View source for Kings River (California)

{{Short description|River in central California, US}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2025}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox river
 | name                 = Kings River
 | native_name          = {{native name|yok|Wimmel-che}}<ref name="GNIS">{{cite gnis|id=255518|name=Kings River|entrydate=1981-01-19|access-date=2010-09-14}}</ref>
 | native_name_lang     = 
 | name_other           = {{langx|es|Río de los Santos Reyes}}
 | name_etymology       = 
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
 | image                = ABOUT_TEN_MILES_BELOW_PINE_FLAT_DAM_-_NARA_-_542653.jpg
 | image_caption        = The Kings River in the San Joaquin Valley about {{convert|10|mi|km}} below [[Pine Flat Dam]]
 | image_size           = 260
 | map                  = Kings River watershed.png
 | map_size             = 260
 | map_caption          = Map showing the Kings River and its tributaries. The canal system fed by Kings River is shown in light blue.
 | pushpin_map          = California
 | pushpin_map_size     = 260
 | pushpin_map_caption  = Location of the mouth of the Kings River in California
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
 | subdivision_type1    = Country
 | subdivision_name1    = [[United States]]
 | subdivision_type2    = State
 | subdivision_name2    = [[California]]
 | subdivision_type3    = Region
 | subdivision_name3    = [[Kings Canyon National Park]], [[Fresno County, California]], [[Kings County, California]]
 | subdivision_type4    = 
 | subdivision_name4    = 
 | subdivision_type5    = 
 | subdivision_name5    = 
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
 | length               = {{convert|132.9|mi|km|abbr=on}}<ref name="NHD"/> 
 | width_min            = 
 | width_avg            = 
 | width_max            = 
 | depth_min            = 
 | depth_avg            = 
 | depth_max            = 
 | discharge1_location  = [[Piedra, California]]<ref name="monthlyflow">{{cite web|url=https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/monthly/?referred_module=sw&amp;site_no=11222000&amp;por_11222000_9328=2208612,00060,9328,1895-10,1959-09&amp;format=html_table&amp;date_format=YYYY-MM-DD&amp;rdb_compression=file&amp;submitted_form=parameter_selection_list|title=USGS Gage #11222000 on the Kings River at Piedra, CA (Monthly Streamflow)|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|work=National Water Information System |date=1896–1959|access-date=2010-09-14}}</ref>
 | discharge1_min       = {{convert|20.1|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}
 | discharge1_avg       = {{convert|2287|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="monthlyflow"/>
 | discharge1_max       = {{convert|91000|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/ca/nwis/peak?site_no=11222000&agency_cd=USGS&format=html|title=USGS Gage #11222000 on the Kings River at Piedra, CA (Peak Streamflow)|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|work=National Water Information System |date=1896–1959|access-date=2010-09-14}}</ref>
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
 | source1              = Confluence of Middle and South Forks
 | source1_location     = [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]]
 | source1_coordinates  = {{coord|36|50|17|N|118|52|29|W|display=inline}}<ref name="GNIS"/>
 | source1_elevation    = {{convert|2257|ft|abbr=on}}
 | mouth                = [[Tulare Lake]]bed
 | mouth_location       = [[San Joaquin Valley]]
 | mouth_coordinates    = {{coord|36|03|00|N|119|49|28|W|display=inline,title}}<ref name="GNIS"/>
 | mouth_elevation      = {{convert|184|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="GNIS"/>
 | progression          = 
 | river_system         = 
 | basin_size           = {{convert|1544|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name="NHD"/>
 | tributaries_left     = [[South Fork Kings River]], [[Mill Creek (Kings River)|Mill Creek]]
 | tributaries_right    = [[Middle Fork Kings River]], [[North Fork Kings River]]
 | custom_label         = 
 | custom_data          = 
 | extra                = {{Designation list
 | embed                = yes
 | designation1         = nwsr
 | designation1_type    = Wild
 | designation1_date    = November 3, 1987
 | designation1_number  = }}
}}

The '''Kings River''' ({{langx|es|Río de los Santos Reyes}}) is a {{convert|132.9|mi|km|adj=on}}<ref name="NHD"/> river draining the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] mountain range in central [[California]] in the [[United States]]. Its headwaters originate along the [[Sierra Crest]] in and around [[Kings Canyon National Park]] and form Kings Canyon, one of the deepest river gorges in North America. The river is impounded in [[Pine Flat Lake]] before flowing into the [[San Joaquin Valley]] (the southern half of the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]]) southeast of [[Fresno, California|Fresno]]. With its upper and middle course in [[Fresno County, California|Fresno County]], the Kings River diverges into multiple branches in [[Kings County, California|Kings County]], with some water flowing south to the old [[Tulare Lake]] bed and the rest flowing north to the [[San Joaquin River]]. However, most of the water is consumed for [[irrigation]] well upstream of either point.

Inhabited for thousands of years by the [[Yokuts people|Yokuts]] and other native groups, the Kings River basin once fed a vast network of seasonal [[wetland]]s around Tulare Lake that supported millions of [[waterfowl]], fish, and game animals, in turn providing sustenance for indigenous peoples. Tulare Lake was once the largest freshwater lake in the western U.S.,{{when|date=June 2025}} at the middle of an [[endorheic basin]] also fed by the [[Kaweah River|Kaweah]], [[Tule River|Tule]] and [[Kern River]]s. The river was named by [[Gabriel Moraga]], the commander of a Spanish military expedition in 1806, but it was not until California became a U.S. state in 1850 that many Europeans arrived and settled along the Kings River, driving out the area's original inhabitants. Logging and livestock grazing inflicted significant environmental damage on the upper parts of the river system, before the federal government moved to establish national parks and preserves there.

The Kings has a long history of water development, going back to the mid-19th century when farmers made their first attempts to irrigate with Kings River water. In the early 1900s Tulare Lake and its surrounding wetlands were diked, drained and reclaimed for agriculture; the construction of [[Pine Flat Dam]] in the 1950s tamed the river's seasonal floods. The battle for control over Kings River water produced extended conflicts, including a set of dams proposed in what would become Kings Canyon National Park. Today, the river irrigates about 1.1 million acres (4,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) of some of the most productive farmland in the country, and is also used extensively for hydropower generation, and water-based and backcountry recreation.

