-27}}{{sfn|Daryaee|Canepa|2018}}

The Mazdak movement was [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] and called for the sharing of wealth, women and property,{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=26}} an archaic form of [[communism]].{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=150}} According to modern historians [[Touraj Daryaee]] and [[Matthew Canepa]], 'sharing women' was most likely an overstatement and defamation deriving from Mazdak's decree that loosened marriage laws to help the lower classes.{{sfn|Daryaee|Canepa|2018}} Powerful families saw this as a tactic to weaken their lineage and advantages, which was most likely the case.{{sfn|Daryaee|Canepa|2018}} Kavad used the movement as a political tool to curb the power of the nobility and clergy.{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=150}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=26}} Royal [[granary|granaries]] were distributed, and land was shared among the lower classes.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|pp=26-27}}

The [[historicity]] of the persona of Mazdak has been questioned.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} He may have been a fabrication to take the blame away from Kavad.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=809}} Contemporary historians, including [[Procopius]] and [[Joshua the Stylite]] make no mention of Mazdak, naming Kavad as the figure behind the movement.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=809}} Mention of Mazdak only emerges in later Middle Persian Zoroastrian documents, namely the ''[[Bundahishn]]'', the ''[[Denkard]]'', and the ''[[Zand-i Wahman yasn]]''.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=809}} Later Islamic-era sources, particularly [[al-Tabari]], also mention Mazdak.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=809}} These later writings were perhaps corrupted by Iranian oral folklore, given that blame put on Mazdak for the redistribution of aristocratic properties to the people, is a topic repeated in Iranian oral history.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=809}} Other 'villains' in pre-Islamic Iranian history, namely [[Gaumata]] in the [[Behistun Inscription]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] king [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}) and [[Wahnam]] in the [[Paikuli inscription]] of the Sasanian king [[Narseh]] ({{reign|293|302|show=none}}), are frequently accused of similar misdeeds.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=809}}

The nobility deposed Kavad in 496 for his support of the Mazdakites and his execution of Sukhra.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} They installed his more impressionable brother [[Jamasp]] on the throne.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=27}}{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=59}}

== Imprisonment, flight and return ==
[[Image:Zamarzp.jpg|thumb|alt=Obverse and reverse sides of a coin featuring Jamasp |Drachma of [[Jamasp]] ({{reign|496|498/9}})]]
[[Image:Hephthalites chieftain late 5th century.jpg|thumb|150px|Drachma of a [[Hephthalites|Hephthalite]] chieftain]]
A council soon took place among the nobility to discuss what to do with Kavad. [[Gushnaspdad]], a member of the Kanarangiyan, the family that held the important title of ''[[kanarang]]'' (military leader of [[Abarshahr]]), proposed Kavad be executed. His suggestion was overruled and Kavad was imprisoned instead in the [[Castle of Oblivion]] in [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzestan]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=267}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=27}} According to Procopius' account, Kavad's wife approached the commander of the prison. They came to an understanding that she would be allowed to see Kavad in exchange for sleeping with him.<ref name="PRO6" /> Kavad's friend, [[Siyawush]], who was regularly in the same area as the prison, planned his friend's escape by preparing horses near the prison.<ref name="PRO6" /> Kavad changed clothes with his wife to disguise himself as a woman, and escaped from the prison and fled with Siyawush.<ref name="PRO6" />

Tabari's account is different. He says that Kavad's sister helped him to escape by rolling him in a carpet, which she made the guard believe was soaked with her menstrual blood.{{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=135}} The guard did not object or investigate the carpet, "fearing lest he become polluted by it".{{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=135}} One of the authors of the ''[[Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire]]'', John Robert Martindale, proposes she may have been [[Sambice]], Kavad's sister-wife, who was the mother of his eldest son, [[Kawus]].{{sfn|Martindale|1980|pp=974-975}}

Regardless, Kavad managed to escape imprisonment and fled to the court of the Hephthalite king, where he took refuge.<ref name="PRO6">Procopius, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm VI].</ref>{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=27}} According to the narratives included in the history of al-Tabari, during his flight Kavad met a peasant girl from Nishapur, named Niwandukht, who became pregnant with his child, who would ascend the throne as [[Khosrow I]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=128}}{{efn|Although [[al-Tabari]] places this event before Kavad's first reign, modern scholars agree that it took place in the interlude before his second reign.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=257}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=133 (note 22)}}}} However, the story has been dismissed as "fable" by the [[Iranologist]] [[Ehsan Yarshater]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=p. 128 (note 330)}} Khosrow's mother was in reality a noblewoman from the [[House of Ispahbudhan]], one of the Seven Great Houses.<ref>{{harvnb|Bosworth|1999|p=128 (note 330)}}; {{harvnb|Rezakhani|2017|p=133 (note 22)}}; {{harvnb|Martindale|1992|pp=381–382}}; {{harvnb|Pourshariati|2008|pp=110–111}}</ref>

