View source for Kingdom of Romania

{{short description|Kingdom in Europe between 1881 and 1947}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Romania
| native_name            = {{lang|ro|Regatul României}}
| common_name            = Romania
| iso3166code            = omit
| era                    = {{hlist|[[Belle Époque]]|[[World War I]]|[[Interwar period]]|[[World War II]]|[[Cold War (1947–1948)|Cold War]]}}
| event_start            = [[United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia#History|Kingdom proclaimed]]
| year_start             = 1881
| event_end              = [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Republic proclaimed]]
| year_end               = 1947
| date_end               = 30 December
| p1                     = United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia{{!}}'''1881:'''<br />United Principalities
| flag_p1                = Flag of Romania.svg
| p2                     = Kingdom of Bulgaria{{!}}'''1913:'''<br />Kingdom of Bulgaria
| flag_p2                = Flag of Bulgaria.svg
| p3                     = Moldavian Democratic Republic{{!}}'''1918:'''<br />Moldavian Democratic Republic
| flag_p3                = National flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic.svg
| p4                     = Duchy of Bukovina
| flag_p4                = Flag of Bukowina.svg
| p5                     = Kingdom of Hungary (1920–46){{!}}Kingdom of Hungary
| flag_p5                = Flag of Hungary (1920–1946).svg
| s1                     = Romanian People's Republic{{!}}'''1947:'''<br />Romanian People's Republic
| flag_s1                = Flag of Romania.svg
| s2                     = Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic{{!}}'''1940/1944:'''<br>Moldavian SSR
| flag_s2                = Flag of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1941-1952).svg
| s3                     = Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic{{!}}Ukrainian SSR
| flag_s3                = Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1937–1949).svg
| s4                     = Kingdom of Bulgaria{{!}}'''1940:'''<br />Kingdom of Bulgaria
| flag_s4                = Flag of Bulgaria.svg
| today                  = {{ubl|[[Romania]]|[[Moldova]]|[[Ukraine]]|[[Bulgaria]]}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Romania.svg
| image_coat             = Kingdom of Romania - Big CoA.svg
| image_map              = Kingdom of Romania (1939).svg
| map_caption            = The Kingdom of Romania in 1939
| image_map2             = Kingdom of Romania (1914).svg
| map_caption2           = The Kingdom of Romania in 1914
| national_motto         = ''[[Nihil Sine Deo]]''<br />"Nothing without God"
| national_anthem        = ''[[Marș triumfal]]''<br />"Triumphant March"<br />(1881–1884)
''[[Trăiască Regele]]''<br />"Long live the King"<br />(1884–1948)
[[File:Trăiască_Regele_(Victor_Military_Band).ogg|Traiasca Regele!]]
| official_languages     = [[Romanian language|Romanian]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitutiunea din 1923 |url=http://legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/const_1923.php |publisher=Legislatie pentru Democratie |access-date=19 September 2011 |language=ro |archive-date=17 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117054858/http://legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/const_1923.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
| common_languages       = {{collapsible list|[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], [[Yiddish]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Romani language|Romani]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Gagauz language|Gagauz]] and others}}
| religion               = [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian Orthodox]] ([[State Religion]])<ref>{{cite book |title=Minorities in the Balkans: State policy and interethnic relations (1804 - 2004): Les minorites dans les Balkans |first=Dušan T. |last=Bataković |year=2011 |isbn=9788671790680 |page=98 |publisher=Balkanološki institut SANU |quote= }}</ref>
| capital                = {{plainlist|
* [[Bucharest]]<br />(1881–1916, 1918–1947)
* [[Iași]] (1916–1918)}}
| government_type        = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| title_leader           = [[King of Romania|King]]
| leader1                = [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]]
| year_leader1           = 1881–1914
| leader2                = [[Ferdinand I of Romania|Ferdinand I]]
| year_leader2           = 1914–1927
| leader3                = [[Michael I of Romania|Michael I]]
| year_leader3           = 1927–1930 (1st reign)
| leader4                = [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]]
| year_leader4           = 1930–1940
| leader5                = [[Michael I of Romania|Michael I]]
| year_leader5           = 1940–1947 (2nd reign)
| deputy1                = [[Ion Brătianu]]
| deputy2                = [[Ion Antonescu]]{{anchor|infoa}}<sup>[[#inforefa|[a]]]</sup>
| deputy3                = [[Petru Groza]]
| year_deputy1           = 1881 (first)
| year_deputy2           = 1940–1944
| year_deputy3           = 1945–1947 (last)
| title_deputy           = [[List of heads of government of Romania|Prime Minister]]
| legislature            = [[Parliament of Romania|Parliament]]<br>(1881–1937; 1939–1940)<br>None ([[rule by decree]])<br>(1937–1939; 1940–1946)<br>[[Chamber of Deputies (Romania)|Assembly of Deputies]]<br>(1946–1947)
| upper_house            = [[Senate of Romania|Senate]]<br>(1881–1937; 1939–1940)
| lower_house            = [[Chamber of Deputies (Romania)|Assembly of Deputies]]<br>(1881–1937; 1939–1940)
| stat_year1             = 1915
| stat_area1             = 137903
| ref_area1              = {{anchor|infob}}<sup>[[#inforefb|[b]]]</sup>
| stat_pop1              = 7,900,000
| ref_pop1               = {{anchor|infob}}<sup>[[#inforefb|[b]]]</sup>
| stat_year2             = 1940
| stat_area2             = 295049
| ref_area2              = {{anchor|infob}}<sup>[[#inforefb|[b]]]</sup>{{anchor|infoc}}<sup>[[#inforefc|[c]]]</sup>
| stat_pop2              = 20,058,378
| ref_pop2               = {{anchor|infob}}<sup>[[#inforefb|[b]]]</sup>{{anchor|infoc}}<sup>[[#inforefc|[c]]]</sup>
| GDP_nominal            = $2.834&nbsp;billion
| GDP_nominal_year       = 1938{{anchor|infod}}<sup>[[#inforefd|[d]]]</sup>
| currency               = [[Romanian Leu]]
| demonym                = Romanian
| footnotes              = {{plainlist|
* {{anchor|inforefa}}a. '''[[#infoa|^]]''' Was formally declared ''[[Conducător]]'' (literally, "Leader") of the state on 6 September 1940, by a royal decree which consecrated a ceremonial role for the monarch.<ref>[[Dennis Deletant]], ''Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania, 1940–1944'', [[Palgrave Macmillan]], London, 2006. {{ISBN|1-4039-9341-6 }}</ref>
* {{anchor|inforefb}}b. '''[[#infob|^]]''' Area and population according to Ioan Suciu, ''Istoria contemporana a României (1918–2005)''.<ref name="AreaPop">{{cite web |title=Istoria contemporana a României (1918-2005) |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/8031827/Scurtu-Ioan-Istoria-a-a-Romaniei-19182005 |access-date=19 September 2011 |author=Ioan Scurtu |location=Bucharest |year=2005 |language=ro |archive-date=21 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921115216/https://api.intentiq.com/profiles_engine/ProfilesEngineServlet?at=39&mi=10&dpi=793790479&pt=17&dpn=1&jsver=5.09&iiqidtype=2&iiqpcid=f65143b4-903f-45d1-97a3-a1de6b8cb882&iiqpciddate=1726919526396&iiqcallcount=0&iiqfailcount=0&iiqnodata=false&iiqlocalstorageenabled=true&tsrnd=541_1726919526397&fbp=3488738477&cttl=43200000&rrtt=0&dud=0&abtg=A&iiqppcc=0&ref=www.scribd.com |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{anchor|inforefc}}c. '''[[#infoc|^]]''' The indicator for the localities of Romania (1941).<ref name="Indicator41">{{cite web |title=Indicatorul localităților din România |url=http://www.cimec.ro/pdf/dl.asp?filename=indicatorul-localitatilor-din-Romania-1941.pdf |access-date=20 October 2015 |author=Institutul Central de Statistică |year=1943 |language=ro |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202804/http://www.cimec.ro/pdf/dl.asp?filename=indicatorul-localitatilor-din-Romania-1941.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{anchor|inforefd}}d. '''[[#infod|^]]''' 1938 GDP in lei amounting to 387.204 billion (20,487 lei per capita at an estimated population of 18.9 million<ref name="books.google.ro">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUVaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA392 |title=D. Berg-Schlosser, J. Mitchell, Springer, Feb 23, 2000, ''The Conditions of Democracy in Europe 1919-39: Systematic Case Studies'', p. 392 |isbn=978-0-333-99377-4 |access-date=March 13, 2023 |archive-date=September 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921115150/https://books.google.com/books?id=sUVaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA392#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live |last1=Berg-Schlosser |first1=D. |last2=Mitchell |first2=J. |date=8 January 2016 |publisher=Springer }}</ref>) at the 1938 average exchange rate of 1 leu for $0.00732.<ref name="H_vNAAAAMAAJ 1944, p. 4">{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_vNAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA10-PA4 |title=United States - Bureau of Mines, Economics and Statistics Branch, December 1944, ''Foreign Minerals Survey - The Mineral Resources of Rumania'', p. 4 |date=1943 |access-date=2023-03-13 |archive-date=2024-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921115041/https://books.google.com/books?id=H_vNAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA10-PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
}}
The '''Kingdom of Romania''' ({{langx|ro|Regatul României}}) was a [[constitutional monarchy]] that existed from {{OldStyleDate|25 March|1881|13 March}} with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as [[King of Romania|King]] [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] (thus beginning the [[Romanian royal family]]), until 1947 with the abdication of King [[Michael I of Romania|Michael I]] and the Romanian parliament's proclamation of the [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romanian People's Republic]].