==Course==
All three forks of the Kings River originate as snowmelt in the high [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] mountains. The Middle and South Forks begin in Kings Canyon National Park, and join in the [[Monarch Wilderness]] ([[Sierra National Forest|Sierra]] and [[Sequoia National Forest]]s) to form the Kings River. The North Fork, which begins in the [[John Muir Wilderness]] of the Sierra National Forest, joins the Kings River further downstream near [[Pine Flat Lake]], the only major reservoir on the river. Much of the upper Kings River consists of remote backcountry and wilderness areas, accessible only by non-motorized trails.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sierrawild.gov/wilderness/monarch|title=Monarch Wilderness|publisher=Sierrawild.gov|access-date=2017-01-17}}</ref> The entire upper course of the Kings River is in [[Fresno County, California|Fresno County]]; in the Central Valley, the Kings River also flows through parts of [[Tulare County, California|Tulare County]] and [[Kings County, California|Kings County]].<ref name="USGS Reedley"/>

===Headwaters===
The {{convert|44|mi|km|adj=on}}<ref name="NHD">{{cite web|url=https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/basic/|title=National Hydrography Dataset via National Map Viewer|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref> '''[[South Fork Kings River|South Fork]]''' is the longest tributary of the Kings River, originating on the [[Sierra Crest]] at the far eastern edge of Kings Canyon National Park.<ref name="USGS Mount Pinchot">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Mount Pinchot, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=30754 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> It flows south, then flows west through the [[Cedar Grove, Fresno County, California|Cedar Grove]] section of Kings Canyon, a glacial valley with high granite cliffs and a meadow floor which has been compared in appearance to [[Yosemite Valley]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/travel/article/CROWNING-GLORY-Kings-Canyon-rivals-Yosemite-in-2620577.php|title=Crowning Glory / Kings Canyon rivals Yosemite in all but crowds &ndash; and grandeur is easy to get to|author=Hilton, Spud|work=SFGate|date=2005-07-24|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitsequoia.com/cedar-grove.aspx|title=Cedar Grove|publisher=Visit Sequoia|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref> 

The '''[[Middle Fork Kings River|Middle Fork]]''' flows for {{convert|37|mi|km}}<ref name="NHD"/> through some of the park's most difficult-to-access backcountry, including Simpson Meadow and [[Tehipite Valley]].<ref name="USGS Slide Bluffs">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Slide Bluffs, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=41700 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref><ref name="USGS Tehipite Dome">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Tehipite Dome, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=44461 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> The South and Middle Forks converge in the [[Monarch Wilderness]] at an elevation of {{convert|2257|ft|m}} just outside the national park to form the Kings River in the deepest part of Kings Canyon.<ref name="monarch wilderness">{{cite web|url=https://www.rivers.gov/documents/plans/kings-ea.pdf|title=Middle Fork, South Fork and the Kings Wild and Scenic Rivers, Fresno County, California|publisher=National Wild and Scenic Rivers System|author1=McCray, Wallace |author2=Dellavalle, Ann |author3=Whelan, Cynthia |year=1989|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref> With {{convert|10051|ft|m|adj=on}} Spanish Peak towering above the north side of the river, and summits as high as {{convert|8400|ft|m}} on the south side,<ref name="USGS Hume"/> Kings Canyon is both deeper and narrower than the [[Grand Canyon]].<ref name="sekiffmp">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/seki/fire/ffmp/pdf/seki_ffmp_fmp_8description.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070330145131/http://www.nps.gov/archive/seki/fire/ffmp/pdf/seki_ffmp_fmp_8description.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 30, 2007 |publisher=U.S. National Park Service|title=Description of the Parks |access-date=2006-11-25|work=Sequoia and Kings Canyon Fire Management Plan}}</ref>

[[Image:Zumwalt Meadow Morning.jpg|thumb|left|The [[South Fork Kings River]] at Zumwalt Meadow]]
Below the confluence of the Middle and South Forks, the Kings River flows swiftly westward for about {{convert|30|mi|km}}, carving a canyon more than {{convert|5000|ft|m}} deep in places. Major tributaries of the Kings River in this section include Tenmile and Mill Flat Creeks, both from the south; a dam on Tenmile Creek creates [[Hume Lake]].<ref name="USGS Hume">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Hume, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=21456 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> Another notable feature along this area of the Kings Canyon is Garlic Falls, a tiered waterfall on a tributary of the Kings more than {{convert|800|ft|m}} in height.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldwaterfalldatabase.com/index.php/waterfall/Garlic-Falls-441|title=Garlic Falls|publisher=World Waterfall Database|access-date=2018-01-18}}</ref> The canyon is roadless as far as the Upper Kings Campground near Verplank Creek; below the campground the river is followed by Trimmer Springs Road.<ref name="USGS Verplank Ridge">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Verplank Ridge, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=71942 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref>

The Kings River passes Rodgers Crossing and receives the '''[[North Fork Kings River|North Fork]]''' from the right near [[Balch Camp, California|Balch Camp]].<ref name="USGS Luckett Mountain">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Luckett Mountain, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=26892 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> The North Fork is about {{convert|40|mi|km}} long<ref name="NHD"/> and flows mainly through the [[Sierra National Forest]]. It is dammed at [[Wishon Reservoir]], which serves as the lower reservoir for the [[Helms Pumped Storage Plant]], one of the biggest [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|pumped-storage hydroelectric plants]] in California.<ref name="helms"/> The North Fork passes through several other hydro plants before it joins with the Kings River. The main Kings then flows into [[Pine Flat Lake]], the large reservoir created by [[Pine Flat Dam]], which can store up to {{convert|1000000|acre feet|km3}} of water. Constructed in 1954, Pine Flat Dam provides [[flood control]], irrigation and hydroelectricity for the southern San Joaquin Valley.<ref name="Raise Pine Flat"/>

===Lower river===
The Kings River emerges from the foothills of the Sierra Nevada near [[Piedra, California|Piedra]], about {{convert|10|mi|km}} downstream of Pine Flat Dam.<ref name="USGS Piedra">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Piedra, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=35067 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> From there it flows across the gently sloping [[Alluvium|alluvial plain]] of the San Joaquin Valley, which today is one of the most productive agricultural regions of the United States. Here the Kings River encounters a large number of diversions that serve both irrigation and flood control purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krfmp.org/_pdf_fmp/BRO-guide_to_kings_river.pdf|title=Guide to Kings River downstream of Pine Flat Dam|publisher=Kings River Fisheries Management Program|access-date=2018-01-18}}</ref> Two key irrigation structures along the lower river are the Fresno Weir and People's Weir; both divert a substantial part of the river's flow into canals.<ref name="Kings River Handbook">{{cite web|url=http://www.centralvalleywater.org/_pdf/KingsRiverHandbook-03final.pdf|title=The Kings River Handbook|publisher=Central Valley Water Awareness Committee|date=Jun 2003|access-date=2018-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725152244/http://www.centralvalleywater.org/_pdf/KingsRiverHandbook-03final.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-25|url-status=usurped}}</ref> The Kings River flows south-southwest past [[Sanger, California|Sanger]] and [[Reedley, California|Reedley]], crossing briefly into northwest Tulare County before entering Kings County.<ref name="USGS Sanger">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Sanger, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=39863 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref><ref name="USGS Reedley">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Reedley, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=37526 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> At [[Kingsburg, California|Kingsburg]] '''Cole Slough''' splits off to the northwest,<ref name="USGS Burris Park">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Burris Park, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=6381 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> rejoining the main stem about {{convert|10|mi|km}} downstream at [[Laton, California|Laton]].<ref name="USGS Laton">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Laton, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=70658 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref>