At the Hephthalite court in [[Bactria]], Kavad gained the support of the Hephthalite king, and also married his daughter, who was Kavad's niece.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} During his stay, Kavad might have witnessed the rise of the Hephthalites to a better position than that of their former [[suzerainty|suzerains]], the Kidarites.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=133}} The present-day district of [[Qubodiyon|Qobadian]] (the Arabicized form of Kavadian) near Balkh, which was then under Hephthalite rule, was perhaps founded by Kavad and possibly served as his source of revenue.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=133 (note 23)}} In 498 (or 499), Kavad returned to Iran with a Hephthalite army.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=131}}{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} When he crossed the domains of the Kanarangiyan in Khorasan, he was met by [[Adergoudounbades]], a member of the family, who agreed to help him.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=267}} Another noble who supported Kavad was [[Zarmihr Karen]], a son of Sukhra.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

Jamasp and the nobility and clergy did not resist as they wanted to prevent another civil war.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=114}} They agreed that he would be king again with the understanding that he would not hurt Jamasp or the elite.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=114}} Jamasp was spared, albeit probably blinded, while Gushnaspdad and other nobles who had plotted against Kavad were executed.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} Generally, however, Kavad secured his position by lenience.{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=150}} Adergoudounbades was appointed the new ''kanarang'',{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=267–268}} while Siyawush was appointed the head of the Sasanian army (''arteshtaran-salar'').<ref name="PRO6" /> Another of Sukhra's sons, [[Bozorgmehr]], was made Kavad's great minister (''[[wuzurg framadar]]'').{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=114}} Kavad's reclamation of his throne displays the troubled circumstances of the empire; a small force was able to overwhelm the nobility-clergy alliance.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=27}}

== Second reign ==
===Reforms===
[[Image:Asbaran cavalryman bearing a banner of homa.jpg|thumb|200px|Artistic illustration of an Iranian cavalryman bearing a banner of the [[Huma bird]]]]
Kavad's reign is noteworthy for his reforms, which he had been able to make with the nobility and clergy weakened by the Mazdakites. They would not be completed under his reign but were continued by his son, Khosrow I.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|pp=59–60}} The serious blows the Sasanians had suffered at the hands of the Hephthalites in the last quarter of the 5th century was a key reason behind the reforms the two made.{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2017|p=209}} Tax reform was implemented, a poll tax was created, and a review of taxable land was undertaken to ensure that taxation was fair.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} The empire was divided into four frontier regions (''kust'' in Middle Persian), with a [[spahbed|''spāhbed'']] (military commander) in charge of each district; a chancery was also added to keep the soldiers equipped.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}}{{sfn|Miri|2012|p=24}}

Before Kavad and Khosrow's reforms, the Iranians' general (''Eran-spahbed'') managed the empire's army.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=124}} Many of these military commanders were notably from the ''[[wuzurgan]]'' class of [[Parthia]], indicating the continuation of their authority despite the efforts by Kavad and Khosrow.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=307}} A new priestly office was also created known as the "advocate and judge of the poor" (''driyōšān jādag-gōw ud dādwar''), which assisted the clergy to help the poor and underprivileged, which they had possibly ignored previously.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|pp=129–130}}{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}}

As a result of the reforms, the power of the [[dehqan|''dehqans'']], a class of small land-owning magnates, increased substantially. The ''dehqans'' may have even been created by the reforms in the first place.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} A group of these ''dehqans'' was enlisted into a group of cavalry men, who were managed directly by the shah and earned steady wages.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} This was done to decrease the reliance on the Parthian cavalry.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=306}} Soldiers were also enlisted from Sasanian allies, such as the Hephthalites, [[Arabs]], and [[Daylamites]].{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=306}} As a result, the newly rejuvenated Sasanian army proved successful in its efforts in subsequent decades. It sacked the Byzantine city of [[Antioch]] in 540, [[Aksumite–Persian wars|conquered Yemen]] in the 570s, and under the Parthian military commander [[Bahram Chobin]] defeated the Hephthalites and their allies, the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]], in the [[Perso-Turkic war of 588–589]].{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=307}}

Although the reforms were beneficial for the Empire, they may also have resulted in the decline of the traditional links between the aristocracy and the crown under [[Hormizd IV]] ({{reign|579|590}}) and [[Khosrow II]] ({{reign|590|628|show=none}}), to the degree that many belonging to the ''wuzurgan'' class, notably Bahram Chobin of the Mihran family, and later [[Shahrbaraz]] of the same family, were bold enough to dispute the legitimacy of the Sasanian family and lay claims to the throne.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=811}}

===Persecution of Mazdak and his followers===
With his reforms under way by the 520s, Kavad no longer had any use for Mazdak{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} and he officially stopped supporting the Mazdakites.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} A debate was arranged where not only the Zoroastrian priesthood but also Christian and Jewish leaders slandered Mazdak and his followers.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} According to the ''[[Shahnameh]]'', written several centuries later by the medieval Persian poet [[Ferdowsi]], Kavad had Mazdak and his supporters sent to Khosrow. His supporters were killed in a walled orchard, buried head first with only their feet visible.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} Khosrow then summoned Mazdak to look at his garden, saying: "You will find trees there that no-one has ever seen and no-one ever heard of even from the mouth of the ancient sages."{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} Mazdak, seeing his followers' corpses, screamed and passed out. He was executed afterwards by Khosrow, who had his feet fastened on a [[gallows]] and had his men shoot arrows at Mazdak.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} The validity of the story is uncertain; Ferdowsi used much earlier reports of events to write the ''Shahnameh'', and thus the story may report some form of contemporary memory.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=61}}

