View source for Kimigayo

{{Short description|National anthem of Japan}}
{{Distinguish|Inkigayo}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox anthem
| title         = {{lang|ja|{{ruby line|君: きみ|が|代: よ}}}}
| transcription = "{{translit|ja|italic=no|Kimigayo}}"
| english_title = His Majesty's Reign
| image         = Kimigayo.score.svg
| image_size    = 
| caption       = Score of "Kimigayo"
| prefix        = National
| country       = Japan
| author        = [[Waka (poetry)|''waka'']] poem
| lyrics_date   = [[Heian period]] (794–1185)
| composer      = {{Plain list|
* Original version:
* [[John William Fenton]], 1869
* Current version:
* {{Nihongo|Yoshiisa Oku|奥 好義}} and {{Nihongo|Akimori Hayashi|林 廣守}}
* (arranged by [[Franz Eckert]])
}}
| music_date    = 1880
| adopted       = {{Plain list|
* 1869 (original music)
* 1870 (lyrics)
* 3 November 1880 (current music)
}}
| readopted     = [[Act on National Flag and Anthem|13 August 1999 (law)]]
| until         = 
| sound         = Kimi ga Yo instrumental.ogg
| sound_title   = [[United States Navy Band|U.S. Navy Band]] instrumental version
}}
{{Listen
| type         = music
| filename     = Kimi ga Yo 1930.ogg
| title        = 1930 orchestral and choral vocal recording
| description  = Performed by the Toyama Army School Military Band
| filename2    = Kimi ga Yo (Fenton).mid
| title2       = MIDI version of Fenton's original (melody only)
}}

{{nihongo|"'''Kimigayo'''"|君が代}} is the [[national anthem]] of [[Japan]]. The lyrics are from a ''{{translit|ja|[[Waka (poetry)|waka]]}}'' poem written by an unnamed author in the [[Heian period]] (794–1185),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalanthems.me/japan-kimigayo|title=Japan – Kimigayo |publisher=NationalAnthems.me|access-date=28 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227000629/http://nationalanthems.me/japan-kimigayo/}}</ref> making the lyrics of Kimigayo the oldest lyrics out of any national anthem, and the current melody was chosen in 1880,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.national-anthems.org/facts.htm|title=Facts About National Anthems|website=www.national-anthems.org|access-date=23 March 2023|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012160352/http://www.national-anthems.org/facts.htm|url-status=live}} The music of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] anthem [[Wilhelmus]] was composed in 1568.</ref> replacing an unpopular melody composed by [[John William Fenton]] in 1869. While the title "Kimigayo" is usually translated as "His [[Majesty]]'s [[Reign]],” no official translation of the title or lyrics have been established in law.<ref>{{cite news |date=29 March 2008 |title=Elementary schools face new mandate: Patriotism, 'Kimigayo' |work=[[The Japan Times]] Online |agency=Kyodo News |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/03/29/national/elementary-schools-face-new-mandate-patriotism-kimigayo/ |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503113855/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/03/29/national/elementary-schools-face-new-mandate-patriotism-kimigayo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1888 to 1945, ''Kimigayo'' served as the national anthem of the [[Empire of Japan]]. When the Empire accepted the [[Potsdam Declaration]] and came under [[Occupation of Japan|Allied occupation]], [[Hirohito|Emperor Shōwa]] retained the throne, and ''Kimigayo'' remained the ''de facto'' national anthem to preserve the [[Emperor of Japan|Japanese monarchy]]. The passage of the '''Act on the National Flag and Anthem''' in 1999 officially recognized it as both the national and imperial anthem.

== Etymology ==
"''Kimi''" has been used to indicate the [[Emperor of Japan]] or one's lord (i.e., master) since at least the [[Heian period]].<ref name="Kōjien">新村出記念財団(1998). A dictionary of [[Japanese language|language]] 『広辞苑』 ("''Kōjien''"), 5th edition. Published by [http://www.iwanami.co.jp/ Iwanami Shoten, Publishers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007132110/http://iwanami.co.jp/search/index.html |date=7 October 2011 }}.</ref><ref name="Furuta">{{cite web |url=http://www.furutasigaku.jp/jfuruta/jwagakim/jwagaki1.html |script-title=ja:君が代の源流 |website=Furuta's Historical Science Association |language=ja |access-date=10 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529041318/http://www.furutasigaku.jp/jfuruta/jwagakim/jwagaki1.html |archive-date=29 May 2013 }} {{cite web |url=http://www.furutasigaku.jp/efuruta/ewagakim/ewagaki.html |title=Inside "Kimigayo" |access-date=10 May 2008 |website=Furuta's Historical Science Association |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602215903/https://furutasigaku.jp/efuruta/ewagakim/ewagaki.html |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, the protagonist {{Nihongo3||光源氏|[[Hikaru Genji]]}} of ''[[the Tale of Genji]]'' is also called {{Nihongo3||光の君 {{lang|en|or}} 光君|"Hikaru no Kimi" {{lang|en|or|italic=no}} "Hikaru-gimi"}}. Before the [[Nara period]], the emperor was often called "''ohkimi''" (great lord); so it is controversial whether or not the word "''kimi''" in "''kimigayo''" had meant "emperor" originally.
"Kimi" also means "my dear" as female emperor [[Empress Genmei|Genmei]] wrote about her lover in a poem in [[Manyoshu]] (vol.1 no.78).