About {{convert|6|mi|km}} north of [[Lemoore, California|Lemoore]] the Kings River splits into a pair of [[Distributary|distributaries]], the '''North Fork''' and the '''South Fork''' (not to be confused with the North and South Forks upstream in the Sierra Nevada).<ref name="USGS Riverdale">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Riverdale, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=38039 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> The Army Weir controls the amount of water flowing into the South Fork and North Fork's flow is controlled by Island Weir, which is adjacent to Army Weir. '''[[Fresno Slough]]''' diverges from the North Fork and flows northwest, seasonally carrying floodwaters from the Kings River to the [[San Joaquin River]] at [[Mendota, California|Mendota]]. This is the only branch of the Kings River to reach the San Joaquin, and consequently the Pacific Ocean.<ref name="Tulare Basin">{{cite web|url=https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/P1002E2I.txt?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=2006%20Thru%202010&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&UseQField=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&XmlQuery=&File=D%3A%5CZYFILES%5CINDEX%20DATA%5C06THRU10%5CTXT%5C00000005%5CP1002E2I.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h%7C-&MaximumDocuments=1&FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16/i425&Display=hpfr&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1|title=Tulare Lake Basin Hydrology and Hydrography: A Summary of the Movement of Water and Aquatic Species|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|date=2007-04-12|access-date=2018-01-18}}</ref> The remainder of the North Fork turns south below Fresno Slough, rejoining the South Fork west of Lemoore. There is also a smaller distributary called '''Clark's Fork''' which splits from the South Fork and enters the North Fork just above where all the forks re-join.<ref name="USGS Lemoore">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Lemoore, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=25412 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref><ref name="USGS Vanguard">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Vanguard, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=46668 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref>

From there the Kings River flows due south through Kings County, past [[Stratford, California|Stratford]], and approaches the old Tulare Lake bed.<ref name="USGS Stratford">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Stratford, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=43428 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> The river terminates about {{convert|10|mi|km}} northeast of [[Kettleman City, California|Kettleman City]] at a junction with a canal carrying water from the [[Tule River]].<ref name="USGS Stratford SE">{{cite web|author=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |title = United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Mount Pinchot, California quad | publisher = TopoQuest | url = https://www.topoquest.com/map-detail.php?usgs_cell_id=43434 |access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref> Today, the {{convert|44000|acre|ha|adj=on}} old lake bed is used for agriculture and diked to prevent flooding; floodwaters are pumped into about {{convert|4700|acre|ha}} of evaporation basins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/tulare-lake-basin|title=Tulare Lake Basin|publisher=Water Education Foundation|access-date=2018-01-18}}</ref> In most years, the dams on the Kings and other rivers flowing into Tulare Lake, and the extensive canal diversion system surrounding the lake, are sufficient to prevent flooding.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sanluisobispo.com/news/local/news-columns-blogs/photos-from-the-vault/article138098228.html|title=How the 'phantom' Tulare Lake was destroyed by dams|author=Middlecamp, David|work=San Luis Obispo Tribune|date=2017-03-12|access-date=2017-10-02}}</ref> However, the lake occasionally reforms in very wet years.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-02-13-mn-28291-story.html|title='Phantom' Tulare Lake Comes Back to Life|work=Los Angeles Times|date=1997-02-13|access-date=2017-10-02}}</ref>

==Watershed and natural characteristics==
[[Image:THE INACCESSIBLE KINGS RIVER GORGE ABOVE A PROPOSED LAKE AND DAM - NARA - 542700.jpg|thumb|upright|The Kings River canyon above Pine Flat Lake]]

The Kings River is the largest river draining the southern Sierra Nevada. Its average annual flow of {{convert|1791000|acre feet|km3}} makes it larger than the Kern, Kaweah and Tule Rivers combined.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/> Before the construction of Pine Flat Dam in 1954, the Kings River reached monthly averages as high as {{convert|12000|to|14000|cuft/s|m3/s}} in May and June where it flows into the San Joaquin Valley, and averaged as low as {{convert|100|to|200|cuft/s|m3/s}} in the driest months of September and October.<ref name="monthlyflow"/> After the dam was built, late spring-early summer high flows have been reduced, and late summer-autumn flows have greatly increased.<ref name="monthlyflow-post">{{cite web|url=https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/monthly/?referred_module=sw&amp;site_no=11221500&amp;por_11221500_9326=2208609,00060,9326,1954-01,1990-10&amp;format=html_table&amp;date_format=YYYY-MM-DD&amp;rdb_compression=file&amp;submitted_form=parameter_selection_list|title=USGS Gage #11221500 on the Kings River below Pine Flat Dam, CA (Monthly Streamflow)|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|work=National Water Information System |date=1954–1990|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref>

In the winter season of mid-November through April, rainstorms at lower elevations commonly flood the Kings River, although with less volume than the summer melt.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/>  Annual precipitation can be as high as {{convert|20|to|50|in|mm}} in the Sierra; however, in the San Joaquin Valley the climate is semi-arid to arid with annual precipitation of {{convert|5|to|12|in|mm}}, decreasing as one moves further west.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/>

The majority of the runoff, about 71&nbsp;percent, originates as snowmelt between April and July in the {{convert|1544|mi2|km2|adj=on}} drainage basin above Pine Flat Dam.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/> Three-quarters of this rugged watershed is a mile (1,600 m) or more above sea level;<ref name="Tulare Basin"/> the watershed tops out at {{convert|14248|ft|m|adj=on}} [[North Palisade]], the highest point in Kings Canyon National Park. The canyons of the Kings River are relatively young in geological terms; mostly carved during the [[Pliocene]] and [[Pleistocene]] (5 million–12,000 years ago) during periods of rapid [[Tectonic uplift|uplift]] in the Sierra Nevada.<ref name="Harris and Tuttle">{{cite book|title=Geology of National Parks|author=Harris, Ann G. |author2=Tuttle, Esther |author3=Tuttle, Sherwood D.|publisher=Kendall Hunt|year=2004|isbn=978-0-78729-970-5}}</ref>{{rp|743–746}}<!--<ref name="Konigsmark">{{cite web|url=http://www.geologictrips.com/sn/snttsk.pdf|title=Excerpt from Geologic Trips, Sierra Nevada|author=Konigsmark, Ted|publisher=Geologic Trips|access-date=2018-01-18}}</ref> -->

During and before the Pleistocene, the upper portion of the watershed was heavily glaciated during successive [[ice age]]s, with [[valley glacier]]s flowing as much as {{convert|40|mi|km}} down the river's three forks, carving the V-shaped river canyons into the U-shaped gorges of Kings Canyon, Tehipite Valley and others.<ref>{{cite map|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2945/sim2945.pdf|title=Map Showing Limits of Tahoe Glaciation in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, California|cartography=James G. Moore and Gregory S. Mack|year=2008|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=2017-09-23}}</ref> The Sierra is composed mainly of [[Granite|granitic]] igneous rock; however, in the foothill area the Kings River flows through [[roof pendant]] formations of older [[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rock]] which were accreted to the Sierra Nevada crustal block as it rose above the surrounding landscape.<ref name="Harris and Tuttle"/>{{rp|747–749}}