=== Building projects ===
[[Image:Derbent wall.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph showing the wall at the Fortifications of Derbent with city buildings in the background | The [[Fortifications of Derbent|walls]] of [[Derbent]]]]
Many places were founded or re-built under Kavad. He is said to have founded the city [[Eran-asan-kerd-Kawad]] in [[Media (region)|Media]];{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} [[Fahraj, Yazd|Fahraj]] in [[Spahan (province)|Spahan]];{{sfn|Langarudi|2002}} and Weh-Kawad, Eran-win(n)ard-Kawad, Kawad-khwarrah, and [[Arrajan]] in [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]].{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{sfn|Gaube|1986|pp=519-520}} He rebuilt [[Kermanshah|Kirmanshah]] in Media, which he also used as one of his residences.{{sfn|Calmard|1988|pp=319-324}} He is also said to have founded a township in [[Meybod]], which was named Haft-adhar ("seven fires"), because of a Zoroastrian [[fire temple]] being established there. Its original fire was created by fire brought from seven other temples in Pars, Balkh, [[Adurbadagan]], [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]], [[Spahan]], [[Ghazni]], and Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Modarres}}

In the [[Caucasus]], Kavad had new [[Fortifications of Derbent|fortifications]] built at [[Derbent]],{{sfn|Kettenhofen|1994|pp=13–19}} and ordered the construction of the [[Sasanian defense lines#Apzut Kawat and Beshbarmak|Apzut Kawat wall]] ([[Middle Persian]]: ''*Abzūd Kawād'', "Kavad increased [in glory]" or "has prospered").{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017a}} The prominent [[Caucasian Albania]]n capital of [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Partaw]], which had been rebuilt during the reign of Peroz I and named Perozabad ("the city of Peroz"), was fortified by Kavad and called Perozkavad ("victorious Kavad").{{sfn|Chaumont|1985|pp=806-810}} The former Albanian capital of [[Qabala|Kabala]], a large urban area that included the headquarters of one of the Albanian bishops, was also fortified by Kavad.{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017b|pp=124-125}} He founded the city of [[Beylagan (city)|Baylakan]], which by most researchers is identified with the ruins of Oren-kala.{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017b|pp=125}} Ultimately, these extensive buildings and fortifications transformed Caucasian Albania into a bastion of Iranian presence in the Caucasus.{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017b|pp=128-129}}

=== The India trade ===
The Sasanians exerted considerable influence on trade in the region under Kavad.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=294}} By using the strategic location of the [[Persian Gulf]], the Sasanians interfered to prevent Byzantine traders from taking take part in the India trade. They accomplished this either by bargaining with trade associates in the [[Indian subcontinent]]—ranging from the [[Gupta Empire]] in the north to the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] monarchs of [[Sri Lanka]] in the south—or by attacking the Byzantine boats.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=294}} Iranian traders were also able to seize Indian vessels well before they could make contact with Byzantine traders.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=294}} These advantages resulted in the Iranian traders establishing something resembling a monopoly over the India trade.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=295}}

===Anastasian war===
{{main|Anastasian War}}
[[Image:Roman-Persian Frontier in Late Antiquity.svg|thumb|280px|alt=Map showing the Byzantine-Iranian frontier during the reign of Kavad I|Map of the Byzantine-Iranian frontier during the reign of Kavad I]]
The Sasanians and Byzantines had kept peace since the brief [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440]]. The last major war between the two empires had been during the reign of [[Shapur II]] ({{reign|309|379}}).{{sfn|Daryaee|2009}} However, war finally erupted in 502. Bankrupted by his hiatus in 496–498/9, Kavad applied for subsidies to the [[Byzantine Empire]], who originally had paid the Iranians voluntarily to maintain the defense of the Caucasus against attacks from the north.{{sfn|Daryaee|Nicholson|2018}} The Iranians seemingly saw the money as a debt due to them.{{sfn|Daryaee|Nicholson|2018}} But now Emperor [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] ({{reign|491|518|show=none}}) refused subsidies forcing Kavad to attempt to obtain the money by force.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=62}} In 502, Kavad invaded [[Byzantine Armenia]] with a force that included Hephthalite soldiers.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} He [[Siege of Theodosiopolis|captured]] [[Theodosiopolis (Armenia)|Theodosiopolis]], perhaps with local support; in any case, the city was undefended by troops and weakly fortified.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=62}}

He then marched through southwestern Armenia, reportedly without facing any resistance, and entrusted local governor with the administration of the area.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2013|p=872}} He proceeded to cross the Armenian [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]], and reached [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]], where its governor Theodore, surrendered without any resistance and gave Kavad two years' worth of taxes collected from the province of [[Sophene]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2013|pp=872–873}}{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=63}} Because of this, Kavad let Theodore keep his position as governor of the city.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=63}} Kavad then [[Siege of Amida (502–503)|besieged]] the fortress-city of [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege proved to be a far more difficult enterprise than Kavad had expected; the defenders, although unsupported by troops, repelled the Iranian assaults for three months before they were finally defeated.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=63}}