From 1859 to 1877, Romania evolved from a [[personal union]] of two [[Principality|principalities]]: ([[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]]) called the [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia]] also known as "The Little Union" under a single prince to an autonomous principality with a [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] monarchy. The country gained its independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] during the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War]] (known locally as the [[Romanian War of Independence]]), after which it was forced to cede the southern part of [[Bessarabia]] in exchange for [[Northern Dobruja]]. The kingdom's territory during the reign of King Carol I, between 13 ([[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|O.S.]]) / 25 March 1881 and 27 September ([[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|O.S.]]) / 10 October 1914 is sometimes referred to as the [[Romanian Old Kingdom]], to distinguish it from "[[Greater Romania]]", which included the provinces that became part of the state after [[World War I]] ([[Bessarabia]], [[Banat]], [[Bukovina]], and [[Transylvania]]).

With the exception of the southern halves of [[Bukovina]] and [[Transylvania]], these territories were ceded to neighboring countries in 1940, under the pressure of [[Nazi Germany]] or the [[Soviet Union]]. Following the abolishment of the 1923 constitution by [[King Carol II]] in 1938, the Kingdom of Romania became an [[absolute monarchy]], only to become a [[military dictatorship]] under [[Ion Antonescu]] in 1940 after the forced abdication of King Carol II, with his successor, [[Michael I of Romania|King Michael I]] being a figurehead with no effective political power. The country's name was changed to [[National Legionary State|Legionary Romania]].

The disastrous [[World War II]] campaign on the side of the [[Axis powers]] led to [[1944 Romanian coup d'état|King Michael's Coup]] against Ion Antonescu in 1944, as a result of which the Kingdom of Romania became a [[constitutional monarchy]] again and switched sides to the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], recovering [[Northern Transylvania]]. The influence of the neighbouring Soviet Union and the policies followed by [[Romanian Communist Party|Communist]]-dominated coalition governments ultimately led to the abolition of the monarchy, with Romania becoming a Soviet [[satellite state]] as the [[People's Republic of Romania]] on the last day of 1947.

==History==
===Unification and monarchy===
{{History of Romania}}
{{see also|Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|Romanian War of Independence}}
The 1859 ascendancy of [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] as prince of both [[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]] under the nominal<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uaic.ro/en/university-2/university/timeline/ |title=Timeline |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219231851/http://www.uaic.ro/en/university-2/university/timeline/ |archive-date=19 December 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-11119.html |title=Romania - The Crimean War and Unification |access-date=2017-01-06 |archive-date=2004-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041113181700/http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-11119.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[suzerainty]] of the Ottoman Empire united an identifiably Romanian nation under a single ruler. On 24 January ([[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|O.S.]]) / 5 February 1862, the two principalities were formally united to form the [[Principality of Romania]], with [[Bucharest]] as its capital.

On 11 ([[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|O.S.]]) / 23 February 1866 a so-called "[[monstrous coalition]]", composed of Conservatives and radical Liberals, forced Cuza to abdicate. The [[German prince]] Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was appointed as Prince of Romania, in a move to assure German backing to unity and future independence. He immediately adopted the Romanian spelling of his name, [[Carol I of Romania|Carol]], and his cognatic descendants would rule Romania until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1947.

For more than a decade after the formal union of the two principalities, Romania was still nominally a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. However, this was increasingly a legal fiction. Romania had its own flag and anthem, and from 1867 had its own currency as well. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]], Romania was recognized as an independent state by the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878]] and acquired [[Dobruja]], although it was forced to surrender southern Bessarabia ([[Budjak]]) to Russia. On 15 March 1881, as an assertion of full sovereignty, the [[Parliament of Romania|Romanian parliament]] raised the country to the status of a kingdom, and Carol was crowned king on 10 May.
[[File:Actul proclamarii Regatului Romania.jpg|thumb|Proclamation Act of the Kingdom of Romania]]
The new state, squeezed between the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austro-Hungarian]], and [[Imperial Russia|Russian]] Empires, with Slavic populations on its southwestern, southern, and northeastern borders, the Black Sea due east, and [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian]] neighbours on its western and northwestern borders, looked to the West, particularly France, for its cultural, educational, and administrative models.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deju |first=Elena |date=18 November 2018 |title= Aspecte ale influenţei limbii franceze asupra limbii române|url=https://www.gup.ugal.ro/ugaljournals/index.php/lcls/article/view/1701 |journal= Analele Universităţii "Dunărea de Jos" Din Galaţi. Fascicula XXIV Lexic Comun / Lexic Specializat|language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=139–146 |doi=10.35219/lcls.2018.1.08 |s2cid=216956637 |issn=1844-9476 |doi-access=free |access-date=15 December 2022 |archive-date=15 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215205402/https://www.gup.ugal.ro/ugaljournals/index.php/lcls/article/view/1701 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=2013 |title=Unele consideraţii privind impactul dreptului francez asupra celui românesc, în contextul formării României moderne |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=821715 |journal=Conferința Internațională de Drept, Studii Europene și Relații Internaționale |language=Romanian |volume=I |issue=I |pages=668–675 |issn=2668-0645 |access-date=2022-12-15 |archive-date=2024-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921115055/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=821715 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Abstaining from the [[First Balkan War|Initial Balkan War]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]], the Kingdom of Romania entered the [[Second Balkan War]] in June 1913 against the [[Third Bulgarian Empire|Tsardom of Bulgaria]]. 330,000 Romanian troops moved across the Danube and into Bulgaria. One army occupied [[Southern Dobruja]] and another moved into northern Bulgaria to threaten Sofia, helping to bring an end to the war. Romania thus acquired the ethnically mixed territory of Southern Dobruja, which it had desired for years.

In 1916 Romania entered [[World War I]] on the [[Triple Entente|Entente]] side. Romania engaged in a conflict against [[Bulgaria]] but as a result Bulgarian forces, after a series of successful battles, regained [[Dobruja]], which had been previously ceded from Bulgaria by the treaty of Bucharest and the [[Congress of Berlin|Berlin congress]]. Although the Romanian forces did not fare well militarily, by the end of the war the Austrian and Russian empires were gone; various assemblies proclaimed as representative bodies in [[Transylvania]], [[Bessarabia]] and [[Bukovina]] decided on union with Romania. In 1919 by the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]] and in 1920 by the [[Treaty of Trianon]] most of the territories claimed were assigned to Romania.