In the [[Kamakura period]], "Kimigayo" was used as a festive song among [[samurai]], and then became popular among the people in the [[Edo period]]. In the later part of the Edo period, "Kimigayo" was used in the [[Ōoku]] (harem of [[Edo Castle]], current [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]]) and [[Satsuma Domain|Satsuma-han]] (current [[Kagoshima Prefecture]]) as a common festive new year song. In those contexts, "''kimi''" never meant the emperor, but only the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shōgun]], the [[Shimazu clan]] as rulers of the Satsuma-han, guests of honour, or all members of a festive drinking party. After the [[Meiji Restoration]], samurai from Satsuma-han controlled the Imperial Japanese government, and they adopted "Kimigayo" as the national anthem of Japan. From this time until the [[Surrender of Japan|Japanese defeat]] at the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of World War II]], "Kimigayo" was understood to mean the long reign of the Emperor. With the adoption of the [[Constitution of Japan]] in 1947, the Emperor became no longer a [[Head of state|sovereign]] who ruled by [[Divine right of kings|divine right]], but a human who is a symbol of the state and of the unity of the people as a constitutional monarch.<ref name='Williams'>{{cite book |editor=Michael Williams |editor2=Graham Humphrys |title=Citizenship Education and Lifelong Learning: Power and Place |publisher=Nova Biomedical Books |year=2003 |page=126 |isbn=978-1-59033-863-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FrwMHKDPUzQC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA126 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=29 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221402/https://books.google.com/books?id=FrwMHKDPUzQC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA126#v=snippet&q=kimigayo&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology|Ministry of Education]] did not give any new meanings for "Kimigayo" after the war; this allowed the song to mean the Japanese people. The Ministry also did not formally renounce the pre-war meaning of "Kimigayo".<ref>{{cite book|title=Nationalism: Critical concepts in political science|isbn=978-0-415-21756-9|last1=Hutchinson|first1=John|last2=Smith|first2=Anthony D.|year=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUjNKxTrju4C&q=kimigayo&pg=PA1905|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221402/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUjNKxTrju4C&q=kimigayo&pg=PA1905#v=snippet&q=kimigayo&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1999, during the deliberations of the [[Act on National Flag and Anthem]], the official definition of ''Kimi'' or ''Kimi-ga-yo'' was questioned repeatedly. The first suggestion, which was given by [[Chief Cabinet Secretary]] [[Hiromu Nonaka]], stated that ''kimi'' meant the "Emperor as the symbol of Japan", and that the entire lyrics wish for the peace and prosperity of Japan. He referred to the new status of emperor as established in Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan as the main reason for these suggestions.<ref name='JPRI79'>{{cite journal|title=Japan's Neo-Nationalism: The Role of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo Legislation |journal=Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper|date=July 2001|first=Mayumi|last=Itoh |volume=79 |url= http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html |access-date=13 October 2010|archive-date=2 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002192508/http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the same session, [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Keizō Obuchi]] ([[Obuchi Cabinet]]) confirmed this meaning with a statement on 29 June 1999:

<blockquote>"''Kimi''" indicates the Emperor, who is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, and whose position is derived from the consensus-based will of Japanese citizens, with whom sovereign power resides. And, the phrase "Kimigayo" indicates our State, Japan, which has the Emperor enthroned as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people by the consensus-based will of Japanese citizens. And it is reasonable to take the lyric of "Kimigayo" to mean the wish for the lasting prosperity and peace of such country of ours.<ref name="JPRI79" /><ref name="Diet145HoR">{{cite web |author=The House of Representatives |date=1999-06-29 |url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14506290001041c.html |title=Info of the minutes of the plenary session No.41 of the House of Representatives in the 145th Diet term |language=ja |website=National Diet Library |access-date=2008-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411201108/http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14506290001041c.html |archive-date=2008-04-11}}</ref></blockquote>

Parties opposed to the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]], which was in control of the government during Obuchi administration, strongly objected to the government's meaning of ''kimi'' and "Kimigayo". Lawmakers of the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] objected on the grounds that there was a lack of any historical ties to the meaning. The strongest critic was [[Kazuo Shii]], the chairman of the [[Japanese Communist Party|Communist Party of Japan]], who strongly claimed that "Japan" could not be derived from "Kimigayo", because the lyrics only mention wishing for the emperor to have a long reign. Shii also objected to the use of the song as the national anthem, saying that for a democratic nation, an anthem about the emperor was not appropriate.<ref name="JPRI79" />

== History ==
=== Empire of Japan (1868–1945) ===
[[File:Shimogamo-Sazareishi-M1641.jpg|thumb|''Sazare-ishi'' pebbles are believed to grow into boulders in some legends. A photo taken at [[Kamo Shrine|''Shimogamo'' Shrine]] in [[Kyoto|Kyōto]].]]