He had its inhabitants deported to a city in southern Iran, which he named "Kavad's Better Amida" ([[Arrajan|Weh-az-Amid-Kawad]]). He left a garrison in Amida which included his general Glon, two ''[[marzban]]s'' ([[margrave]]s) and 3,000 soldiers.{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=156 (see also note 184)}} The Byzantines failed in their attempt to recapture the city. Kavad then tried unsuccessfully to capture [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] in [[Osroene]].{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=69–71}} In 505 an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice; the Byzantines paid subsidies to the Iranians for the maintenance of the fortifications on the Caucasus,{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=77}} in return for Amida.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The peace treaty was signed by the [[House of Ispahbudhan|Ispahbudhan]] aristocrat [[Bawi]], Kavad's brother-in-law.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=111}} Although Kavad's first war with the Byzantines did not end with a decisive winner, the conquest of Amida was the greatest accomplishment achieved by a Sasanian force since 359, when the same city had been [[Siege of Amida (359)|captured]] by Shapur II.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

===Relations with Christianity===
{{main|Church of the East}}
[[Image:Diyarbakr Western City Wall.JPG|thumb|alt=Photograph showing walkways in front of the walls of Amida with buildings in the background | The walls of [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]]]]
Kavad's relationship with his Christian subjects is unclear. In Christian Iberia, where the Sasanians had earlier tried to spread Zoroastrianism, Kavad represented himself as an advocate of orthodox Zoroastrianism. In Armenia, however, he settled disputes with the Christians and appears to have continued Balash's peaceful approach. The Christians of Mesopotamia and Iran proper practised their religion without any persecution, despite the punishment of Christians in Iran proper being briefly mentioned {{circa|512/3}}. Like Jamasp, Kavad also supported the [[patriarch of the Church of the East]], [[Babai of Seleucia-Ctesiphon|Babai]], and Christians served in high offices at the Sasanian court.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} According to Eberhard Sauer, Sasanian monarchs only persecuted other religions when it was in their urgent political interests to do so.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=190}}

According to the ''[[Chronicle of Seert]]'' and the historian [[Mari ibn Suleiman|Mari ibn Sulayman]], Kavad ordered all the religious communities in the empire to submit written descriptions of their beliefs. This took place sometime before 496. In response to this command, the Patriarch [[Acacius of Seleucia-Ctesiphon|Aqaq]] commissioned [[Elishaʿ bar Quzbaye]], interpreter of the [[school of Nisibis]], to write for the Church of the East. His work was then translated from [[Syriac language|Syriac]] to Middle Persian and presented to Kavad. This work has since been [[Lost literary work|lost]].{{sfn|Võõbus|1965|pp=126–127}}

Kavad's reign marked a new turn in Sasanian–Christian relations; before his reign, [[Jesus]] had been seen solely as the defender of the Byzantines.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} This changed under Kavad. According to an apocryphal account in the ''Chronicle of [[Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor|Pseudo–Zachariah of Mytilene]]'', written by an anonymous [[West Syriac rite|West Syrian]] monk at Amida in 569, Kavad saw a vision of Jesus whilst besieging Amida, which encouraged him to remain resolute in his effort.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} Jesus guaranteed to give him Amida within three days, which happened.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} Kavad's forces then sacked the city, taking much booty.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} The city's church was spared, however, due to the relationship between Kavad and Jesus.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} Kavad was even thought to have venerated a figure of Jesus.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} According to modern historian Richard Payne, the Sasanians could now be viewed as adherents of Jesus and his saints, if not Christianity itself.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}}

=== Wars in the east ===
Not much is known about Kavad's wars in the east. According to Procopius, Kavad was forced to leave for the eastern frontier in 503 to deal with an attack by "hostile Huns", one of the many clashes in a reportedly lengthy war. After the Sasanian disaster in 484, all of Khorasan was seized by the Hephthalites; no Sasanian coins minted in the area (Nishapur, Herat, Marw) have been found from his first reign.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The increase in the number of coins minted at [[Hyrcania|Gorgan]] (which was now the northernmost Sasanian region) during his first reign may indicate a yearly tribute he paid to the Hephthalites.{{sfn|Potts|2018|pp=296–297}} During his second reign, his fortunes changed. A Sasanian campaign in 508 led to the conquest of the Zundaber (Zumdaber) Castellum, associated with the temple of az-Zunin in the area of ad-Dawar, situated between [[Lashkargah|Bust]] and [[Kandahar]].{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=297}} A Sasanian coin dating to 512/3 has been found in Marw. This indicates the Sasanians under Kavad had managed to re-conquer Khorasan after successfully dealing with the Hephthalites.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