===Old Kingdom (1881–1918)===
{{main|Romanian Old Kingdom|Romania during World War I}}
The '''Romanian Old Kingdom''' ({{langx|ro|Vechiul Regat}} or just ''Regat''; {{langx|de|link=no|Regat}} or {{lang|de|Altreich}}) is a colloquial term referring to the territory covered by the first independent Romanian [[nation state]], which was composed of the [[Danubian Principalities]] – Wallachia and Moldavia. It was achieved when, under the auspices of the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)]], the [[ad hoc Divans]] of both countries – which were under [[Ottoman Empire|Imperial Ottoman]] [[suzerainty]] at the time – voted for [[Alexander Ioan Cuza]] as their prince, thus achieving a ''de facto'' unification. The region itself is defined by the result of that political act, followed by the inclusion of [[Northern Dobruja]] in 1878, the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the annexation of [[Southern Dobruja]] in 1913.
[[File:Romania1901.JPG|thumb|1901 German map of Romania]]
The term came into use after World War I, when the Old Kingdom was opposed to [[Greater Romania]], which included Transylvania, [[Banat]], Bessarabia, and Bukovina. Nowadays, the term is mainly of historical relevance, and is otherwise used as a common term for all regions in Romania included in both the Old Kingdom and present-day borders (namely: Wallachia, Moldavia, and Northern Dobruja).

===World War I===
{{main|Romania in World War I}}
Romania delayed in entering World War I, but ultimately declared war on the Central Powers in 1916. The [[Romania in World War I|Romanian military campaign]] ended in stalemate when the Central Powers quickly crushed the country's [[Battle of Transylvania|offensive into Transylvania]] and occupied Wallachia and Dobruja, including Bucharest and the strategically important oil fields, by the end of 1916. In 1917, despite fierce Romanian resistance, especially at the [[Battle of Mărășești]], due to Russia's withdrawal from the war following the [[October Revolution]], Romania, being almost completely surrounded by the Central Powers, was forced to also drop from the war, signing the [[Armistice of Focșani]] and next year, in May 1918, the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1918)|Treaty of Bucharest]]. But after the successful offensive on the [[Thessaloniki]] front which put Bulgaria out of the war, Romania's government quickly reasserted control and put an army back into the field on 10 November 1918, a day before the war ended in Western Europe. Following the proclamation of the [[Union of Transylvania with Romania|union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania]] on 1 December 1918 by the representatives of Transylvanian Romanians gathered at [[Alba Iulia]], Transylvania was soon united with the Kingdom, as was [[Bessarabia]] earlier in 1918, since the power vacuum in Russia caused by the civil war there allowed the ''[[Sfatul Țării]]'', or National Council, to proclaim the [[union of Bessarabia with Romania]]. [[Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919|War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic]] in 1919 resulted in the occupation of Budapest by Romanian troops and the end of [[Béla Kun]]'s Bolshevik regime.

===Greater Romania===
====Union with Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania====
{{main|Union of Transylvania with Romania|Union of Bessarabia with Romania|Union of Bukovina with Romania}}
{{See also|Greater Romania}}
At the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]], Romania received the territories of [[Transylvania]], part of Banat and other territories from [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], as well as Bessarabia (Eastern Moldavia between [[Prut]] and [[Dniester]] rivers) and Bukovina. In the [[Treaty of Trianon]], Hungary renounced in favor of Romania all the claims of the [[Austro-Hungarian Monarchy]] over Transylvania.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Trianon |title=Text of the Treaty of Trianon |publisher=World War I Document Archive |access-date=7 December 2007 |archive-date=4 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204035603/http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Trianon |url-status=live }}</ref> The union of Romania with [[Bukovina]] was ratified in 1919 in the [[Treaty of Saint Germain]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ox_gXq2jpdYC&q=treaty+of+st+germain+text+bukovina&pg=PA162 |title=Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia |author=Bernard Anthony Cook |page=162 |isbn=0-8153-4057-5 |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor&Francis |access-date=7 December 2007 |archive-date=21 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921115042/https://books.google.com/books?id=ox_gXq2jpdYC&q=treaty+of+st+germain+text+bukovina&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q=treaty%20of%20st%20germain%20text%20bukovina&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1920 some of the Western powers recognized Romanian rule over Bessarabia by the [[Treaty of Paris (1920)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Legal Status of the Bukovina and Bessarabia |author=Malbone W. Graham |journal=[[American Journal of International Law]] |date=October 1944 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=667–673 |publisher=American Society of International Law |jstor=2192802 |doi=10.2307/2192802 |s2cid=146890589 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/legal-status-of-the-bukovina-and-bessarabia/576B0E04C9D1064F6E124C44E190D4E1 |access-date=2018-01-13 |archive-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114183737/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/legal-status-of-the-bukovina-and-bessarabia/576B0E04C9D1064F6E124C44E190D4E1 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Thus, Romania in 1920 was more than twice the size it had been in 1914. The last territorial change during this period came in 1923, when a few border settlements were exchanged between Romania and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]. The most notable Romanian acquisition was the town of [[Jimbolia]], while the most notable Yugoslav acquisition was the town of [[Jaša Tomić, Sečanj|Jaša Tomić]].<ref>Dan Petre, ''Hotarele românismului în date'' (Ed. Litera Internațional, București, 2005), pp. 106–107</ref><ref>Peter Jordan (1989), ''Atlas Ost- und Südosteuropa: aktuelle Karten zu Ökologie, Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft'', Issue 2, Österreichisches Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut, p. 27</ref>

Romania made no further territorial claims; nonetheless the kingdom's expansion aroused enmity from several of its neighbors, including Bulgaria, the Soviet Union, and especially Hungary.{{efn|The Treaty of Paris – recognizing the union with Bessarabia – never came into effect because one of its signatories, Japan, refused to ratify it. This meant that the union was not recognized by the international community, making it – unlike the other provinces – more of a ''de facto'' union than an official, ''de jure'' one.<ref>Takako Ueta, Eric Remacle, Peter Lang (2005), ''Japan and Enlarged Europe: Partners in Global Governance'', p. 81</ref> Furthermore, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] left the peace conference to emphasize his disagreements earlier in 1919, and because the U.S. Congress did not ratify the [[Treaty of Trianon]], the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.<ref>1921. évi XLVIII. törvénycikk az Amerikai Egyesült-Államokkal 1921. évi augusztus hó 29. napján Budapesten kötött békeszerződés becikkelyezéséről - XLVIII. Act of 1921 about the enactment the peace treaty signed in Budapest on 29. August 1921 with the United States of America - http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=7504 {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921040629/https://1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=7504 |date=21 September 2017 }}</ref>}} [[Greater Romania]] now had a significant minority population, especially of [[Hungarians]], and faced the difficulty of assimilation. Transylvania had significant Hungarian and German population who were accustomed to being the power structure; with a historically contemptuous{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} attitude towards Romanians, they now feared reprisals. Both groups were effectively excluded from politics as the postwar regime passed an edict stating that all personnel employed by the state had to speak Romanian. The new state was also a highly centralized one, so it was unlikely that the Hungarian or German minorities would exercise political influence without personal connections in the government in Bucharest. Despite these policies, the Romanian government permitted both Germans and Hungarians the freedom to have separate schools, publications and judicial hearings in their respective languages.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} These rights were not extended to other minorities, Jews in particular.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}

[[File:RomaniansInHungary1890.png|thumb|Ethnic map of Romanians within the Kingdom of Hungary in 1890]]

====The ''interbellum'' years====
The resulting [[Great Union]] did not survive World War II. Until 1938, Romania's governments maintained the form, if not always the substance, of a liberal constitutional monarchy. The [[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberal Party]], dominant in the years immediately after World War I, became increasingly [[clientelism|clientelist]] and [[nationalism|nationalist]], and in 1927 was supplanted in power by the [[National Peasants' Party]]. Between 1930 and 1940 there were over 25 separate governments; on several occasions in the last few years before World War II, the rivalry between the fascist [[Iron Guard]] and other political groupings approached the level of a civil war.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Upon the death of King [[Ferdinand of Romania|Ferdinand]] in 1927, his son, [[Carol II of Romania|Prince Carol]], was prevented from succeeding him because of previous marital scandals that had resulted in his renunciation of rights to the throne. After living three years in exile, with his brother Nicolae serving as regent and his young son [[Michael I of Romania|Michael]] as king, Carol changed his mind and with the support of the ruling National Peasants' Party he returned and proclaimed himself king.