The lyrics first appeared in the {{lang|ja-latn|[[Kokin Wakashū]]}}, a poetry anthology published in ca.920, as an anonymous poem. The poem was included in many anthologies, and was used in a later period as a celebration song of a long life by people of all social statures. Unlike the form used for the current national anthem, the poem originally began with "''Waga Kimi wa''" ('my lord') instead of "''Kimiga Yo wa''" ('my lord's reign').{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|p=78}} The first lyrics were changed during the Kamakura period, while the rest of the lyrics stayed the same. Because the lyrics were sung on informal occasions, such as birthdays, there was no sheet music for it until the 19th century.<ref name="JPRI79" />

In 1869, [[John William Fenton]], a visiting British military band leader, realized that there was no national anthem in Japan, and suggested to [[Ōyama Iwao|Iwao Ōyama]], an officer of the [[Satsuma Clan]], that one be created. Ōyama agreed, and selected the lyrics.<ref name="Scotsman">{{cite web|author=Aura Sabadus |date=14 March 2006|title=Japan searches for Scot who modernised nation|publisher=Johnston Press Digital Publishing |url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=379822006 |access-date=10 December 2007|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216103557/http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=379822006 |url-status=dead|archive-date=16 December 2012|work=The Scotsman}}</ref> The lyrics may have been chosen for their similarity to the [[God Save the Queen|British national anthem]], due to Fenton's influence.<ref name="Telegraph">{{cite web |author=Colin Joyce |date=30 August 2005 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/08/30/wjapan30.xml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216065311/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F08%2F30%2Fwjapan30.xml|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 December 2007|title=Briton who gave Japan its anthem |work=telegraph.co.uk|publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited|access-date=10 December 2007}}</ref> After selecting the anthem's lyrics, Ōyama then asked Fenton to create the melody. After being given just two<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyd|first=Richard|author2=Tak-Wing Ngo|title=State Making in Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|page=40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WF-ucX4oywIC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA40|isbn=978-0-415-34611-5|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221403/https://books.google.com/books?id=WF-ucX4oywIC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref> to three weeks to compose the melody, and only a few days to rehearse, Fenton debuted the anthem before the Japanese Emperor in 1870.<ref name="Telegraph" /> This was the first version of "Kimigayo". This was discarded because the melody "lacked solemnity", according to the Japanese government,<ref name="MOFA">{{cite web|url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf|title=National Flag and Anthem|work=Web Japan|publisher=Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs|year=2000|access-date=11 December 2009|archive-date=15 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615104013/http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> although others believe it is because the melody was actually "unsingable" for the Japanese.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeasCAAAQBAJ|title=Republic or Death! Travels in Search of National Anthems|last=Marshall|first=Alex|publisher=Windmill Books|year=2016|isbn=978-0-09-959223-5|location=London|page=104|quote=Fenton's effort was overhauled in 1880 because it turned out to be completely unsingable if you were Japanese – 'Japanese is not a tonal language, but it has its highs and lows, and he got it completely wrong, 'Professor Kazuo Fukushima, the director of Japan's Music Historiography Research Institute, told me – but after the rework it grew in prominence, especially as Japan's ruling elite tried to create a modern country...|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221456/https://books.google.com/books?id=GeasCAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this version is still performed annually at the ''Myōkōji'' temple in [[Yokohama]], where Fenton served as a military band leader. ''Myōkōji'' serves as a memorial to him.<ref name="Scotsman" />

[[File:Curt-Netto-Japanese-National-Hymn-Coverdesign-1880.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Franz Eckert]]'s notes, presented to the Meiji-Tennō in 1880 (cover design by [[Curt Netto]])]]
In 1880, the [[Ministry of the Imperial Household]] (current [[Imperial Household Agency]]) adopted a new melody composed by Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi. The composer is often listed as [[Hiromori Hayashi]], who was their supervisor and Akimori's father. Akimori was also one of Fenton's pupils.<ref name="Telegraph" /> Although the melody is based on a traditional mode of Japanese court music, it is composed in a mixed style influenced by Western hymns, and uses some elements of the Fenton arrangement.<ref name="Gottschewski">Hermann Gottschewski: "''Hoiku shōka'' and the melody of the Japanese national anthem ''Kimi ga yo''", in: ''Journal of the Society for Research in Asiatic Music'' (東洋音楽研究), No. 68 (2003), pp. 1–17. Published by [http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/tog/ The society for Research in Asiatic Music] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211083829/http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/tog/|date=11 February 2009}}</ref> The German musician [[Franz Eckert]] applied the melody with Western style harmony, creating the second and current version of "Kimigayo". The government formally adopted "Kimigayo" as the national anthem in 1888 and had copies of the music and lyrics sent overseas for diplomatic ceremonies.<ref name="State Making in Asia">{{cite book|last1=Boyd|first1=Richard|last2=Ngo|first2=Tak-Wing|title=State Making in Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|page=36|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8IDxzZ4SQIC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA36|access-date=14 October 2010|isbn=978-0-415-34611-5|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221403/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8IDxzZ4SQIC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA36#v=snippet&q=kimigayo&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> By 1893, "Kimigayo" was included in public school ceremonies due to the efforts of the then [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Ministry of Education]].<ref name="JPRI79" />

[[File:Kimigayo-Anthem-Japan-Sheet-Music-1888.png|thumb|Kimigayo sheet music, 1888]]
Kōzō Yoshimoto ({{lang|ja|吉本光蔵}}, 1863–1907) [<nowiki/>[[:ja:吉本光藏|ja]]] composed the Kimigayo March ({{lang|ja|君が代行進曲}}) [<nowiki/>[[:ja:君が代行進曲|ja]]] based on the anthem and another composition called ''Defense of the Japanese Empire'' ({{lang|ja|皇国の守り}}) by [[Isawa Shūji]].<!-- https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/君が代行進曲 states that Yoshimoto used 皇国の守. Although this is very likely, I could not find a proof that 皇国の守 was composed before 君が代行進曲 or that 君が代行進曲 borrowed the theme from 皇国の守 (and not vice versa). However, I could verify that the 君が代行進曲 clearly uses both melodies. --> The march is still performed by the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]] band.<ref>{{Citation |title=Kimigayo March - Japanese Navy Band | date=27 May 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pldWsWV320 |access-date=10 February 2023 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210222545/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pldWsWV320&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