===Negotiations with the Byzantines over the adoption of Khosrow===
[[Image:Solidus Justin I.jpg|thumb|alt=Obverse and reverse sides of a coin of Byzantine emperor Justin I |[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Justin I]]]]
Around 520 to secure the succession of his youngest son Khosrow, whose position was threatened by rival brothers and the Mazdakite sect, and to improve his relationship with the Byzantine emperor [[Justin I]], Kavad proposed that he adopt Khosrow.<ref>{{harvnb|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}; {{harvnb|Kia|2016|p=254}}</ref> This proposal was greeted initially with enthusiasm by the Byzantine emperor and his nephew, [[Justinian]]. However, Justinian's ''[[quaestor sacri palatii|quaestor]]'', Proclus, opposed the move concerned over the possibility that Khosrow might attempt to take over the Byzantine throne.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The Byzantines made a counter-proposal to adopt Khosrow not as a Roman but as a barbarian.<ref name="PRO11">Procopius, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm XI].</ref> In the end the negotiations did not reach a consensus. Khosrow reportedly felt insulted by the Byzantines, and his attitude towards them deteriorated.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

Mahbod and Siyawush were the Sasanian diplomats sent to negotiate with the Byzantines. Mahbod accused Siyawush of purposely sabotaging the negotiations.<ref name="PRO11"/> Further accusations were made against Siyawush, which included his reverence for new deities, and having his dead wife buried, a violation of Iranian law. Siyawush was thus most likely a Mazdakite, the religious sect that Kavad had originally, but now no longer, supported. Although Siyawush was a close friend of Kavad and had helped him escape imprisonment, Kavad did not try to prevent his execution. Seemingly, his purpose was to restrict Siyawush's immense authority as the head of the Sasanian army, a post which was disliked by the other nobles.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} Siyawush was executed, and his office was abolished.{{sfn|Sundermann|1986|p=662}} Despite the breakdown of the negotiations, it was not until 530 that full-scale warfare on the main western frontier broke out. In the intervening years, the two sides preferred waging war by proxy, through Arab allies in the south and Huns in the north.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=81–82}}

===Iberian war===
{{main|Iberian War}}
[[File:DaraFortifications.JPG|thumb|alt=Photograph of ruined fortifications at Dara | Ruins of the fortifications at [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]]]]
Hostility between the two powers erupted into conflict once again in 528, just a year after the new Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I]] ({{reign|527|565}}) had been crowned. This was supposedly the result of the Byzantines not acknowledging Khosrow as Kavad's heir. According to the Greek chronicler [[John Malalas]], military clashes first took place in [[Lazica]], which had been disputed between the two empires since 522. Not long after this the battles also spread down to Mesopotamia, where the Byzantines suffered a heavy defeat near the border. In 530, one of the [[Battle of Dara|famous open-field battles]] took place between the Byzantine and Sasanian troops at [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]].{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

The Sasanian army led by [[Perozes]], Pityaxes and [[Baresmanas]] suffered a severe defeat. The battle did not, however, bring an end to the conflict.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The following year Kavad raised an army, which he sent under [[Azarethes]] to invade the Byzantine province of [[Commagene]].{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=160}} When the Byzantine army under [[Belisarius]] approached, Azarethes and his men withdrew east, halting at [[Raqqa|Callinicum]].{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=160}} In the [[Battle of Callinicum|ensuing battle]] the Byzantines suffered a heavy defeat, but Iranian losses were so great Kavad was displeased with Azarethes, and relieved him of his command.{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=160}}<ref name="PROXVIII">Procopius, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm Book I.xviii].</ref> In 531, the Iranians [[Siege of Martyropolis (531)|besieged Martyropolis]]. During the siege, however, Kavad became ill and died on 13 September.<ref>Procopius [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm Book I.xxi].</ref>{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} As a result, the siege was lifted and [[Perpetual Peace (532)|peace was made]] between Kavad's successor Khosrow I and Justinian.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

== Coins ==
[[Image:Coin of Kavad I, possibly minted in Susa.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the obverse and reverse signs of a gold coin of Kavid I |[[Gold dinar]] of Kavad I, possibly minted at [[Susa]]]]
The provinces of Gorgan, Khuzestan, and [[Asoristan]] provided the most [[Sasanian coinage]] for Kavad during his reign.{{sfn|Schindel|2013b|pp=141–143}} His reign marks the introduction of distinctive traits on the obverse sides of the coin which includes astral symbols, particularly, a [[crescent]] on both of his shoulders, and a star in the left corner.{{sfn|Schindel|2013b|pp=141–143}} The reverse side shows the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants facing it in veneration.{{sfn|Schindel|2013b|pp=141–143}} Kavad used the title of ''[[Kay (title)|kay]]'' ([[Kayanian]]) on his coins,{{sfn|Schindel|2013b|pp=141–143}} a title that had been used since the reign of his grandfather Yazdegerd II ({{reign|438|457}}).{{sfn|Daryaee}} Kavad was, however, the last Sasanian shah to have ''kay'' inscribed on his coins—the last one issued in 513.{{sfn|Schindel|2013b|pp=141–143}} The regular obverse inscription on his coins simply has his name; in 504, however, the slogan ''abzōn'' ("may he prosper/increase") was added.{{sfn|Schindel|2013b|pp=141–143}}{{sfn|Schindel|2013c|p=837}}