[[Iuliu Maniu]], leader of the National Peasants' Party, engineered Carol's return on the basis of a promise that he would forsake his mistress [[Magda Lupescu]], and Lupescu herself had agreed to the arrangement. However, it became clear upon Carol's first re-encounter with his former wife, [[Helen of Greece and Denmark|Elena]], that he had no interest in a reconciliation with her, and Carol soon arranged for Magda Lupescu's return to his side. Her unpopularity was a millstone around Carol's neck for the rest of his reign, particularly because she was widely viewed as his closest advisor and confidante. Maniu and his National Peasant Party shared the same general political aims as the Iron Guard: both fought against the corruption and dictatorial policies of King Carol II and the National Liberal Party.<ref>Rebecca Ann Haynes, "Reluctant allies? Iuliu Maniu and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu against King Carol II of Romania." ''[[The Slavonic and East European Review]]'' (2007): 105-134. [http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/2247/1/2247.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707220817/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/2247/1/2247.pdf |date=2019-07-07 }}</ref>

The [[Great Depression|worldwide Great Depression that started in 1929]] and [[Great Depression in Romania|was also present in Romania]] destabilised the country. The early 1930s were marked by social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. In several instances, the Romanian government violently repressed strikes and riots, notably the 1929 miners' strike in [[Valea Jiului]] and the strike in the [[Grivița]] railroad workshops. In the mid-1930s, the Romanian economy recovered and the industry grew significantly, although about 80% of Romanians were still employed in agriculture. French economic and political influence was predominant in the early 1920s but then Germany became more dominant, especially in the 1930s.<ref>William A. Hoisington Jr, "The Struggle for Economic Influence in Southeastern Europe: The French Failure in Romania, 1940." ''Journal of Modern History'' 43.3 (1971): 468-482.</ref>

[[File:Paris-expo-1937-pavillon de la Roumanie-10.jpg|thumb|left|Romanian pavilion at EXPO Paris 1937]]

As the 1930s progressed, Romania's already shaky democracy slowly deteriorated toward [[fascism|fascist]] dictatorship. The constitution of 1923 gave the king free rein to dissolve parliament and call elections at will; as a result, Romania experienced over 25 governments in a single decade.

Increasingly, these governments were dominated by a number of [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]], ultra-nationalist, and mostly at least quasi-fascist parties. The [[National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)|National Liberal Party]] steadily became more nationalistic than liberal, but nonetheless lost its dominance over Romanian politics. It was eclipsed by parties like the (relatively moderate) National Peasants' Party and its more radical [[Romanian Front]] offshoot, the [[National-Christian Defense League]] (LANC) and the [[Iron Guard]]. In 1935, LANC merged with the [[National Agrarian Party (Romania)|National Agrarian Party]] to form the [[National Christian Party]] (NCP). The quasi-mystical fascist Iron Guard was an earlier LANC offshoot that, even more than these other parties, exploited nationalist feelings, fear of communism, and resentment of alleged foreign and Jewish domination of the economy.

Already the Iron Guard had embraced the politics of assassination, and various governments had reacted more or less in kind. On 10 December 1933, Liberal prime minister [[Ion Duca]] "dissolved" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; consequently, 19 days later he was assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.

Throughout the 1930s, these nationalist parties had a mutually distrustful relationship with King Carol II. Nonetheless, in December 1937, the king appointed National Christian Party leader, the poet [[Octavian Goga]], as prime minister of Romania's first [[Kingdom of Romania under Fascism|Fascist government]]. Around this time, Carol met with [[Adolf Hitler]], who expressed his wish to see a Romanian government headed by the pro-Nazi Iron Guard. Instead, on 10 February 1938 King Carol II used the occasion of a public insult by Goga toward Lupescu as a reason to dismiss the government and institute a short-lived royal dictatorship, sanctioned 17 days later by a new constitution under which the king named personally not only the prime minister but all the ministers.

In April 1938, King Carol had Iron Guard leader [[Corneliu Zelea Codreanu]] (aka "The Captain") arrested and imprisoned. On the night of 29–30 November 1938, Codreanu and several other legionnaires were killed while purportedly attempting to escape from prison. It is generally agreed that there was no such escape attempt, but that they were murdered in retaliation for a series of assassinations by Iron Guard commandos.

The royal dictatorship was brief. On 7 March 1939, a new government was formed with [[Armand Călinescu]] as prime minister; on 21 September 1939, three weeks after the start of World War II, Călinescu, in turn, was also assassinated by legionnaires avenging Codreanu's murder.

In 1939, Germany and the [[Soviet Union]] signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. After the 1940 territorial losses and growing increasingly unpopular, Carol was compelled to abdicate and name general [[Ion Antonescu]] as the new Prime-Minister with full powers in ruling the state by royal decree.<ref>{{cite web |title=Decret regal privind investirea generalului Ion Antonescu cu depline puteri |url=http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-15.htm |work=Istoria românilor între anii 1918–1940 |access-date=19 September 2011 |author1=Ioan Scurtu |author2=Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu |author3=Georgiana Margareta Scurtu |language=ro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002052125/http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-15.htm |archive-date=2 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===World War II===
{{Main|Romania in World War II|Kingdom of Romania under Fascism}}
{{See also|Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Second Vienna Award|Treaty of Craiova}}

===Post-war Kingdom (1945–1947)===
{{See also|Soviet occupation of Romania|Michael I of Romania#Reign under Communism}}
{{Expand section|date=June 2024}}

==Economy==
===Pre-Kingdom Era to World War I===
At the time of the proclamation of the Kingdom, there were already several industrial facilities in the country: The Assan and Olamazu [[steam mill]]s, built in 1853 and 1862 respectively, a brick factory built in 1865, and two sugar factories built in 1873, among others. In 1857, the first oil refinery in the world was built at [[Ploiești]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/eakins/we_1844.htm |title=WORLD EVENTS: 1844-1856 |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]].org |access-date=22 April 2009 |quote="world's first oil refinery" |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413183141/https://www.pbs.org/eakins/we_1844.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1880, after several railways were built, the [[Căile Ferate Române|CFR]] was founded. After proclamation of the Kingdom, the pre-established industrial facilities began to be highly developed: 6 more, larger, sugar factories were built and the railway network was expanded more. Another, more modern brick factory was built in 1891.<ref name="rumaniamilitary.ro">{{cite web |url=http://www.rumaniamilitary.ro/tag/industria-romana-inainte-de-primul-razboi-mondial |title=industria romana inainte de primul razboi mondial Archives - Romania Military |date=5 December 2014 }}</ref>

===Agriculture===
Despite all of these industrial achievements, the overwhelming majority of Romania's economy remained agricultural.<ref name="rumaniamilitary.ro"/> In 1919, a staggering 72% of Romanians were engaged in agriculture. The Romanian peasantry was among the poorest in the region, a situation aggravated by one of Europe's highest birth rates. Farming was primitive and machinery and chemical fertilizers almost unheard of. The Regat (prewar Romania) was traditionally a land of large estates worked by peasants who either had little or no land of their own. The situation in Transylvania and Bessarabia was marginally better. After peasant calls for land reform snowballed into an avalanche, King Ferdinand had to oblige, especially once the Russian Revolution had encouraged peasants to take the matter in their own hands. [[Land reform in Romania#1921 reform|The land reform]] passed in 1921 accomplished little however. Large landowners still controlled up to 30% of Romania's land, including the forests peasants depended on for fuel. The redistributed plots were invariably too small to feed their owners and most peasants could not overcome their tradition of growing grain over cash crops. Nothing was done to remedy basic problems such as rural overpopulation and technological backwardness. Draft animals were rare, to say nothing of machinery, actual productivity was worse than before. Romanian agriculture struggled in the international market,{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} and with the onset of [[Great Depression in Romania|the Great Depression]], collapsed completely.

===Expansion and growth===
Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1990 exchange rate amounted to $11.7&nbsp;billion.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rpBbX3kdnhgC&pg=PA7 Stephen Broadberry, Mark Harrison, Cambridge University Press, Sep 29, 2005, ''The Economics of World War I'', pp. 7-8]</ref> However, the 1990 dollar was 9.27 times weaker than the 1938 dollar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1938?endYear=1990&amount=1 |title=Inflation calculator |access-date=2021-09-21 |archive-date=2021-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921083744/https://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1938?endYear=1990&amount=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Thus, Romania's 1913 GDP at the 1938 exchange rate amounted to $1.262&nbsp;billion.