At the turn of the 20th century, "Kimigayo" was beginning to be closely associated with the idea of honouring the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]]. It was also associated as a part of Japanese education. However, opinions expressed in an Osaka paper in 1904 calls "Kimigayo" a song for the [[Imperial House of Japan|imperial family]] and not the state as a whole.{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|p=79}} [[Uchimura Kanzo]], a Christian leader in Japan, stated at the turn of the 20th century that "Kimigayo" is not the anthem of Japan by saying the song's purpose is to praise the emperor. According to Kanzo, a national anthem should express the feelings of the people, and not of the divine emperor.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shields|first1=James J. Jr.|title=Japanese Schooling: Patterns of Socialization, Equality, and Political Control|publisher=Penn State University Press|year=1989|page=241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssHlZQvhOA4C&q=kimigayo+Kakuei&pg=PA241|access-date=14 October 2010|isbn=978-0-271-02340-3|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221422/https://books.google.com/books?id=ssHlZQvhOA4C&q=kimigayo+Kakuei&pg=PA241#v=snippet&q=kimigayo%20Kakuei&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The Japanese were not familiar with "Kimigayo" as the anthem until there was a surge of celebrations after victories in the [[First Sino-Japanese War|First Sino-Japanese]] and [[Russo-Japanese War]]s. Previously, papers were critical of fellow Japanese who could not sing "Kimigayo" properly at ceremonies overseas.<ref name="State Making in Asia" />

During [[World War II]], the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]] ordered that schoolchildren, both from its homeland and [[Japanese colonial empire|its colonies]], were to sing the "Kimigayo" anthem and salute Emperor [[Hirohito]] every morning.

=== Postwar Japan (1945–present) ===
==== 1945 to 1999 ====
During the [[Occupation of Japan|Allied occupation of Japan]] (led mainly by the [[United States]]), there were no directives by the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]] to restrict the use of "Kimigayo" by the [[Government of Japan|Japanese government]]. This was different from the regulations issued that restricted the use of the ''[[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]]'' flag.{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|p=81}} Along with the encouragement to use "Kimigayo" in the schools to promote defence education and [[patriotism]], the national broadcaster [[NHK]] began to use the song to announce the start and ending of its programming.{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|p=82}}

==== Since 1999 ====
[[File:国旗及び国歌に関する法律.jpg|thumb|alt=A page with Asian characters and a black-and-white version of the Japanese flag left above|The ''Act on National Flag and Anthem (Japan)'' as it appears in the Official Gazette on 15 August 1999]]
The "[[Act on National Flag and Anthem]]" was passed on 13 August 1999, choosing both the ''Hinomaru'' and "Kimigayo" as Japan's national symbols. The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of a school principal in Hiroshima who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the ''Hinomaru'' and "Kimigayo".{{sfn|Aspinall|2001|p=126}}

[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Keizō Obuchi]], President of the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) decided to draft legislation to make the ''Hinomaru'' and "Kimigayo" official symbols of Japan in 2000. His [[Chief Cabinet Secretary]], [[Hiromu Nonaka]], wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of the coronation of [[Akihito]] as Emperor.{{sfn|Itoh|2003|pp=209–210}} This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official. In 1974, with the backdrop of the [[1971 Okinawa Reversion Agreement|1972 return of Okinawa Prefecture]] to Japan from the U.S. and the [[1973 oil crisis]], Prime Minister [[Kakuei Tanaka]] hinted at a law being passed legalizing both symbols.{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|pp=82–83}}

The main supporters of the bill were governing parties, the LDP and the [[Komeito]] (CGP), while the opposition included the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDPJ) and [[Japanese Communist Party|Communist Party]] (JCP), who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era. The JCP was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public. Meanwhile, the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) could not develop party consensus on it. President of the DPJ and future prime minister, [[Naoto Kan]] stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |title=国旗国歌法制化についての民主党の考え方 |access-date=17 January 2010 |date=21 July 1999 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |trans-title=The DPJ Asks For A Talk About the Flag and Anthem Law |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728091749/http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref> Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister [[Yukio Hatoyama]] thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools.{{sfn|Itoh|2003|pp=209–210}}

Before the vote, there were calls for the bills to be separated at the [[National Diet]]. [[Waseda University]] professor Norihiro Kato stated that "Kimigayo" is a separate issue more complex than the ''Hinomaru'' flag.{{sfn|Calichman|2005|p=211}} Attempts to designate only the ''Hinomaru'' as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |title=国旗・国歌法案、衆院で可決 民主党は自主投票 |access-date=18 January 2010 |trans-title=Flag and Anthem Law Passed by the House, DPJ Free Vote|date=22 July 1999 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728091823/http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The House of Representatives passed the bill on 22 July 1999, by a 403 to 86 vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html|title=第１４５回国会 本会議 第４７号|access-date=17 January 2010|date=22 July 1999|publisher=National Diet Library|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714043020/http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html |archive-date=14 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on 28 July and was passed on 9 August. It was enacted into law on 13 August.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm|title=議案審議経過情報: 国旗及び国歌に関する法律案 |access-date=17 January 2010|date=13 August 1999|publisher=House of Representatives|language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323180056/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm |archive-date=23 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Protocol ==
[[File:Kimi ga Yo at volleyball tournament.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A photo taken on 6 November 2007, as "Kimigayo" was being played before a volleyball tournament in [[Osaka|Ōsaka]]]]