== Succession ==
[[Image:Khosrow I Anushirvan, Gundeshapur mint.jpg|thumb|alt=The obverse and reverse sides of a coin of Khosrow I |Drachma of [[Khosrow I|Khosrow I Anushirvan]] ({{reign|531|579}})]]
According to Procopius and other historians, Kavad had written a succession plan that favoured Khosrow just before his death. Historian John Malalas stated that Kavad crowned Khosrow himself.{{sfn|Crone|1991|p=32}} However, at the beginning of Khosrow's reign in 531, Bawi and other members of the Iranian aristocracy became involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Khosrow and make Kavad, the son of Kavad's second eldest son [[Jamasp (son of Kavad I)|Jamasp]], the shah of Iran.<ref name="Iranica">{{harvnb|Frye|1983|p=465}}</ref> Upon learning of the plot, Khosrow executed all of his brothers and their offspring, as well as Bawi and the other nobles who were involved.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=111}}

Khosrow also ordered the execution of Kavad, who was still a child, and was away from the court, being raised by Adergoudounbades. He sent orders to kill Kavad, but Adergoudounbades disobeyed and secretly raised him until he was betrayed to the shah in 541 by his own son, Bahram. Khosrow had him executed, but Kavad, or someone claiming to be him, managed to flee to the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Martindale|1992|pp=16, 276}}; {{harvnb|Pourshariati|2008|pp=268–269}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=112}}.</ref>

== Legacy ==
Kavad's reign is considered a turning point in Sasanian history.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} Since he successfully handled many challenges and issues, he is considered one of the most effective and successful kings to rule the Sasanian Empire.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} In the words of Iranologist Nikolaus Schindel he was "a genius in his own right, even if of a somewhat [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavellian]] type."{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} He was successful in his efforts to reinvigorate his declining empire, paving the way for a smooth transition to his son Khosrow I, who inherited a powerful empire. Khosrow improved it further during his reign, becoming one of the most popular shahs of Iran and earning the epithet Anushirvan ("the immortal soul").<ref>{{harvnb|Kia|2016|pp=256–257, 261}}; {{harvnb|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}; {{harvnb|Daryaee|2014|pp=28–30}}</ref>

The [[Ziyarid dynasty]], which mainly ruled over Tabaristan and Gorgan between 931 and 1090, claimed that the founder of the dynasty, [[Mardavij]] ({{reign|930|935}}), was descended from Kavad.{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2009|p=38}}{{sfn|Spuler|2014|pp=344–345}}

== Family tree ==
{| style="border-spacing: 2px; border: 1px solid darkgray;"
|+'''Legend'''
|{{tree chart/start}}{{tree chart|KoK|KoK=Orange|boxstyle_KoK=background-color:#F7BE81;}}{{tree chart/end}}
|[[King of Kings]]
|}
{{Tree chart/start}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |YD2| | | | | | | | | | | YD2 = [[Yazdegerd II]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />({{reign|438|457}})|boxstyle_YD2=background-color:#F7BE81;| border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |HO3| |PE1| |VAL| | ZAR | | | | | | | | | HO3 = [[Hormizd III]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />({{reign|457|459}})|boxstyle_HO3=background-color:#F7BE81;| PE1 = [[Peroz I]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />(457–484)|boxstyle_PE1=background-color:#F7BE81;| VAL = [[Balash]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />({{reign|484|488}})|boxstyle_VAL=background-color:#F7BE81;| ZAR = [[Zarer]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />(d. 485) | border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | BAL | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | BAL = [[Balendukht]]{{sfn|Toumanoff|1969|p=28}}| border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|.|}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |KA1| | | | | |JAM| | | PRD | | | SAM | | | JAM = [[Jamasp]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />({{reign|496|498/9}})|boxstyle_JAM=background-color:#F7BE81;| PRD = [[Perozdukht]]{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=128}} | | KA1 = '''Kavad I'''<br />({{reign|488|496|498/9|531}})|boxstyle_KA1=background-color:#F7BE81;| SAM = [[Sambice]]{{sfn|Martindale|1980|pp=974-975}} | border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | KAU | | ZAM | | XER | |KH1| | | | | | | | | KAU = [[Kawus]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />(d. {{circa|531}}) | ZAM = [[Jamasp (son of Kavad I)|Jamasp]]{{sfn|Martindale|1980|p=1995}}<br />(d. {{circa|532}}) | XER = [[Xerxes (Sasanian prince)|Xerxes]]{{sfn|Shahîd|1995|p=76}}| KH1 = [[Khosrow I]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}<br />({{reign|531|579}})|boxstyle_KH1=background-color:#F7BE81;| border=1}}
{{Tree chart/end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFDaryaeeNicholson2018 }}
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
=== Ancient works ===
*[[Procopius]], ''History of the Wars''.