The lower Kings River forms a large and gently sloping [[inland delta]], or [[alluvial fan]], extending laterally across the Central Valley – the resulting material from millions of years of erosion that carved Kings Canyon. The alluvial fan raised the elevation of the valley floor and blocked water flowing northward into the San Joaquin River, essentially creating a large bowl in the southern part of the valley, forming the Tulare Lake basin. Soils on the alluvial slope are generally sandy, permeable and fertile, creating ideal conditions for farming; in lower elevations and old lake beds the soil is more alkaline and less fertile.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1968/0067/report.pdf|title=Geology, hydrology and quality of water in the Hanford-Visalia area|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|author=Croft, M.G. and Gordon, G.V.|date=1968-04-10|access-date=2018-03-09}}</ref>

Before people began building [[levee]]s and dikes in the 19th century to contain flooding, the Kings River experienced frequent [[Avulsion (river)|channel avulsion]] during high flow events, sometimes flowing north into the San Joaquin River via various sloughs, at other times south into Tulare Lake, and often into both.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calwater.ca.gov/Admin_Record/C-064379.pdf|title=Case Study Report #64: Pine Flat, Kings River|publisher=CALFED Bay-Delta Program|access-date=2018-09-27}}</ref> Historically, the river had a wide [[floodplain]] characterized by a system of [[vernal pool]]s, [[oxbow lake]]s, and seasonal channels and marshes that supported a dense [[riparian zone|riparian]] habitat. The overflow area began near present-day [[Kingsburg, California|Kingsburg]] and continued from there south to Tulare Lake.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/>

In extremely wet years, Tulare Lake could fill to such an extent that it backed up the lower Kings River and overflowed through Fresno Slough into the San Joaquin River. All this intermittent flooding over thousands of years built up the valley's huge [[groundwater]] reserves, which today are a vital water source for agriculture. The Kings Subbasin aquifer, as defined by the California Department of Water Resources, contained in 1961 a total of {{convert|93|e6acre.ft|km3}}, a level that has since been gradually declining due to intensive pumping for irrigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.water.ca.gov/groundwater/bulletin118/basindescriptions/5-22.08.pdf|title=San Joaquin Valley Groundwater Basin, Kings Subbasin|publisher=California Department of Water Resources|work=California's Groundwater, Bulletin 118|date=2006-01-20|access-date=2018-03-09|archive-date=2017-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026094648/http://water.ca.gov/groundwater/bulletin118/basindescriptions/5-22.08.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Kings River basin has experienced an increased number of dry years and particularly high temperatures in Kings Canyon National Park.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/07/140703-climate-change-national-parks-science/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707104941/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/07/140703-climate-change-national-parks-science|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 7, 2014|title=Study Finds "Extreme" Climate Change in National Parks|work=National Geographic|author=Howard, Brian Clark|date=2014-07-03|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> The 2014–2015 water year was the driest for the Kings basin since official records began in 1895.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://hanfordsentinel.com/news/in_focus/california_drought/driest-water-year-ever-reported-on-the-kings/article_c94a78c9-3022-5e14-a6ad-112c38b2d64f.html|title=Driest water year ever reported on the Kings|work=Hanford Sentinel|date=2015-09-30|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> Climate change is projected to significantly decrease the flow of the river by 2100. According to a 2014 study by [[UC Merced]] and [[UC Irvine]] researchers, average river flow could drop as much as 26&nbsp;percent, due to warming temperatures causing increased plant growth in high elevations of the Sierra with a corresponding increase in evapotranspiration.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://phys.org/news/2014-09-sierra-nevada-freshwater-runoff-percent.html|title=Sierra Nevada freshwater runoff could drop 26 percent by 2100|work=Phys.org|date=2014-09-01|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> The amount of available water in summer could also decrease due to more precipitation falling as rain in winter, rather than being stored in snowpack.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140901-climate-change-water-runoff-mountains-california-drought/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903200531/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140901-climate-change-water-runoff-mountains-california-drought/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 3, 2014|title=As California Warms, Greener Mountains Will Mean Less Water for People|work=National Geographic|author=Howard, Brian Clark|date=2014-09-03|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref>

==Ecology==
[[File:Ansel Adams - National Archives 79-AA-H26.jpg|thumb|right|A photograph taken by [[Ansel Adams]] of the Middle Fork from the south fork of [[Cartridge Creek]]]]
Although most of the original wetlands and [[riparian zone]]s in the valley have been lost to development, narrow riparian corridors still exist along {{convert|40|mi|km}} of the Kings River between Pine Flat Dam and People's Weir (below [[California State Route 99|Highway 99]]), and in other places such as lower Fresno Slough.<ref>{{cite book|title=State Route 180 Westside Expressway Route Adoption Study, Draft Environmental Impact Report/Tier I Environmental Impact Statement and Section 4(f) Evaluation|publisher=Caltrans|date=2011-03-15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zuo0AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA227}}</ref>{{rp|227}} The largest riparian habitats are concentrated in the Centerville Bottoms, east of [[Sanger, California|Sanger]], where the river divides into multiple channels over a roughly {{convert|5|mi|km|adj=on}} wide area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kingsriverconservancy.org/riverguide.htm|title=Kings River Public Access and Use|publisher=Kings River Conservancy|date=Sep 2005|access-date=2018-03-15|archive-date=2018-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514065021/http://kingsriverconservancy.org/riverguide.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Below Highway 99 the river channels, with few exceptions, are almost completely channelized and modified from their native state.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> A minimum Kings River flow of {{convert|100|cuft/s|m3/s}} is maintained at all times via releases from Pine Flat Dam, in order to support fish populations and riparian habitats.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/>

In the foothills, [[California oak woodland]]s consisting mainly of blue and black oak occur along the Kings River, Mill Creek and other perennial tributaries. Other foothill areas are dominated by thick [[chaparral]] and brush. At lower to middle elevations in the Sierra Nevada portion of the watershed, mixed conifer forests are the primary habitat, with [[ponderosa pine]] and [[yellow pine]] being dominant.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5324529.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504195325/https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5324529.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 4, 2017|title=Kings River Project Historic Forest Condition|author=Rojas, Ramiro|year=2004|publisher=U.S. Forest Service|access-date=2018-03-09}}</ref> Some areas, such as the steeper and more exposed north wall of Kings Canyon, remain primarily chaparral and brush.<ref name="monarch wilderness"/> Giant sequoias are found in this area of the watershed. The [[General Grant Grove]] is located about {{convert|10|mi|km}} southwest of the Middle and South Fork confluence; the Kings River groves, a set of four smaller groves, are situated lower in elevation and close to the South Fork.<ref name="sequoia groves">{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/cook/groves.htm|title=Brief description and location of giant sequoia groves|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>