The lyrics and [[musical notation]] of the anthem are given in the second appendix of the [[Act on National Flag and Anthem]]. As for the sheet music itself, it displays a vocal arrangement with no mention of tempo and all of the lyrics in [[hiragana]]. The anthem is composed in 4/4 ([[Time signature|common time]]) in the [[Dorian mode]].<ref name="law">{{cite web|title=国旗及び国歌に関する法律（平成十一年法律第百二十七号）|trans-title=Act on National Flag and Anthem, Act No.&nbsp;127 in the 11th year of [[Heisei era|Heisei]] (1999)|url=https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/document?lawid=411AC0000000127|access-date=30 March 2021|date=13 August 1999|publisher=[[Government of Japan]]|language=ja|archive-date=4 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604022952/https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/document?lawid=411AC0000000127|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Act on National Flag and Anthem]] does not detail how one should show respect during performances of "Kimigayo". In a statement made by Prime Minister Obuchi, the legislation will not impose new regulations on the Japanese people when it comes to respecting the flag or anthem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/1999/8/809.html|title=Statement of Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi|access-date=17 May 2010|date=9 August 1999|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|archive-date=24 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524023306/http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/1999/8/809.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, local government bodies and private organizations sometimes suggest or demand certain protocols be followed. For example, an October 2003 directive by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government required teachers to stand during the national anthem at graduation ceremonies. While standing, the teachers are required to sing "Kimigayo" while facing the [[Flag of Japan|''Hinomaru'']].<ref>{{cite web|date=7 April 2004|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/ed20040407a1.html|title=Editorial: Coercion can't foster respect|work=[[The Japan Times]] Online|access-date=19 December 2007|archive-date=26 May 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526023147/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/ed20040407a1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>  The Act on National Flag and Anthem also does not dictate when or where "Kimigayo" should be played. The anthem, however, is commonly played at sporting events inside of Japan, or at international sporting events where Japan has a competing team. At [[sumo|''sumō'']] tournaments, "Kimigayo" is played before the awards ceremony.<ref name="MOFA" />

=== Public schools ===
Since the [[end of World War II in Asia|end of World War&nbsp;II]], the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Ministry of Education]] has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the ''Hinomaru'' and "Kimigayo" at schools under their jurisdiction. The first of these statements was released in 1950, stating that it was desirable, but not required, to use both symbols. This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defence education. The Ministry not only took great measures to explain that both symbols are not formally established by law, they also referred to "Kimigayo" as a song and refused to call it the national anthem. It was not until 1977 that the Ministry referred to {{nihongo|"Kimigayo"|君が代}} as the {{nihongo|national anthem|国歌|kokka}} of Japan.{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|pp=81–83}} In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines, the LDP-controlled government first demanded that the ''Hinomaru'' flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to "Kimigayo".{{sfn|Trevor|2001|p=78}} Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms.{{sfn|Goodman|Neary|1996|pp=81–83}}

The 1999 [[curriculum guideline]] issued by the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology|Ministry of Education]] after the passage of the ''[[Act on National Flag and Anthem|Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem]]'' decrees that "on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the "Kimigayo" (national anthem), given the significance of the flag and the song."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm |title=学習指導要領における国旗及び国歌の取扱い |trans-title=Handling of the flag and anthem in the National Curriculum|access-date=8 December 2009 |date=11 September 2001|publisher=Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education Secretariat|language=ja|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722112237/http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm |archive-date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> Additionally, the ministry's commentary on 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that "given the advance of internationalization, along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese, it is important to nurture school children's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and "Kimigayo" as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society."<ref>{{cite web|title=小学校学習指導要領解説社会編，音楽編，特別活動編 |trans-title=National Curriculum Guide: Elementary social notes, Chapter music Chapter Special Activities |publisher=Ministry of Education |language=ja |year=1999 |url=http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060319210723/http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |archive-date=19 March 2006}}</ref> The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols, then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations.{{sfn|Aspinall|2001|p=125}}

== Present-day perception ==
According to a survey conducted by [[TV Asahi]], most [[Japanese people]] perceived "Kimigayo" as an important, yet a controversial song even before the passage of the ''[[Act on National Flag and Anthem]]'' in 1999.<ref name="asahi990718">{{cite web |url=http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/n-station/research/990717/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080523125535/http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/n-station/research/990717/index.html|archive-date=23 May 2008|title=国旗・国歌法制化について|trans-title=About the Law of the Flag and Anthem|work=Asahi Research|publisher=TV Asahi|language=ja |date=18 July 1999 |access-date=11 March 2008}}</ref> However, a poll in the same year, conducted by the Mainichi Shimbun, found that most respondents opposed legislation that make it the national anthem, or thought that the Diet should take more time in passing such a law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/1999/08/09/national/flag-anthem-law-no-end-to-controversy/ |author=Asako Murakami |title=Flag-anthem law no end to controversy |work=[[The Japan Times]] Online |date=9 August 1999 |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=21 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421171822/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/1999/08/09/national/flag-anthem-law-no-end-to-controversy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Many Japanese students, who must sing the song at entrance and graduation ceremonies, say they cannot understand the old and obsolete language of the lyrics and are not educated on its historical uses.<ref>{{cite web |author=Mayumi Negishi |title='Kimigayo' controversy leaves students indifferent, confused |work=[[The Japan Times]] Online |date=9 July 1999 |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/1999/07/22/national/kimigayo-controversy-leaves-students-indifferent-confused/ |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404165511/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/1999/07/22/national/kimigayo-controversy-leaves-students-indifferent-confused/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Controversies surrounding the use of the anthem in school events still remain.