=== Modern works ===
* {{The History of al-Tabari | volume = 5}}
* {{cite book | last = Axworthy | first = Michael | author-link = Michael Axworthy | title = A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind | year = 2008 | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | pages = 1–368| isbn = 978-0-465-00888-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Bonner | first = Michael | title = The Last Empire of Iran | year = 2020 | publisher = Gorgias Press | location = New York | pages = 1–406 | isbn = 978-1463206161 }}
* {{cite book | title = Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | year = 2001 | publisher = Psychology Press | last = Boyce | first = Mary | author-link = Mary Boyce | pages = 1–252 | isbn = 9780415239028 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Kermanshah iv. History to 1953 | last = Calmard | first = Jean | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kermanshah-04-history-to-1953 | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 3 | pages = 319–324 | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Albania | last = Chaumont | first = M. L. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aran-arm | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 8 | pages = 806–810 | year = 1985 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Balāš, Sasanian king of kings | last1 = Chaumont| first1 = M. L. | first2 = K. | last2 = Schippmann | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/balas-proper-name#Sasanianking | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 6 | pages = 574–580 | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Crone |first=Patricia |author-link= Patricia Crone |year=1991 |title=Kavād's Heresy and Mazdak's Revolt |journal=Iran |volume=29 |pages=21–42 |doi= 10.2307/4299846|jstor=4299846 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Vesta Sarkhosh|last2=Stewart|first2=Sarah|title=The Rise of Islam: The Idea of Iran Vol 4.|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2009|isbn=978-1845116910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsqJDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Šāpur II | last = Daryaee | first = Touraj | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/shapur-ii | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2009 }}
* {{cite book | title = Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire | year = 2014 | publisher = I.B.Tauris | last = Daryaee| first = Touraj | author-link = Touraj Daryaee | pages = 1–240 | isbn = 978-0857716668 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LU0BAwAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |first1=Touraj |last1=Daryaee|first2=Khodadad|last2=Rezakhani|title=From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran |date=2016 |publisher=H&S Media |pages=1–126|isbn=9781780835778|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYnMCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |first1=Touraj |last1=Daryaee|first2=Khodadad|last2=Rezakhani|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |date=2017 |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Sasanian Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=9780692864401|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}}
* {{ODLA|last1=Daryaee|first1=Touraj|last2=Canepa|first2=Matthew|title=Mazdak|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3092}}
* {{ODLA|last1=Daryaee|first1=Touraj|last2=Nicholson|first2=Oliver|title=Qobad I (MP Kawād)|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3941}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Yazdegerd II | last = Daryaee | first = Touraj | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazdgerd-ii | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica }}
* {{Cite web |last=Dehkhoda |first=Ali-Akbar |author-link=Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda |date=2020 |title=Qobād |script-title=fa:قباد |url=https://dehkhoda.ut.ac.ir/en/dictionary/detail/243705?title=%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Dehkhoda.ut.ac.ir |publisher=[[Dehkhoda Dictionary Institute|Dehkhoda Lexicon Institute and International Center for Persian Studies]]|language=fa}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume=3a|last=Frye|first=R. N.|chapter=The political history of Iran under the Sasanians}}
* {{cite book | title = The History of Ancient Iran | year = 1984 | publisher = C.H.Beck | last = Frye | first = Richard Nelson | author-link = Richard Nelson Frye | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/n20 1]–411 | isbn = 9783406093975 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye | url-access = registration | quote = false. }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Apzut Kawāt wall | last = Gadjiev| first = Murtazali  | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/apzut-kawat-wall | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2017a }}
* {{cite journal | last = Gadjiev | first =  Murtazali |author-link= | title = Construction Activities of Kavād I in Caucasian Albania | journal = Iran and the Caucasus | year = 2017b | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 121–131 | url = https://brill.com/view/journals/ic/21/2/article-p121_2.xml | publisher = Brill |doi = 10.1163/1573384X-20170202| url-access = subscription }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Arrajān | last = Gaube | first = H. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arrajan-medieval-city-and-province-in-southwestern-iran-between-kuzestan-and-fars | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5 | pages = 519–520 | year = 1986 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Greatrex|first1=Geoffrey|last2=Lieu|first2=Samuel N. C.|title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)|year=2002|location=New York, New York and London, United Kingdom|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-14687-9|pages=82–97|chapter=Justinian's First Persian War and the Eternal Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Howard-Johnston|first1=James| author-link1 = James Howard-Johnston |editor1-last=Sarantis |editor1-first=Alexander |editor2-last=Christie |editor2-first=Neil |editor-link2=Neil Christie|title=War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004252578 |chapter=Military Infrastructure in the Roman Provinces North and South of the Armenian Taurus in Late Antiquity}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | first = Erich | last = Kettenhofen | title = Darband | encyclopaedia = Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. VII | pages = 13–19 | year = 1994 | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darband-i-ancient-city }}
* {{cite book|last1=Kia|first1=Mehrdad|title=The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1610693912|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B5BHDAAAQBAJ&q=false}}
* {{PLRE|volume=2}}
* {{PLRE|volume=3}}
* {{cite book |first1=Scott |last1=McDonough|editor1-last=Arnason|editor1-first=Johann P. |editor2-last=Raaflaub|editor2-first=Kurt A.|title=The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |chapter=The Legs of the Throne: Kings, Elites, and Subjects in Sasanian Iran |pages=290–321|isbn=9781444390186|doi=10.1002/9781444390186.ch13}}