Higher up in the Sierra, subalpine forests below the treeless alpine zone are characterized by [[red fir]], [[lodgepole pine]], [[whitebark pine]], [[mountain hemlock]] and [[foxtail pine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/seki/learn/nature/subalpine-forests.htm|title=Subalpine Forests|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Parks|access-date=2017-09-23}}</ref><ref name="NPS alpine">{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/seki/learn/nature/alpine.htm|title=Alpine|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Parks|access-date=2017-09-23}}</ref> Above {{convert|10000|ft|m}} in elevation, glacial features such as [[cirque]]s and [[Tarn (lake)|tarn]]s characterize the landscape, with various wildflower and shrub species occurring in between areas of bare rock. Although the high country is usually covered in snow from November to May, as many as 600 plant species occur in the alpine zone of Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks,<ref name="NPS alpine"/> and twice that many are present in other parts of the parks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/seki/learn/nature/plants.htm|title=Plants|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Parks|access-date=2018-03-15}}</ref> Starting in 2002, the [[U.S. Forest Service]] managed certain areas of the Kings basin under the Kings River Experimental Watersheds program, whose various activities include vegetation thinning and [[Controlled burn|prescribed burn]]s to address overgrowth, erosion and wildfire risk with the overall goal of improving water quality. These sites are concentrated mostly around the North Fork and Pine Flat Lake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/topics/water/kingsriver/|title=Kings River Experimental Watersheds (KREW)|publisher=U.S. Forest Service|access-date=2018-03-15}}</ref>
<!--[[Image:ONE_OF_THE_WATERFALLS_ALONG_THE_UPPER_KINGS_RIVER_IN_AN_INACCESSIBLE_GORGE._A_DAM_IS_PROPOSED_FOR_-_NARA_-_542699.jpg|thumb|right|Waterfall along the Kings River]]-->

Above Pine Flat Dam, the Kings River holds native [[rainbow trout]] as well as [[Introduced species|introduced]] [[brown trout]] and [[smallmouth bass]]; the Upper Kings is designated a "Wild Trout Water" by the [[California Department of Fish and Game]]. Rainbow trout are also present in the river below the dam; however, the installation of a hydroelectric plant at Pine Flat Dam in 1984 diminished the cold water supply in the reservoir and deteriorated rainbow trout habitat as a result.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kingsrivertrout.org/index_htm_files/DFG--1991--Upper%20Kings%20River%20Wild%20Trout%20Management%20Plan.pdf|title=Upper Kings River Wild Trout Management Plan|publisher=Lower Kings River Public Advisory Group|author=Deinstadt, John M. and Stephens, Stanley J.|year=1991|access-date=2018-03-15}}</ref> In 1999, the state of California implemented the Kings River Fisheries Management Program, which has helped recover the fishery by mandating a minimum cold water pool of {{convert|100000|acre feet|km3}} in Pine Flat Reservoir, and enforcing angling restrictions. Other fish species in the lower Kings include native [[Sacramento pikeminnow]] and [[Sacramento sucker]] (also present in smaller numbers upstream), and introduced species such as [[common carp]], [[channel catfish]] and [[striped bass]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://calfish.ucdavis.edu/location/?ds=698&reportnumber=1293&catcol=4712&categorysearch=%27Town%20of%20Lemoore-Kings%20River-180300120704%27|title=Fish Species by Location - 'Town of Lemoore-Kings River-180300120704'|publisher=University of California, Davis|work=California Fish Website|date=2014-02-26|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://calfish.ucdavis.edu/location/?ds=698&reportnumber=1293&catcol=4712&categorysearch=%27South%20Fork%20Kings%20River-North%20Fork%20Kings%20River-180300120701%27|title=Fish Species by Location - 'South Fork Kings River-North Fork Kings River-180300120701'|publisher=University of California, Davis|work=California Fish Website|date=2014-02-26|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref>

Another notable animal species is Kings River pyrg, a spring snail half the size of a pea that can only be found in 13 isolated desert springs around Thacker pass. However, the disruption of groundwater flows, road construction, and livestock grazing drove this interesting snail to near extinction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/endangered-status-sought-snail-nevada-lithium-mine-89786406 | title=Endangered status sought for snail near Nevada lithium mine | publisher=ABC News |access-date=2022-09-12 }}</ref>

==Early history==
[[Image:Kings Canyon National Park - Kings Canyon from near Junction View.JPG|thumb|right|View of the Middle and South Fork confluence from Junction View]]
At the time of first European contact, at least 5,000, but possibly as many as 15,000–20,000 Native Americans lived along the lower Kings River and its many branches in the Central Valley.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> The Kings River watershed is traditional [[Yokuts people|Yokuts]] territory; the [[Kings River Yokuts|Kings River dialects]] of the [[Yokutsan language]] were divided among the [[Choynimni]], who lived along about {{convert|10|mi|km}} of the Kings River between present-day Piedra and Sanger; the Chukaymina along the Mill Creek tributary, and the Michahay further south. At least two other dialects, the Aiticha and the Toyhicha, were spoken further downstream on the Kings, but these groups have not been well documented.<ref>{{cite book|author=Golla, Victor|title=California Indian Languages|publisher=University of California Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-52026-667-4}}</ref>{{rp|151}}

The Yokuts mainly lived along the Kings River below the foothills and along the marshy fringes of Tulare Lake. The extensive oak forests in the Kings River riparian zone provided acorns, their main source of food. Wetlands provided them with abundant fish, waterfowl, fur-bearing animals including [[North American beaver|beaver]] and [[North American river otter|river otter]], and edible roots. Tule rushes provided material for roofing their [[pit house]]s and building rafts and canoes, the main form of transport in the often flooded low country.<ref name="Gayton">{{cite journal|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1525/aa.1945.47.3.02a00040/asset/aa.1945.47.3.02a00040.pdf;jsessionid=59433C5916F5FC5F5D14B002C89C1F93.f02t02?v=1&t=j8dbe7c8&s=e4af71d48480a4acc15a1e959c04afcd4de5e98d|title=Yokuts and Western Mono Social Organization|author=Gayton, A.H.|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=47|number=1|year=1945|pages=409–426|access-date=2017-10-04|doi=10.1525/aa.1945.47.3.02a00040|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Yokuts traded with Paiute peoples (the [[Mono people|Mono]]) in the [[Great Basin]] to the east, via various trails across the Sierra Nevada, one of which may have been via [[Kearsarge Pass]] at the eastern end of Kings Canyon.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/museum/tmc/MANZ/handouts/Traveling_Beads_Manzanar.pdf|title=The Traveling Beads|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref> About 500 years ago, some of the Mono migrated west, settling in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada above Yokuts territory, where they eventually formed a distinct subgroup known as the Western Mono.