The 1938 Romanian GDP amounted to 387.204&nbsp;billion lei, with a GDP per capita of 20,487 lei at an estimated population of 18.9 million.<ref name="books.google.ro"/> The 1938 average exchange rate was of 1 [[Romanian leu|leu]] for US$0.00732.<ref name="H_vNAAAAMAAJ 1944, p. 4"/> Romania's 1938 GDP thus amounted to $2.834&nbsp;billion.

Romania's public debt as of 1 April 1938 amounted to 112,267,290,144 lei, of which 78,398,078,964 lei consisted of external debt.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIzJDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1275 |title=M. Epstein, Springer, Dec 23, 2016, ''The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1939'', p. 1275 |isbn=978-0-230-27068-8 |access-date=March 13, 2023 |archive-date=October 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030203247/https://books.google.com/books?id=uIzJDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1275 |url-status=live |last1=Epstein |first1=M. |date=23 December 2016 |publisher=Springer }}</ref> Total public debt thus amounted to 29% of Romania's 1938 GDP, while public external debt amounted to just over 20%.

===Industrial development===
[[File:Romania CFR 151.002 2-10-2.JPG|thumb|The Malaxa Prime, a Romanian-made steel-wrought locomotive]]
Despite the destruction provoked by the First World War, Romanian industry managed significant growth, as a result of new establishments and development of the older ones. The [[FAUR|MALAXA]] industrial engineering and manufacturing company was established in 1921 by Romanian industrialist [[Nicolae Malaxa]] and dealt especially with rolling stock maintenance and manufacturing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.faur.ro/en.html |title=Metallic Welded Constructions. Faur Bucharest Romania |access-date=2016-02-05 |archive-date=2016-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205164200/http://www.faur.ro/en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It developed rapidly, and by 1930 Romania had managed to cease importing locomotives altogether, all required rolling stock being supplied by the local industry.{{cn|date=December 2024}} Industrial facilities acquired along with the new provinces, such as the [[Reșița works]], also contributed to the rapid development of Romanian heavy industry. Other important establishments were the [[Copșa Mică works]], producing non-ferrous metals and the [[I.O.R.|Romanian Optical Enterprise]]. Construction also developed, as great monuments like the [[Heroes' Cross on Caraiman Peak|Caraiman Cross]] (1928), [[Arcul de Triumf]] (1936), and the [[Mausoleum of Mărășești]] (1938) were erected. The oil industry was also greatly expanded, making Romania one of the top oil exporters by the late 1930s, which also attracted German and Italian [[German–Romanian Treaty for the Development of Economic Relations between the Two Countries (1939)|interest]].

In 1938, Romania produced 6.6 million tons of crude oil, 284,000 tons of crude steel, 133,000 tons of [[pig iron]], 510,000 tons of cement, and 289,000 tons of rolled steel.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=g1XuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 ''Revolutionary Breakthroughs and National Development: The Case of Romania, 1944-1965'', p. 82] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921115149/https://books.google.com/books?id=g1XuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=2024-09-21 }}, Ken Jowitt, [[University of California Press]], 8 January 2021</ref>

===Armament industry===
[[File:Mortier Negrei 250 mm Model 1916.JPG|left|thumb|250 mm Negrei mortar]]
Romanian military industry during [[World War I]] was mainly focused on converting various fortification guns into field and anti-aircraft artillery. Up to 334 German 53&nbsp;mm [[Fahrpanzer]] guns, 93 French 57&nbsp;mm Hotchkiss guns, 66 Krupp 150&nbsp;mm guns and dozens more 210&nbsp;mm guns were mounted on Romanian-built [[Gun carriage|carriages]] and transformed into mobile field artillery, with 45 Krupp 75&nbsp;mm guns and 132 Hotchkiss 57&nbsp;mm guns being transformed into anti-aircraft artillery. The Romanians also [[10.5 cm Feldhaubitze M.12|upgraded]] 120 German Krupp 105&nbsp;mm howitzers, the result being the most effective field howitzer in Europe at that time. Romania even managed to design and build from scratch its own model of mortar, the 250&nbsp;mm Negrei Model 1916.<ref>Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, ''Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures)'', pp. 40, 49, 50, 54, 59, 61, 63, 65 and 66 (in Romanian)</ref> Other Romanian technological assets include the building of [[A Vlaicu III|Vlaicu III]], the world's first aircraft made of metal.<ref>Jozef Wilczynski, ''Technology in Comecon: Acceleration of Technological Progress Through Economic Planning and the Market'', p. 243</ref> The Romanian Navy possessed the largest warships on the Danube. They were a class of 4 river monitors, built locally at the [[Galați shipyard]] using parts manufactured in Austria-Hungary, and the first one launched was ''Lascăr Catargiu'', in 1907.<ref>International Naval Research Organization, ''Warship International, Volume 21'', p. 160</ref><ref>Frederick Thomas Jane, ''Jane's Fighting Ships'', p. 343</ref> The Romanian monitors displaced almost 700 tons, were armed with three 120&nbsp;mm naval guns in 3 turrets, two 120&nbsp;mm naval howitzers, four 47&nbsp;mm anti-aircraft guns and two 6.5 machine guns.<ref>Robert Gardiner, ''Conway's All the World Fighting Ships 1906–1921'', p. 422</ref> The monitors took part in the [[Battle of Turtucaia]] and the [[First Battle of Cobadin]]. The Romanian-designed Schneider 150&nbsp;mm Model 1912 howitzer was considered one of the most modern field guns on the Western Front.<ref>Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, ''Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures)'', p. 53 (in Romanian)</ref>

[[File:IAR80.jpg|thumb|A formation of IAR-80 fighter aircraft]]
[[File:Amiral Murgescu (side).jpg|thumb|Minelayer {{NMS|Amiral Murgescu}}]]

The Romanian armament industry was expanded greatly during the Interwar period and World War II. New factories were constructed, such as the [[Industria Aeronautică Română]] and [[Societatea Pentru Exploatări Tehnice]] aircraft factories, which produced hundreds of indigenous aircraft, such as [[IAR 37]], [[IAR 80]], and [[SET 7]]. Before the war, Romania acquired from France the licence to produce hundreds of [[Brandt Mle 27/31]] and [[Brandt Mle 1935]] mortars, with hundreds more produced during the war,<ref>''Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945'', pp. 29, 30, 75 and 147</ref> and also the licence to produce 140 French 47&nbsp;mm Schneider anti-tank guns at the Concordia factory, with 118 produced between 26 May 1939 and 1 August 1940 and hundreds more produced during the war;<ref>Dan Ovidiu Pintilie, ''Istoricul societății Concordia 1907-1948'', p. 142 (in Romanian)</ref><ref name="auto">''Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945'', p. 75</ref> these guns were to be towed by [[Renault UE Chenillette|Malaxa Tip UE]] armored carriers, built since late 1939 at the Malaxa factory under French licence, eventually 126 being built until March 1941. Czechoslovak licence was acquired in 1938 to produce the [[ZB vz. 30]] machine gun, with 5,000 being built at the Cugir gun factory until the start of [[Operation Barbarossa]] in June 1941.<ref name="auto1">''Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945'', p. 29</ref> Romania also acquired the licence to produce the [[R-1 tank|R-1]] tankette, but ultimately only one prototype was built locally.<ref>Charles K. Kliment, Vladimir Francev, ''Czechoslovak Armored Fighting Vehicles'', pp. 113-134</ref> German licence was acquired in 1938 to produce 360 [[3.7 cm Flak 18/36/37/43|37 mm Rheinmetall anti-aircraft guns]], but only 102 were produced until May 1941.<ref name="auto1"/> British licence was acquired to produce 100 [[Vickers Model 1931]] 75&nbsp;mm anti-aircraft guns at the [[Reșița works]], with the first battery of 6 guns entering service on 1 August 1939, and 100 more guns were built during the war for a total production of 200.<ref name="auto1"/> On 14 June, Romania launched the first locally-built warship, the minelayer {{NMS|Amiral Murgescu}}.