* {{cite book |first1=Scott |last1=McDonough |editor1-last=Campbell|editor1-first=Brian  |editor2-first=Lawrence A. |editor2-last= Tritle |title=The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=Military and Society in Sasanian Iran|pages=1–783|isbn=9780195304657|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195304657-e-31}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Fahraj | last = Langarudi | first = Rezazadeh | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fahraj-1 | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2002 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Meybod | last = Modarres | first = Ali | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/meybod | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Miri|first1=Negin|title=Sasanian Pars: Historical Geography and Administrative Organization|journal=Sasanika|date=2012|pages=1–183|url=https://www.academia.edu/27195855|url-access=registration}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book | last = Payne | first = Richard E. | title = A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity |publisher=Univ of California Press|year=2015a|isbn=9780520961531|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtjsCQAAQBAJ&q=false | pages = 1–320 }}
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Richard|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015b |isbn=978-1-107-63388-9 |editor-last=Maas |editor-first=Michael |pages=282–299|chapter=The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns}}
* {{cite book |first1=Daniel T. |last1=Potts|editor1-last=Mass|editor1-first=Michael|editor2-last=Di Cosmo|editor2-first=Nicola|title=Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Sasanian Iran and its northeastern frontier |pages=1–538|isbn=9781316146040|chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/empires-and-exchanges-in-eurasian-late-antiquity/4E63CF99C760BDCF906093F021984D34}}
*{{cite book|last=Pourshariati|first=Parvaneh|title=Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran|location=London and New York|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84511-645-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3DEBAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Kārin | last = Pourshariati | first = Parvaneh | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karin | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2017 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Chinese-Iranian relations i. In Pre-Islamic Times | last = Pulleyblank | first = Edwin G. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-i | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 4 | pages = 424–431 | year = 1991 }}
* {{cite book | title = ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity | year = 2017 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | last = Rezakhani | first = Khodadad | pages = 1–256 | isbn = 9781474400305 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bjRWDwAAQBAJ&q=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Sauer|first=Eberhard|title=Sasanian Persia: Between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia|location=London and New York|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781474401029|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djRWDwAAQBAJ&q=false|pages=1–336}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Kawād I i. Reign|last=Schindel|first=Nikolaus|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawad-i-reign|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2|pages=136–141|year=2013a}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Kawād I ii. Coinage|last=Schindel|first=Nikolaus|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawad-i|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2|pages=141–143|year=2013b}}
* {{cite book |last1=Schindel |first1=Nikolaus |editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013c |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Sasanian Coinage}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Fīrūz | last = Schippmann | first = Klaus | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/firuz-1 | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IX, Fasc. 6 | pages = 631–632 | year = 1999 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia | last = Shahbazi | first  = A. Shapur | title = Sasanian dynasty | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty | year = 2005 | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition }}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Sundermann|first=W.|encyclopedia  =Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6|title =Artēštārān sālār|pages=662|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artestaran-salar-chief-of-the-warriors-a-high-ranking-title-in-sasanian-times-see-artestar-|year=1986}}
* {{cite book|last=Shahîd|first=Irfan|author-link=Irfan Shahîd|title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. Volume 1, Part 1: Political and Military History|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|year=1995|isbn=978-0-88402-214-5}}
* {{cite book |first1=M. Rahim |last1=Shayegan|editor1-last=Potts |editor1-first=Daniel T. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=Sasanian political ideology|pages=1–1021|isbn=9780190668662|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_tRvgAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book | last = Spuler | first = Bertold | author-link = | title = Iran in the Early Islamic Period: Politics, Culture, Administration and Public Life between the Arab and the Seljuk Conquests, 633-1055 |url = https://brill.com/view/title/26295 | year = 2014 | publisher = Brill | location = | pages = |isbn = 978-90-04-28209-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Bozorgān|last=Tafazzoli|first=Ahmad|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bozorgan-mpers|encyclopedia =Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4|pages=427|publisher=Ahmad Tafazzoli|year=1989}}
* {{cite journal |last=Toumanoff|first=Cyril |author-link= Cyril Toumanoff |year=1969 |title=Chronology of the early kings of Iberia|journal=Traditio |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=25 |pages=1–33 |doi= 10.1017/S0362152900010898|jstor=27830864 |s2cid=151472930 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book |last=Võõbus |author-link=Arthur Võõbus |first=Arthur |year=1965 |title=History of the School of Nisibis |publisher=Secrétariat du Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book|last=Crone|first=Patricia|title=The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1107642386|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7k0hAwAAQBAJ&q=false}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gil |first1=Moshe |title=King Qubādh and Mazdak |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |date=2012 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=75–90 |doi=10.1086/664453 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|s2cid=163367979 }}

{{commons category|Kavad I}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian dynasty]]||473||13 September 531}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Balash]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran]]|years=488–496}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Jamasp]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Jamasp]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran]]|years=498/9–531}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Khosrow I]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Sasanian Rulers}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kavadh I}}
[[Category:Kavad I| ]]
[[Category:473 births]]
[[Category:531 deaths]]
[[Category:5th-century Sasanian monarchs]]
[[Category:6th-century Sasanian monarchs]]
[[Category:Anastasian War]]
[[Category:Iberian War]]
[[Category:Medieval child monarchs]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars]]
[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]
[[Category:City founders]]