== Lyrics ==
=== Japanese original ===
{|class="wikitable" rules="cols"
![[Kanji]]
![[Hiragana]]
![[Romanization of Japanese|Rōmaji]]<ref name="MOFA" />
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription{{efn|See [[Help:IPA/Japanese]] and [[Japanese phonology]]}}
|- style="vertical-align:top; white-space:nowrap;"
|<poem>{{lang|ja|君が代は
千代に八千代に
さざれ石の
巌となりて
苔の生すまで}}</poem>
|<poem>{{lang|ja|きみがよは
ちよにやちよに
さざれいしの
いわおとなりて
こけのむすまで}}</poem>
|<poem>{{transliteration|ja|Kimigayo wa
Chiyo ni yachiyo ni
Sazare-ishi no
Iwao to narite
Koke no musu made}}</poem>
|<poem>{{IPA|wrap=none|[ki.mi.ɡa.jo ɰa]
[t͡ɕi.ꜜjo ɲi ja.ꜜt͡ɕi.jo ɲi]
[sa.za.ɾe.ꜜi.ɕi no]
[i.ɰa.o to na.ɾi.te]
[ko.keꜜ no mɯ.ꜜsɯ ma.de]}}</poem>
|}

=== English translations ===
{| class="wikitable"
!English translation<ref name="Hood">{{cite book|last1=Hood|first1=Christopher|title=Japanese Education Reform: Nakasone's Legacy|publisher=Routledge|year=2001|page=166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn9AG5ecIkUC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA166|access-date=13 October 2010|isbn=978-0-415-23283-8|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229221406/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn9AG5ecIkUC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA166|url-status=live}}</ref>
!Poetic English translation<br />by [[Basil Hall Chamberlain]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Politika i ekonomija (Upoznajte Japan) |url=http://www.yu.emb-japan.go.jp/Srpski/UpoznajteJapan-PolitikaEkonomija.htm |access-date=17 May 2010 |year=2003 |publisher=Japanska ambasada u Srbiji i Crnoj Gori |language=sr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428014321/http://www.yu.emb-japan.go.jp/Srpski/UpoznajteJapan-PolitikaEkonomija.htm |archive-date=28 April 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top; white-space:nowrap;"
|<poem>May [[Emperor of Japan|your reign]]
Continue for a thousand, [[8#As a lucky number|eight]] thousand generations,
Until the tiny pebbles
Grow into massive boulders
Lush with [[moss]]</poem>
|<poem>Thousands of years of happy reign be thine;
Rule on, [[Emperor of Japan|my lord]], until what are pebbles now
By ages united to mighty rocks shall grow
Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.</poem>
|}

== Controversies ==
{{Japanese nationalism|Related}}
Japan's national anthem is controversial due to its [[Postwar Japan|post-war history]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeasCAAAQBAJ |title=Republic or Death! Travels in Search of National Anthems|last=Marshall |first=Alex|publisher=Windmill Books |year=2016|isbn=978-0-09-959223-5|location=London|pages=99–100|quote="All anthems stir up controversy at some point...But no matter how heated such controversies get, none comes close to that around Kimigayo. It's a conflict that's been going on in Japan's schools for over 70 years. Teachers have lost jobs because of it. They've received death threats because of it. Parents have been left dazed by it, worrying about their children's future. And yes, Toshihiro Ishikawa committed suicide because of it."}}</ref> [[Education in Japan|Schools]] have been the center of controversy over both it and the national flag.<ref name='Wesiman'>{{cite news |author=Weisman, Steven R. |title=For Japanese, Flag and Anthem Sometimes Divide |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/29/world/for-japanese-flag-and-anthem-sometimes-divide.html#end_copy |work=The New York Times |date=29 April 1990 |access-date=2 January 2010 |archive-date=24 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524130632/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/29/world/for-japanese-flag-and-anthem-sometimes-divide.html#end_copy |url-status=live }}</ref> The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both "Kimigayo" and flag at events under their jurisdiction. The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/05/worlddispatch.japan|title=A touchy subject|publisher=Guardian Unlimited|work=The Guardian|author=McCurry, Justin|date=5 June 2006|access-date=14 January 2008|archive-date=29 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029123404/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/jun/05/worlddispatch.japan|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1999, several teachers in [[Hiroshima]] refused to put up the anthem while the Hiroshima Education Board demanded that they do so. As the tension arose between them, a vice-principal killed himself. A similar incident in Osaka in 2010 also occurred, with 32 teachers refusing to sing the song in a ceremony. In 2011, nine more teachers joined the rebellion, along with another eight in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |title=8 Osaka teachers to be punished for refusal to sing national anthem |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/8-osaka-teachers-face-punishment-over-refusal-to-sing-national-anthem |website=Japan Today |date=25 February 2012 |access-date=25 February 2012 |archive-date=16 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616230835/http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/8-osaka-teachers-face-punishment-over-refusal-to-sing-national-anthem |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Hashimoto Toru]], the mayor of [[Osaka]], stated that "[i]t was good that criminals who are intent on breaking the rules have risen to the surface".<ref>{{cite web |title=Teachers Who Refused To Sing National Anthem Face Punishment |website=japanCRUSH |publisher=Beth |url=http://www.japancrush.com/2013/stories/teachers-who-refused-to-sing-national-anthem-face-punishment.html |access-date=6 March 2013 |archive-date=21 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421171830/https://www.japancrush.com/2013/stories/teachers-who-refused-to-sing-national-anthem-face-punishment.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Some have protested that such rules violate the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and the "freedom of thought, belief and conscience" clause in the [[Constitution of Japan]],<ref name='Grossman'>{{cite book |last1=Grossman |last2=Lee |first2=Wing On |last3=Kennedy |first3=Kerry |title=Citizenship Curriculum in Asia and the Pacific |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btkuYUgXLRIC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA85|access-date=12 October 2010 |isbn=978-1-4020-8744-8}}</ref> but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens. Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against [[Governor of Tokyo]] [[Shintarō Ishihara]] and senior officials for ordering teachers to honour the ''Hinomaru'' and "Kimigayo".<ref name="ishihara">{{cite web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060105b2.html|title=Ishihara's Hinomaru order called legit|work=[[The Japan Times]] Online|date=5 January 2006|access-date=4 December 2007|archive-date=27 December 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121227215302/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20060105b2.html|url-status=live}}</ref> After earlier opposition, the [[Japan Teachers Union]] accepts the use of both the flag and national anthem; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system.{{sfn|Heenan|1998|p=206}}