During the war, Romania copied and produced hundreds of Soviet [[M1938 mortar]]s,<ref name="auto"/> as well as designing and producing up to 400 [[75 mm Reșița Model 1943]] anti-tank guns. Infantry weapons designed and produced by Romania during the war include the [[Orița M1941]] sub-machinegun and the [[Argeș (flamethrower)|Argeș flamethrower]]. Romania also built 30 [[Renault R-35#Romania|Vănătorul de care R-35]],<ref name="auto2">Steven J. Zaloga, ''Tanks of Hitler's Eastern Allies 1941-45'', p. 31</ref> 34 [[TACAM T-60]], 21 [[TACAM R-2]] tank destroyers and rebuilt 34 captured Soviet [[Komsomolets armored tractor]]s.<ref>''Third Axis. Fourth Ally. Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941-1945'', p. 220</ref> A few prototype vehicles were also built, such as the [[Mareșal tank destroyer]], which is credited with being the inspiration for the German [[Hetzer]],<ref name="auto2"/> a [[Renault R-35]] tank with a [[T-26]] turret<ref name="auto2"/> and an artillery tractor known as [[T-1 tractor|T-1]]. Warships built include the submarines {{NMS|Rechinul}} and {{NMS|Marsuinul}}, [[Democrația-class minesweeper|a class of 4 minesweepers]], 6 Dutch-designed torpedo boats<ref>Spencer C. Tucker, ''World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia'', p. 633</ref> and 2 gunboats.<ref>Cristian Crăciunoiu, ''Romanian Navy torpedo boats''</ref>

==Demographics==
[[File:Romania 1930 ethnic map EN.png|thumb|Ethnic map (1930 census)]]
According to the [[1930 Romanian Census]], Romania had a population of 18,057,028. [[Romanians]] made up 71.9% of the population and 28.1% of the population were [[Minorities in Romania|ethnic minorities]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border:5"
|+
'''Population of Romania according to ethnic group in 1930<ref>{{cite book |title=Populaţia pe Neamuri |date=16 July 2008 |pages=XXIV |publisher=Institutul Central de Statistică |url=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Recensamant1930-II-XXIV.jpg |access-date=27 October 2011 |language=ro |archive-date=2 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302052623/http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Recensamant1930-II-XXIV.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref>'''
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! Ethnicity !! number !! %
|-
| [[Romanians]] || align="right" |12,981,324 || align="right" |71.9
|-
| [[Hungarians]] || align="right" |1,425,507 || align="right"| 7.9
|-
| [[Germans]] || align="right" |745,421 || align="right" |4.1
|-
| Jews || align="right" |728,115 || align="right" |4
|-
| [[Ruthenians]] and [[Ukrainians]] || align="right" |582,115 || align="right" |3.2
|-
| [[Russians]] || align="right" |409,150 || align="right" |2.3
|-
| [[Bulgarians]] || align="right" |366,384 || align="right" |2
|-
| [[Romani people|Romani]] || align="right" |262,501 || align="right" |1.5
|-
| [[Turkish people|Turks]] || align="right" |154,772 || align="right" |0.9
|-
| [[Gagauz people|Gagauzes]] || align="right" |105,750 || align="right" |0.6
|-
| [[Czechs]] and [[Slovaks]] || align="right" |51,842 || rowspan="3" align="right" |0.3
|-
| [[Serbs]], [[Croats]] and [[Slovenes]] || align="right" |51,062 
|-
| [[Polish people|Poles]] || align="right" |48,310 
|-
| [[Greeks]] || align="right" |26,495 || rowspan="2" align="right" |0.1
|-
| [[Tatars]] || align="right" |22,141 
|-
| [[Armenians]] || align="right" |15,544 || rowspan="3" align="right" |0.0
|-
| [[Hutsuls]] || align="right" |12,456 
|-
| [[Albanians]] || align="right" |4,670 
|-
| Others || align="right" |56,355 || align="right" |0.3
|-
| Undeclared || align="right" |7,114 || align="right" |0.0
|-
| Total || 18,057,028 || 100
|}

===Cities===
[[File:Romania1939physical.jpg|thumb|Physical map of Romania in 1939]]
Largest cities as per 1930 census:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Rank || Name || Population
|-
|align="left" |1 || align="left" |[[Bucharest]] || align="center" |570,881<br />(639,040<sup>'''1'''</sup>)
|-
|align="left" |2 || align="left" |[[Chișinău]] (now located in [[Moldova]]) || align="center" |114,896
|-
|align="left" |3 || align="left" |[[Chernivtsi|Cernăuți]] (now located in Ukraine) || align="center" |112,427
|-
|align="left" |4 || align="left" |[[Iași]] || align="center" |102,872
|-
|align="left" |5 || align="left" |[[Cluj-Napoca|Cluj]] || align="center" |100,844
|-
|align="left" |6 || align="left" |[[Galați]] || align="center" |100,611
|-
|align="left" |7 || align="left" |[[Timișoara]] || align="center" |91,580
|}

<small>Notes: '''1''' - including 12 suburban communities.</small>

Two of Romania's seven largest cities in 1930 are currently located outside of Romania as a result of [[World War II border changes]].

===Education===
[[File:Romania 1930 literacy EN.svg|thumb|[[Literacy rate]] in interwar Romania (1930)]]
While the Romanian nobility had a long tradition of sending their sons to Europe's finest schools, the educated were otherwise a tiny minority. Transylvania had the most educated population in Greater Romania, while Bessarabia fared the worst. While legally all Romanians were required to undergo at least four years of schooling, in practice few actually did and the system was designed to separate those who would go on to higher education from those who would not. While this was partially necessary due to limited resources, it ensured that peasants had almost no chance of becoming educated.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

High school and college education in Romania was modeled after the French system. Students undertook a rigid curriculum based around the liberal arts. Romania suffered from the same problem as the rest of Eastern Europe, which was that most students, coming from aristocratic backgrounds, preferred to study subjects such as theology, philosophy, literature and the fine arts over science, business, and engineering.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

==Administrative division==
{{See also|Historical administrative divisions of Romania}}
After Independence, the Romanian Old Kingdom was divided into 33 counties.

After World War I, as a result of the 1925 administrative unification law, the territory was divided into 71 counties, 489 districts (''[[plasă|plăși]]'') and 8,879 [[Communes of Romania|communes]].

In 1938, [[Carol II of Romania|King Carol II]] promulgated a new [[1938 Constitution of Romania|Constitution]], and subsequently he had the administrative division of the Romanian territory changed. Ten ''ținuturi'' (approximate translation: "lands") were created (by merging the counties) to be ruled by ''rezidenți regali'' (approximate translation: "Royal Residents") - appointed directly by the King. This administrative reform did not last and the counties were re-established after the fall of Carol's regime.

===Maps===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Romania Judete Antebelice (RO).svg|Administrative map of Romania in 1881–1913
File:Romania 1930 counties.500px.svg|Administrative map of Romania in 1925–1938
File:Tinuturi Romania.svg|Regions (Ținuturi) of Romania in 1938–1940
File:ROMANIA MAI 1942.png|Romania in 1942
File:Romania 1948.jpg|Kingdom of Romania in 1947
</gallery>

==Timeline (1859–1940)==
[[File:Romania territory during 20th century.gif|thumb|Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the [[Second Balkan War]] and [[World War I]] but were lost after [[World War II]], and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after World War I and remained so after World War II.]]
[[File:RomaniaBorderHistoryAnnimation 1859-2010.gif|thumb|right|Timeline of the borders of Romania between 1859 and 2010]]
{|
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1859&nbsp;–
|[[Alexander John Cuza]] unites [[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]] under his personal rule.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1862&nbsp;–
| Formal union of Moldavia and Wallachia to form principality of Romania.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1866&nbsp;–
| Cuza forced to abdicate and a foreign dynasty is established. Carol I signed the first modern Constitution.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1877&nbsp;–
| 16 April. Treaty by which the Russian troops are allowed to pass through Romanian territory<br />24 April. Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire and its troops enter Romania<br />9 May. Romanian independence declared by the Romanian parliament, start of [[Romanian War of Independence]]<br />10 May. [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] ratifies independence declaration
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1878&nbsp;–
| Under [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]], Ottoman Empire recognizes Romanian independence. Romania ceded southern Bessarabia to Russia.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1881&nbsp;–
| Carol I was proclaimed [[King of Romania]] on 14 March.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1894&nbsp;–
| Leaders of the Transylvanian Romanians who sent [[Transylvanian Memorandum|a Memorandum]] to the Austrian Emperor demanding national rights for the Romanians are found guilty of treason.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1907&nbsp;–
| [[1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt|Violent peasant revolts]] crushed throughout Romania, thousands of persons killed.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1914&nbsp;–
| Death of Carol I, succeeded by his nephew [[Ferdinand of Romania|Ferdinand]].
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1916&nbsp;–
| August. Romania enters [[World War I]] on the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] side.<br />December. [[Romanian Treasure]] sent to Russia for safekeeping but was seized by Soviets after the Romanian army refused to withdraw from Bessarabia.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1918&nbsp;–
| 27 March. The [[union of Bessarabia with Romania]] is proclaimed.
28 November. The [[union of Bukovina with Romania]] is declared.