The first recorded [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish explorers]] to see the Kings River were the members of [[Gabriel Moraga]]'s expedition, which camped along the river on January 6, 1806, the day of the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]. Thus, they named the river ''El Rio de los Santos Reyes'' ("River of the Holy Kings", i.e. the [[Biblical Magi|Three Magi]]), later shortened to ''Rio Reyes'', ''Rio de los Reyes'' or other variations thereof.<ref name="Gudde"/>{{rp|194}} Father Pedro Muñoz, a member of the 1806 expedition, wrote: "All the meadows are well covered with oak, alder, cottonwood and willow. The river abounds with beaver and fish. It is a location suitable for a mission, although there would also have to be a [[presidio]]."<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> Extending the [[Spanish missions in California|California mission system]] inland was a major goal of the Spanish Empire in the 1800s. However, no missions were ever established along the Kings River or elsewhere in the Central Valley.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/>

[[Jedediah Smith]] was the first American explorer to see the Kings River, encountering it during a fur trapping expedition in 1827.<ref>{{cite book|title=Historic Spots in California|author=Kyle, Douglas E.|display-authors=etal|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-80477-817-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YMnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT573}}</ref>{{rp|573}} [[John C. Fremont]]'s expedition in 1844 attempted to find a route over the Sierra Nevada via the Kings River, but were forced to turn back by deep snows and difficult terrain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap3a.htm|title=Arrival of the Anglo-Americans|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Challenge of the Big Trees|author=Dilsaver, Lary M. |author2=Tweed, William C.|year=1990|access-date=2017-09-23}}</ref> Fourteen years later a party led by J.H. Johnson successfully crossed Kearsarge Pass – the route Fremont had failed to find – becoming the first known non-Native Americans to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap3b.htm|title=Caucasian Settlers Come to the Southern Sierra|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Challenge of the Big Trees|author=Dilsaver, Lary M. |author2=Tweed, William C.|year=1990|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> Early maps from this era label the Kings River under a variety of names. Smith recorded the river as the ''Kimmel-che'' or ''Wimmel-che'' after "Indians of that name who reside on it",<ref>{{cite journal |title=Jedediah Smith's Route across the Sierra in 1827 |author=C. Hart Merriam |journal=California Historical Society Quarterly |volume=3 |issue=1 |year=1924 |pages=25–29 |jstor=25613600 |doi=10.2307/25613600}}</ref> likely a Yokuts clan or village along the lower part of the river.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yosemite.ca.us/library/yosemite_nature_notes/30/30-7.pdf|title=Yosemite Nature Notes|date=Jul 1951|publisher=Yosemite Online|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref> Fremont called it ''River of the Lake'' or ''Lake Fork'', as it was the largest stream flowing into Tulare Lake. Some older maps label it ''King's River'', translated from the original Spanish name. By 1852, the name ''Kings River'' was in common use.<ref name="Gudde">{{cite book|title=California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current Geographical Names|author=Gudde, Erwin G.|publisher=University of California Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-52026-619-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibMwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194}}</ref>{{rp|194}}
[[Image:Kings Canyon Highway from trail to Boyden Caves, National Forest, California.jpg|thumb|upright|Postcard of Kings River, ca. 1930–1945]]
After California became a U.S. state in 1850, the upper Kings River watershed was used intermittently by stockmen, prospectors and loggers, and the lower watershed was used mainly for cattle and sheep ranching. Scottsburg, one of the first American towns on the Kings River, was founded in 1854. Destroyed twice by flooding, it was reestablished as today's [[Centerville, Fresno County, California|Centerville]] in 1867. Smith's Ferry, established by James Smith in 1855, was one of several ferries established on the Kings River for travelers on the [[Stockton-Los Angeles Road]] and since it was the only one accessible during high water, remained the most important crossing of the Kings River for almost twenty years.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kyle, Douglas E.|display-authors=etal|title=Historic Spots in California: Fifth Edition|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-80477-817-6}}</ref>{{rp|90}} After the Kern River gold rush of 1853, settlers arrived in large numbers to Tulare County and conflict broke out with Native Americans; a proposal to remove the natives to the [[Sebastian Indian Reservation|Tejon Reservation]] was not acted upon. Skirmishes continued over the next few years, culminating in the [[Tule River War]] in spring 1856.<ref name="Frank and Goldberg">{{cite book|title=Defying the Odds: The Tule River Tribe's Struggle for Sovereignty in Three Centuries|author=Frank, Gelya and Goldberg, Carole E.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-30016-286-8}}</ref>{{rp|37–41}} Most of the natives not killed in the fighting or by foreign diseases were forcibly relocated from their lands along the Kings River to the [[Tule River Indian Reservation]], where their descendants live today.<ref name="Frank and Goldberg"/>{{rp|41–50}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Massey, Peter |author2=Wilson, Jeanne |title=Backcountry Adventures Southern California: The Ultimate Guide to the Backcountry for Anyone with a Sport Utility Vehicle|publisher=Adler Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-1-93019-326-0}}</ref>{{rp|166}}

From the 1860s to the early 1900s, logging was one of the biggest industries in the upper Kings River. In 1890 two [[San Francisco]] businessmen purchased {{convert|30000|acre|ha}} in the upper Kings watershed and founded the [[Hume-Bennett Lumber Company|Kings River Lumber Company]], intending to log the area's abundant giant sequoias. Between 1890 and 1926 a huge logging operation was extended across the mountains, an area including [[Converse Basin]] Grove – then the world's largest grove of sequoias – which was almost completely [[Clearcutting|clear-cut]]. A dam was built to form [[Hume Lake]], feeding a flume running more than {{convert|40|mi|km}} down Kings Canyon to carry logs to the mill in Sanger.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://abc30.com/news/a-look-back-at-the-history-of-the-valleys-log-flumes/56206/|title=A look back at the history of the Valley's log flumes|author=Haagenson, Gene|work=KFSN|date=2014-05-12|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref> Despite the scale of the venture it was ultimately unprofitable. Sequoia wood is soft and unsuitable for most construction; in addition, the trees were so tall that they often shattered into unusable pieces when they hit the ground.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sangerdepotmuseum.com/history-of-the-flume/|title=History of the Flume|publisher=Sanger Depot Museum|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref>

When [[John Muir]] visited and wrote about the Kings River and its canyon in the late 19th century, he brought attention to the area's potential as a tourist attraction and its merit as a nature preserve.<ref name="Colwell 2014">{{cite book|author=Mary Colwell|title=John Muir: The Scotsman who saved America's wild places|year=2014|publisher=Lion Books|isbn=978-0-7459-5667-1}}</ref>{{rp|88}} Muir lobbied for the preservation of the sequoia groves above the Kings River, which include [[General Grant Grove]], home to the world's second largest tree.<ref name="Eldredge 2009">{{cite book|title=Kings Canyon National Park|author=Eldredge, Ward|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-0-73855-996-4}}</ref>{{rp|13}} Due to his efforts and those of local politicians and civic activists, President [[Benjamin Harrison]] signed a bill establishing General Grant National Park in October 1890.<ref name="Dilsaver 4C">{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap4c.htm|title=Expansion of Sequoia and Creation of General Grant|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Challenge of the Big Trees|author=Dilsaver, Lary M. |author2=Tweed, William C.|year=1990|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> However, it would not be until 1940 when the park was extended to the middle and south forks of the Kings River and renamed Kings Canyon National Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap7c.htm|title=Harold Ickes and the Final Battle|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Challenge of the Big Trees|author=Dilsaver, Lary M. |author2=Tweed, William C.|year=1990|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>