In 2006, Katsuhisa Fujita, a retired teacher in [[Tokyo]], was threatened with [[imprisonment]] and fined 200,000 [[Japanese yen|yen]] (roughly 2,000 [[United States dollar|US dollars]]) after he was accused of disturbing a [[graduation]] ceremony at [[Itabashi]] [[Secondary school|Senior High School]] by urging the attendees to remain seated during the playing of the national anthem.<ref>{{cite web
 |date        = 24 May 2006
 |url         = http://home.kyodo.co.jp/modules/fstStory/index.php?storyid=248658
 |title       = Feature: Upcoming verdict on retired teacher draws attention
 |work        = Kyodo News On The Web
 |access-date  = 29 July 2006
 |url-status   = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20060618201400/http://home.kyodo.co.jp/modules/fstStory/index.php?storyid=248658
 |archive-date = 18 June 2006
}}</ref> At the time of Fujita's sentence, 345 teachers had been punished for refusing to take part in anthem related events, though Fujita is the only man to have been convicted in relation to it.<ref>{{cite news | title = Japanese teacher fined for anthem protest | date = 31 May 2006 | publisher = AFP | url = http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2006/05/31/2003310932 | work = [[The Taipei Times]] | access-date = 14 October 2010 | archive-date = 30 August 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220830142736/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2006/05/31/2003310932 | url-status = live }}</ref> On 21 September 2006, the Tokyo District Court ordered the Tokyo Metropolitan Government to pay compensation to the teachers who had been subjected to punishment under the directive of the Tokyo Board of Education. The then [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Junichiro Koizumi]] commented, "It is a natural idea to treat the national anthem importantly". The ruling was appealed by the Metropolitan Government.<ref>{{cite web
|date=23 September 2006
|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060923a2.html
|title=City Hall to appeal 'Kimigayo' ruling
|work=[[The Japan Times]] Online
|access-date=25 October 2007
|archive-date=26 May 2012
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526023233/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060923a2.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> From 23 October 2003 to 2008, 410 teachers and school workers were punished for refusing to stand and sing the anthem as ordered by school principals.<ref>{{cite news |title=2 teachers punished for refusing to stand up, recite 'Kimigayo' |date=24 May 2008 |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/2-teachers-punished-for-refusing-to-stand-up-recite-kimigayo |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091015193543/http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/2-teachers-punished-for-refusing-to-stand-up-recite-kimigayo |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 October 2009 |work=Kyodo News |publisher=Japan Today |access-date=14 October 2010}}</ref> Teachers can also be punished if their students do not stand while "Kimigayo" is played during school ceremonies.<ref name="Grossman" />