1 December. The [[union of Transylvania with Romania]] is declared. This day concludes a series of unifications between the Kingdom of Romania and its claimed [[Historical regions of Romania|historical regions]]. However, the terms of these proclamations (and, subsequently, the materialization of the [[Greater Romania]] ideal) would only be de facto recognized 2 years later, following the [[Treaty of Trianon]].
|-
| valign="top" |
| By the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Romania agreed to grant citizenship to the former citizens of Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires living in the new Romanian territories.{{dubious|date=February 2013}}
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1919&nbsp;–
| A military conflict occurs between Romania and Hungarian Soviet Republic led by [[Béla Kun]]. The Romanian Army takes over [[Budapest]] on 4 August 1919. The city is ruled by a military administration until 16 November 1919.<br />The [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] officially assigns Bukovina to Romania.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1920&nbsp;–
| The [[Treaty of Trianon]] officially assigns Transylvania, Banat and Partium to Romania.<br />[[Little Entente]] alliance with [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] initiated.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1921&nbsp;–
| A major and radical [[agrarian reform]].<br />[[Polish–Romanian alliance]] established.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1923&nbsp;–
| The 1923 Constitution is adopted based on a National Liberal Party project.<br />[[National-Christian Defense League]] (LANC) founded.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1924&nbsp;–
| LANC member (later [[Iron Guard]] founder) [[Corneliu Zelea Codreanu]] assassinates the Prefect of Police in [[Iași]], but is acquitted.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1926&nbsp;–
| Liberal Electoral Law adopted.<br />Franco-Romanian Treaty.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1927&nbsp;–
| The National Peasants' Party takes over the government from the National Liberal Party.<br />The Legion of the Archangel Michael, later the Iron Guard, splits from LANC.<br />[[Mihai of Romania|Michael]] (Mihai) becomes king under a [[Regent|regency]] regime.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1929&nbsp;–
| Beginning of the [[Great Depression]] in the world and [[Great Depression in Romania|in Romania]].
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1930&nbsp;–
| Carol II crowned King.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1931&nbsp;–
| First ban on Iron Guard.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1933&nbsp;–
| 16 February. Grivița Railcar Workshops strike violently put down by police.<br />10 December. Prime Minister [[Ion Duca]] "dissolves" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; 19 days later he is assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1935&nbsp;–
| LANC and National Agrarian Party merge to form the fascist National Christian Party (NCP).
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1937&nbsp;–
| Electoral "non-aggression pact" between the National Peasants' Party and Iron Guard, later adding the Agrarian Union. Romanian Communist Party denounces pact, but, in practice, supports the National-Peasants.<br />LANC forms government, but is rapidly in conflict with Carol II over [[Magda Lupescu|his Jewish mistress]].
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1938&nbsp;–
| 10 February. Royal dictatorship declared. New constitution adopted 27 February.<br />29–30 November. Iron Guard leader Codreanu and other legionnaires shot on the King's orders.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1939&nbsp;–
| 7 March. [[Armand Călinescu]] forms government.<br />23 August. [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] stipulates Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia.<br />1 September. [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Germany and Soviet Union invades Poland]]. Start of [[World War II]].<br />21 September. Călinescu assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.
|-
| valign="top" |•&nbsp;1940&nbsp;–
| 6 September. After the forced abdication of King Carol II, his 19-year-old son Michael I assumes the throne, being obliged to grant dictatorial powers to Prime Minister and [[Conducător]] [[Ion Antonescu]].<br />14 September. The Kingdom of Romania is supplanted by a short-lived dictatorship called the [[National Legionary State]].
|}

<gallery widths="154px" heights="200px" perrow="4" caption="Selection of newspapers of the Kingdom of Romania">
File:Alegătorul liber 1875-01-23, nr. 001.pdf|''Alegătorul liber'', January 23, 1875
File:Bukarester Tagblatt 1880-08-10, nr. 001.pdf|''Bukarester Tagblatt'', August 10, 1880 (in German)
File:Voința naționala 1884-11-01.pdf|''Voința naționala'', November 1, 1884
File:Opinia 1913-08-22, nr. 01966.pdf|''Opinia'', August 22, 1913
</gallery>

==Monarchs==
{{See also|King of Romania|List of heads of state of Romania}}
<gallery class="center">
File:Carol I King of Romania.jpg|[[Carol I of Romania|King Carol I]] (1881–1914)
File:King Ferdinand of Romania.jpg|[[Ferdinand I of Romania|King Ferdinand I]] (1914–1927)
File:1903Nicholas-09.jpg|[[Prince Nicholas of Romania|Prince Nicholas]] (Regent) (1927–1930)
File:Carol al II-lea.jpg|[[Carol II of Romania|King Carol II]] (1930–1940)
File:Mihai.jpg|[[Michael I of Romania|King Michael I]] (1927–1930; 1940–1947)
</gallery>

===<span id="List of Romanian monarchs"></span>Kings of Romania (1881–1947)===
{{Succession table monarch
| name1       = '''[[Carol I of Romania|Charles I]]'''
| nickname1   = 
| native1     = Carol
| life1       = {{Birth date|1839|4|20|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|1914|10|10|1839|4|20|df=y}}
| reignstart1 = 15 March 1881
| reignend1   = 10 October 1914
| notes1      = Prince Karl of [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]] elected [[Domnitor|Sovereign Prince]] of Romania 20 April 1866
| family1     = [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen#Romania|Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]
| image1      = Carol I King of Romania.jpg
| alt1        = Carol I of Romania
| name2       = '''[[Ferdinand I of Romania|Ferdinand I]]'''
| nickname2   = 
| native2     = Ferdinand
| life2       = {{Birth date|1865|8|24|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|1927|7|20|1865|8|24|df=y}}
| reignstart2 = 10 October 1914
| reignend2   = 20 July 1927
| notes2      = Nephew of Carol I
| family2     = [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen#Romania|Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]
| image2      = King Ferdinand of Romania.jpg
| alt2        = Ferdinand I of Romania
| name3       = '''[[Michael I of Romania|Michael I]]'''<br /><small>(1st reign)</small><br /><ref>[[Prince Nicholas of Romania|Nicholas]] ruling as [[prince regent]].</ref>
| nickname3   = 
| native3     = Mihai
| life3       = {{Birth date|1921|10|25|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|2017|12|5|1921|10|25|df=y}}
| reignstart3 = 20 July 1927
| reignend3   = 8 June 1930
| notes3      = Grandson of Ferdinand I
| family3     = [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen#Romania|Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]
| image3      = Michael I of Romania (1927).jpg
| alt3        = Michael I of Romania
| name4       = '''[[Carol II of Romania|Charles II]]'''
| nickname4   = 
| native4     = Carol II
| life4       = {{Birth date|1893|10|15|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|1953|4|4|1893|10|15|df=y}}
| reignstart4 = 8 June 1930
| reignend4   = 6 September 1940
| notes4      = Son of Ferdinand I
| family4     = [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen#Romania|Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]
| image4      = Carol II of Romania.jpg
| alt4        = Carol II of Romania
| name5       = '''[[Michael I of Romania|Michael I]]'''<br /><small>(2nd reign)</small><br /><ref>With [[Ion Antonescu]] as ''[[Conducător]]'', from 6 September 1940 to 23 August 1944.</ref>
| nickname5   = 
| native5     = Mihai
| life5       = {{Birth date|1921|10|25|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|2017|12|5|1921|10|25|df=y}}
| reignstart5 = 6 September 1940
| reignend5   = 30 December 1947
| notes5      = Son of Carol II; Restored
| family5     = [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen#Romania|Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]
| image5      = Mihai.jpg
| alt5        = Michael I of Romania
}}
{{further|Lifespan Timeline of Kings of Romania}}