==Settlement of the Kings delta==
[[Image:06784-Hanford-1905-Kings_River_Dam_at_head_of_Peoples_Ditch-Brück_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg|thumb|right|Dam on Kings River at head of Peoples' Ditch, 1905]]
The Kings River country was not an attractive site for early settlers, because for most of its lower course the river flows in an incised channel between low bluffs (an area known as the Centerville Bottoms), leaving the surrounding plains high and dry, suitable only for livestock grazing.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> Further downstream, approaching Tulare Lake, the land was too swampy for farming in addition to being seasonally flooded. For this reason, farmers initially favored the more well-watered [[Kaweah River|Kaweah Delta]], the present-day location of [[Visalia, California|Visalia]], to the south.<ref name="Preston"/>{{rp|106}} Agriculture along the Kings River was limited to the Centerville Bottoms until ditches were extended from further upstream to supply the surrounding lands, the first being the short Byrd Ditch in 1858.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> The [[Great Flood of 1862]] and another in 1868 destroyed most of the early settlements along the Kings River, and also wiped out the cattle ranching economy of the San Joaquin Valley, precipitating an economic shift to farming.<ref>{{cite book|title=Vanishing Landscapes: Land and Life in the Tulare Lake Basin|author=Preston, William L.|publisher=University of California Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0-52004-053-3}}</ref>{{rp|89–90}}

Starting in 1870 the settlement of the region began in earnest, and larger and more permanent water supply systems were built.<ref name="Preston">{{cite book|author=Preston, William L.|title=Vanishing Landscapes: Land and Life in the Tulare Lake Basin|publisher=University of California Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0-52004-053-3}}</ref>{{rp|106}} Long canals brought water to the large, semi-arid prairie between the Kings and San Joaquin rivers, enabling the growth of Fresno and attracting many more settlers to the area. Farming cooperatives or "colonies", where large landowners subdivided many small plots for individual farmers, were a popular early pattern of settlement and attracted immigrants from the eastern United States, Europe, and Asia.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Farmer's Benevolent Trust: Law and Agricultural Cooperation in Industrial America, 1865-1945|author=Woeste, Victoria Saker|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-80786-711-2}}</ref>{{rp|45–46}} A few individuals were able to amass huge land holdings by exploiting loopholes in the [[Homestead Act]] and [[Swamp Land Act of 1850|Swamp Land Act]], the most successful being [[James Griffin Boswell|J.G. Boswell]] and his nephew [[James G. Boswell II]], who acquired as much as {{convert|200000|acre|ha}} in the lower Kings and the Tulare Lake bed. Despite portions being sold off since the 1980s, the Boswell family farm remains the largest privately owned farm in the world, at {{convert|150000|acre|ha}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-james-boswell7-2009apr07-story.html|title=James G. Boswell II dies at 86; cotton magnate built family farm into agribusiness giant|work=Los Angeles Times|date=2009-04-07|author=Hirsch, Jerry|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref>

The [[Wright Act of 1887]] allowed farmers to organize into irrigation districts, enabling them to pool their resources and greatly extend the reach of canal systems. The Alta Irrigation District, established in 1888, was the first of the newly formed irrigation districts to deliver water; it would be followed by at least eighteen others (some of which have since been consolidated).<ref name="water agencies">{{cite map|url=http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/landuse/resources/P2_4_CWF%20water%20districts%20map.jpg|title=Water Agencies Map|publisher=Kings Basin Water Authority|work=Kings Basin Water: Land Use Planners Packet|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=2018-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514065323/http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/landuse/resources/P2_4_CWF%20water%20districts%20map.jpg|url-status=dead}}</ref>  However, drought spawned conflict between earlier landowners with [[riparian rights]] and their newly arrived counterparts. In the days before Pine Flat Dam, the river often dropped too low by August or September to satisfy all the demands on it, and often disputes escalated to armed conflict over the control of canal gates. In 1897 the first Kings River water agreement was made, establishing irrigation districts' legal priority to water, resolving many lawsuits. However, by 1913 practically all the Kings River's water was being used and farmers demanded a solution. In 1919 state engineer Charles L. Kaupke was assigned as the first Kings River "watermaster" – a role he served until 1956 – to settle issues of rationing and establish a "diversion schedule" to reduce water waste.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/>

All these actions were still not enough to solve the basic issue of seasonal drought, and in 1925 a local board was convened to discuss the possibility of building a dam at Pine Flat. The Kings River Water Association (KRWA), representing most of the local water districts, was established two years later with Kaupke as its head. However, when the [[Great Depression]] hit, the districts could not sell the bonds necessary to build a dam, and the federal government was asked to step in. The [[U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]] wanted to build the dam as part of its [[Central Valley Project]] and the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] wanted to build it as a separate flood control project.<ref name="Pine Flat 60 years">{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/sixty-years-of-pine-flat-dam/|title=Sixty Years of Pine Flat Dam|publisher=Kings Basin Water Authority|date=2014-05-19|author=Kings River Water Association|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=2018-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514065447/http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/sixty-years-of-pine-flat-dam/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The KRWA favored the Corps' proposal because the reclamation project would be subject to a {{convert|160|acre|ha|adj=on}} limitation per farm – a product of the [[Newlands Reclamation Act]] – and many farms in the area were larger than that (though none owned nearly as much land as the Boswells, who lobbied heavily for the Corps' project).<ref name="Arax and Wartzman 2005">{{cite book|title=The King of California: J.G. Boswell and the Making of A Secret American Empire|publisher=PublicAffairs|author1=Arax, Mark |author2=Wartzman, Rick |year=2005|isbn=978-0-78675-279-9}}</ref>{{rp|474–480}}

Political conflict raged on for more than ten years, with the Corps ultimately being authorized to build the dam, and the Bureau authorized to manage water storage.<ref name="Pine Flat case study">{{cite web|url=http://www.calwater.ca.gov/Admin_Record/C-064379.pdf|title=Case Study Report #64: Pine Flat, Kings River|publisher=CALFED Bay-Delta Program|access-date=2018-04-08}}</ref> The dam was constructed between 1949 and 1954; only 19 months after its dedication, it stopped the monstrous flood of December 1955, the largest recorded flood on the Kings since at least 1862, sparing downstream towns from heavy damage.<ref name="Pine Flat 60 years"/><ref name="USACE2001">{{cite book|title=Pine Flat Dam Fish and Wildlife Habitat Restoration, Fresno, California|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|date=Dec 2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1yk0AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA8}}</ref>{{rp|6–12}} In 1963 all Kings River water users signed an agreement with the Bureau of Reclamation establishing their shares of storage in Pine Flat Lake, granting them "perpetual rights to use of storage subordinate only to flood control purposes,"<ref name="Pine Flat case study"/> and in 1969 the [[California Department of Water Resources]] declared the Kings River fully appropriated, meaning that no new water rights can be claimed, unless bought from existing rights-holders.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/>