On 30 May 2011 and 6 June 2011, two panels of the [[Supreme Court of Japan]] ruled that it was constitutional to require teachers to stand in front of the [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] and sing the Kimigayo during school ceremonies.  In making the ruling, the panels ratified the decision of the [[Tokyo High Court]] in ruling against 13 teachers who had asked for court relief after being disciplined between 2003 and 2005 for refusing to stand and sing the anthem.<ref>{{cite web|author=Kyodo News|title=Top court again backs 'Kimigayo' orders|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110608b1.html|work=[[The Japan Times]] Online|access-date=15 October 2011|archive-date=21 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821231030/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110608b1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Outside of the school system, there was a controversy regarding "Kimigayo" soon after the passage of the 1999 law. A month after the law's passage, a record containing a performance of "Kimigayo" by Japanese rock musician [[Kiyoshiro Imawano]] was removed by Polydor Records from his album ''Fuyu no Jujika'' (冬の十字架, ''Cross in Winter''). Polydor did not want to attract harassment from [[uyoku dantai|far-right groups]]. In response, Imawano re-released the album through an independent label with the track in question.<ref name='billboard'>{{cite magazine |first=Steve |last=McClure |date=25 September 1999 |title=Polydor Censors Japanese Rocker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cAgEAAAAMBAJ&q=Kimigayo&pg=PA73 |magazine=Billboard |page=73 |access-date=25 August 2009}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Music|Japan}}
{{Column list|
* [[Imperial Seal of Japan]]
* [[The king is dead, long live the king!]]
* [[Rising Sun Flag]]
* [[Ten thousand years]]
* "[[Umi Yukaba]]" – anthem of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] and the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]]
}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
* {{cite book|author=Aspinall, Robert W|title=Teachers' Unions and the Politics of Education in Japan|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsdFCz-Il3EC&q=Japanese+flag+respect+foreign&pg=PA125|isbn=0-7914-5050-3|ref={{harvid|Aspinall|2001}}|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229222419/https://books.google.com/books?id=zsdFCz-Il3EC&q=Japanese+flag+respect+foreign&pg=PA125#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20flag%20respect%20foreign&f=false|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|author=Calichman, Richard T|title=Contemporary Japanese Thought|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yIfWCkSfOdoC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA211|isbn=0-231-13621-8|ref={{harvid|Calichman|2005}}|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229222420/https://books.google.com/books?id=yIfWCkSfOdoC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA211|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |author=Goodman, Roger |author2=Neary, Ian |title=Case Studies on Human Rights in Japan |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73sE6NkXPbAC&q=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA81 |isbn=978-1-873410-35-6 |ref={{harvid|Goodman|Neary|1996}} |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=29 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229222416/https://books.google.com/books?id=73sE6NkXPbAC&q=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA81#v=snippet&q=Japanese%20flag%20homes&f=false |url-status=live }}
* {{citation|author=Hebert, David G.|title=Wind Bands and Cultural Identity in Japanese Schools|volume=9|page=239 |publisher=Springer|year=2011|isbn=978-94-007-2178-4|ref={{harvid|Hebert|2011}}|doi= 10.1007/978-94-007-2178-4_16 |chapter=National Identity in the Japanese School Band|series=Landscapes: the Arts, Aesthetics, and Education}}
* {{cite book|author=Heenan, Patrick|title=The Japan Handbook|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNawsKPltbwC&q=Japan+flag+schools&pg=PA206|isbn=1-57958-055-6|ref={{harvid|Heenan|1998}}|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=29 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229222417/https://books.google.com/books?id=qNawsKPltbwC&q=Japan+flag+schools&pg=PA206#v=onepage&q=Japan%20flag%20schools&f=false|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|author=Itoh, Mayumi|year=2003|title=The Hatoyama Dynasty: Japanese Political Leadership Through the Generations |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-4039-6331-2|ref={{harvid|Itoh|2003}}}}
* Marshall, Alex. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GeasCAAAQBAJ Republic or Death! Travels in Search of National Anthems]'', Windmill Books, 2016, {{ISBN|9781473507531}} {{OCLC|919397311}}
* {{cite book |author=Trevor, Malcolm |title=Japan&nbsp;– Restless Competitor The Pursuit of Economic Nationalism |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrAoHzoP1QkC&q=flag+japan+emperor&pg=PA78 |isbn=978-1-903350-02-7 |ref={{harvid|Trevor|2001}} |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=29 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229222417/https://books.google.com/books?id=PrAoHzoP1QkC&q=flag+japan+emperor&pg=PA78#v=snippet&q=flag%20japan%20emperor&f=false |url-status=live }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
===Legislation===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web|title=国旗及び国歌に関する法律（平成十一年法律第百二十七号）|trans-title=Act on National Flag and Anthem, Act No.&nbsp;127 in the 11th year of [[Heisei era|Heisei]] (1999)|url=https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/document?lawid=411AC0000000127|access-date=30 March 2021|date=13 August 1999|publisher=[[Government of Japan]]|language=ja|archive-date=4 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604022952/https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/document?lawid=411AC0000000127|url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Kimigayo}}
* [http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf National Flag and Anthem]—Web-Japan.org
* [https://www.japan.go.jp/japan/flagandanthem/index.html About Japan > National Flag and Anthem]—Official website of the [[Government of Japan]]
* [https://www.thoughtco.com/japanese-national-anthem-kimigayo-2028070 Kimigayo: Japanese National Anthem]—[[About.com]]
* {{YouTube|jbNzZCmbb28|Anthem of Japan - Kimigayo (Fenton Version)}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
|title="Kimigayo"
|before = —
|years = National anthem of Japan<br />(1868–present)
|after = —
}}
{{succession box
|title="Kimigayo"
|before = —
|years = National anthem of [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]]<br />(1895–1945)
|after="[[National anthem of the Republic of China|Three Principles of the People]]"<br />{{nobold|(1945–present, in the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]])}}
}}
{{succession box
|title="Kimigayo"
|before="[[National anthem of the Korean Empire]]"<br />{{nobold|(1902–1910)}}
|years = National anthem of [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea]]<br />(1910–1945)
|after="[[Aegukga]]"<br />{{nobold|(1948–present, in [[South Korea]])}}<hr>"[[Aegukka]]"<br />{{nobold|(1948–present, in [[North Korea]])}}
}}
{{s-end}}
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