===Queens-consort of Romania===
{{Succession table monarch
| name1       = '''[[Elisabeth of Wied|Elisabeth]]'''
| nickname1   = 
| native1     = 
| life1       = {{Birth date|1843|12|29|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|1916|3|02|1843|12|29|df=y}}
| reignstart1 = 15 March 1881
| reignend1   = 10 October 1914
| notes1      = Consort of [[Carol I of Romania|King Carol I]]
| family1     = [[County of Wied|Wied]]
| image1      = Elisabeth_of_Wied.jpg
| alt1        = Elisabeta of Romania
| name2       = '''[[Marie of Romania|Marie]]'''
| nickname2   = 
| native2     = 
| life2       = {{Birth date|1875|10|29|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|1938|7|18|1875|10|29|df=y}}
| reignstart2 = 10 October 1914
| reignend2   = 20 July 1927
| notes2      = Consort of [[Ferdinand of Romania|King Ferdinand]]
| family2     = [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha#Romania|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]
| image2      = Queen_Mary_of_Romania_2.jpg
| alt2        = Maria of Romania
| name3       = '''[[Helen of Greece and Denmark|Helen]]'''
| nickname3   = 
| native3     = 
| life3       = {{Birth date|1896|5|2|df=y}} – {{Death date and age|1982|11|28|1896|5|2|df=y}}
| reignstart3 = 
| reignend3   = 
| notes3      = Consort of [[Carol II of Romania|Crown Prince Carol]]<br />Queen Mother on Michael I's 2nd accession
| family3     = [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg#Romania|Greece and Denmark (Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg)]]
| image3      = HelenGreeceDenmark.jpg
| alt3        = Elena of Romania
}}

===Timeline===
This is a [[Bar chart|graphical]] lifespan '''timeline of Kings'''

{{#tag:timeline|
Define $width = 1100
Define $warning = 1290 # $width - 110
Define $height = 560 # 43x20 + 160

Define $start = 1818
Define $end = 2021

ImageSize = width:$width height:$height
PlotArea = right:10 left:1 bottom:80 top:60
Period = from:$start till:$end
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:1

Colors =
 id:bg value:white
 id:lightline value:rgb(0.9, 0.9, 0.9)
 id:lighttext value:rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.5)
 id:BEFORE value:rgb(0.81, 0.73, 0.31) Legend: Life_Before_Heirship/Ruling
 id:AFTER value:rgb(0.81, 0.73, 0.11) Legend: Life_After_Heirship/Ruling
 id:PRINCIP value:green Legend: Domnitor_(ruler_of_a_Principality)
 id:KING value:rgb(0.31, 0.39, 0.81) Legend: King
 id:HEIR value:yellow Legend: Crown_Heir
 id:STATUS value:rgb(0.80, 0.80, 0.80) Legend: Country_Status
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 at:2017 color:TODAY width:0.1

PlotData=
 bar:1 width:18
 color:STATUS align:center fontsize:M
 from:1818 till:1877 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:Ottoman Dependency

 bar:2 width:18
 color:STATUS align:center fontsize:M
 from:1818 till:1861 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:Two Principalities

 bar:3 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1820 till:1859 shift:(-100,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Alexandru Ioan Cuza]]
 color:PRINCIP
 from:1859 till:1867
 color:AFTER
 from:1867 till:1874

 bar:4 width:18
 color:STATUS align:center fontsize:M
 from:1861 till:1881 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:Principality

 bar:6 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1839 till:1866 shift:(-70,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]]
 color:PRINCIP
 from:1866 till:1881
 color:KING
 from:1881 till:1915

 bar:7 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1835 till:1867 shift:(-105,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern]]
 color:HEIR
 from:1867 till:1880
 color:AFTER
 from:1880 till:1906

 bar:9 width:18
 color:STATUS align:center fontsize:M
 from:1877 till:2017 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:Independent State

 bar:10 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1864 till:1890 shift:(-170,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[William, Prince of Hohenzollern]]
 color:HEIR
 from:1880 till:1889
 color:AFTER
 from:1889 till:1928

 bar:11 width:18
 color:STATUS align:center fontsize:M
 from:1881 till:1948 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:Kingdom

 bar:12 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1865 till:1889 shift:(-65,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Ferdinand I of Romania|Ferdinand I]]
 color:HEIR
 from:1889 till:1915
 color:KING
 from:1915 till:1927

 bar:13 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1893 till:1915 shift:(-58,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]]
 color:HEIR
 from:1915 till:1918
 color:AFTER
 from:1918 till:1920
 color:HEIR
 from:1920 till:1926
 color:AFTER
 from:1926 till:1930
 color:KING
 from:1930 till:1941
 color:AFTER
 from:1941 till:1954

 bar:14 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1903 till:1918 shift:(-50,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Prince Nicholas of Romania|Prince Nicholas]]
 color:HEIR
 from:1918 till:1920
 color:AFTER
 from:1920 till:1927
 color:HEIR
 from:1927 till:1930
 color:AFTER
 from:1930 till:1979

 bar:15 width:18
 color:BEFORE align:left fontsize:M
 from:1921 till:1926 shift:(-40,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[[Michael I of Romania|Michael I]]
 color:HEIR
 from:1926 till:1927
 color:KING
 from:1927 till:1930
 color:HEIR
 from:1930 till:1941
 color:KING
 from:1941 till:1948
 color:AFTER
 from:1948 till:2017

 bar:16 width:18
 color:STATUS align:center fontsize:M
 from:1948 till:2021 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:Republic

TextData =
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==Royal standards==
{{See also|List of Romanian flags}}
<gallery class="center">
File:Royal standard of Romania (King, 1881 model).svg|Royal Standard (1881–1922)
File:Royal standard of Romania (King, 1922 model).svg|Royal Standard (1922–1947)
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Danubian Vilayet]] (1864–1878), Ottoman administrative division that included Northern Dobruja
* [[Historical administrative divisions of Romania]]
* [[Kingdom of Romania under Fascism]]
* [[Monarchism in Romania]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Great Britain. Admiralty. ''A handbook of Roumania'' (1920) primary source that focuses on prewar economy and society [https://archive.org/details/cu31924028553232 online free]
* Treptow, Kurt W. ''A history of Romania'' (1996).
* Raluca Goleșteanu-Jacobs, ''Habsburg Galicia and the Romanian Kingdom Sociocultural Development, 1866–1914'' (2023), Routledge, Poland-Transnational Histories

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
* {{cite book |last=Lampe |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtW2axOSn10C&q=%22Romanian+Old+Kingdom%22&pg=PA350 |title=Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations |year=1982 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0-253-30368-0 }}

{{Romania topics}}
{{Former Monarchies}}
{{coord|44.44|N|26.10|E|type:country|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kingdom of Romania}}
[[Category:Kingdom of Romania| ]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms|Romania]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Europe|Romania]]
[[Category:Former countries in the Balkans|Romania, Kingdom of]]
[[Category:20th century in Moldova]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1881]]
[[Category:1881 in Romania]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1947]]
[[Category:1947 in Romania]]
[[Category:Romanian monarchy|*]]
[[Category:Former Christian states|Romania]]
[[Category:1880s in Romania]]
[[Category:1890s in Romania]]
[[Category:1900s in Romania]]
[[Category:1910s in Romania]]
[[Category:1920s in Romania]]
[[Category:1930s in Romania]]
[[Category:1940s in Romania]]
[[Category:Fascist states|Romania]]
[[Category:Axis powers]]
[[Category:1881 establishments in Romania]]
[[Category:1947 disestablishments in Romania]]
[[Category:Former military dictatorships]]