==Modern uses==
===Irrigation===
[[Image:CALIFORNIA--KINGS RIVER - NARA - 542517.jpg|thumb|upright|A canal carrying water from the Kings River in the San Joaquin Valley]]
Almost all of the Kings River's water is consumed for agriculture. The river irrigates about 1.1 million acres (4,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>)<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> of some of the most productive farmland in the United States; in 2009 the Kings delta produced crops valued at more than $3 billion.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> Fresno County, which is mostly supplied by Kings River water, ranked first among U.S. counties for agriculture sales in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Online_Resources/Highlights/Farm_Economics/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815161345/http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Online_Resources/Highlights/Farm_Economics/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 15, 2014|title=2012 Census Highlights: Farm Economics - Record high agriculture sales; income and expenses both up.|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture|date=May 2014|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref> Tulare and Kings Counties ranked second and tenth, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agcomm.co.tulare.ca.us/default/assets/File/2012CensusCA_1.pdf|title=9 California Counties Make Top 10 List for Ag Sales in the U.S.|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture|date=2014-05-02|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=2016-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205074538/http://agcomm.co.tulare.ca.us/default/assets/File/2012CensusCA_1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The main crops grown in the Kings River service area are grapes, citrus, grain, and various fruits and nuts. Other crops include [[alfalfa]], berries, rice, and miscellaneous [[Plant nursery|nursery]] and field crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/landuse/resources/P2_2_CWF%20land%20use.jpg|title=Kings Basin Land Use|publisher=Kings Basin Water Authority|access-date=2018-04-08|archive-date=2018-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514065303/http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/landuse/resources/P2_2_CWF%20land%20use.jpg|url-status=dead}}</ref> More than {{convert|1000|mi|km}} of man-made canals deliver water to fourteen irrigation districts in the San Joaquin Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/landuse/|title=Kings Basin Water System|publisher=Kings Basin Water Authority|access-date=2018-04-08|archive-date=2019-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327021519/http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/landuse/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Fresno, Kings River, Consolidated, Raisin City, Liberty and Laguna districts are located to the west of the river; the Tri-Valley, Hills Valley, Orange Cove, Alta and Kings County districts are located to the south. Kings River water also supplies the Riverdale, Stilson, James, Tranquility and Mid-Valley districts via Fresno Slough.<ref name="water agencies"/>

Surface water deliveries have been managed by the Kings River Water Association (KRWA), headed by the Kings River watermaster, since 1927. The KRWA oversees the water supply to 28 member agencies<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsriverwater.org/about_us/key_features/member_units.php|title=Member Units|publisher=Kings River Water Association|access-date=2018-04-08}}</ref> and about 20,000 farms in the Kings River service area, and is responsible for adjudicating water rights as well as regulating water quality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsriverwater.org/about_us/index.php|title=About Us|publisher=Kings River Water Association|access-date=2018-04-08}}</ref> A monthly "water entitlement schedule" determines how much water each agency receives, contingent on the flow of the Kings River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsriverwater.org/about_us/key_features/schedule.php|title=KRWA Water Entitlements|publisher=Kings River Water Association|access-date=2018-04-08}}</ref>

The [[Friant-Kern Canal]], a part of the [[Central Valley Project]] (CVP), is the only source of surface water from outside the Kings River basin. Only the Fresno Irrigation District is contracted for CVP water, but other Kings River users can also purchase CVP water in times of need, such as droughts.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> Summer water demand for irrigation is typically in the range of {{convert|6000|to|7000|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/>

Groundwater is the other major source of water supply for the basin, providing a large part of the agricultural supply and all of the water used by area cities. The Kings River Conservation District (KRCD), among its other functions, is the primary agency managing groundwater use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krcd.org/water/water_management/|title=Water Management|publisher=Kings River Conservation District|access-date=2018-04-11|archive-date=2018-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501123947/http://krcd.org/water/water_management/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kings Basin Water Authority also monitors groundwater use, as well as certain [[water conservation]], water quality and environmental functions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org/about-us/|title=About Us|publisher=Kings Basin Water Authority|access-date=2018-04-11}}</ref> The Kings River provides more than {{convert|100000|acre feet|m3}} of [[groundwater recharge]] to the local aquifer each year. However, depths to groundwater have been increasing for many years, indicating concern for the safe yield of the aquifer.<ref>J. Torrey, P. Awosika et al., ''Environmental Impact Report for the Hanford Mall'', Earth Metrics Inc. for the city of Hanford and State of California Clearinghouse, rpt. 10082, March 8, 1990</ref> The annual [[Overdrafting|overdraft]] is estimated at {{convert|100000|to|150000|acre feet|m3}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://waterinthewest.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/related_documents/Kings_Basin_Overview.pdf|title=Kings Basin Water Management Overview|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=2018-04-11}}</ref>

===Hydropower===
[[Image:Courtright Reservoir 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Courtright Reservoir]] is the upper reservoir for the [[Helms Pumped Storage Plant]], the largest power station of its kind in California.]]
{{Further|North Fork Kings River|Kings Canyon National Park#Park expansion and dam controversy}}
The Kings River system has several major hydroelectric plants; the only one on the main stem is the {{convert|165|MW|hp|adj=on}} Jeff L. Taylor Pine Flat Power Plant, located at the base of Pine Flat Dam. KRCD has operated the power plant since its completion in 1984.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krcd.org/power/pine_flat_power/|title=Pine Flat Power Plant|publisher=Kings River Conservation District|access-date=2018-04-11|archive-date=2018-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501123734/http://krcd.org/power/pine_flat_power/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Power generation at Pine Flat Dam is incidental, meaning it is governed by demand for irrigation water or flood control requirements rather than demand for power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a403359.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221061552/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a403359.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=February 21, 2017|title=Final Feasibility Report and Environmental Impact Statement/ Environmental Impact Report: Pine Flat Dam Fish and Wildlife Habitat Restoration, Fresno, California|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|date=Dec 2001|page=12|access-date=2018-09-25}}</ref> There was a proposal to add one more dam on the Kings River near Piedra, which would create a small regulating reservoir below Pine Flat Dam, allowing the power station to be used for peaking purposes while releasing a stable flow for irrigation. Due to environmental concerns and a poor cost-benefit ratio this project was never built.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsbasinauthority.org%2F_documents%2Freports_papers%2FBaseline_Conditions_(Phase_1%2CTask_15)_March_2006.pdf|title=Baseline Conditions Technical Memorandum|publisher=Kings Basin Water Authority|date=Mar 2006|author=Water Resources & Information Management Engineering, Inc.|pages=7–9, 55|access-date=2018-09-25}}</ref>

Further upstream, the three forks of the Kings have considerable [[hydropower]] potential due to their large drop in elevation from the Sierra crest. However, because the Middle and South Forks are located in Kings Canyon National Park, only the North Fork is utilized for hydroelectric generation. The Haas, Balch No.1 and No.2, and Kings River powerhouses on the North Fork were built between 1927 and 1959 by [[Pacific Gas and Electric Company]] (PG&E) and can collectively produce {{convert|335|MW|hp}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgecurrents.com/2011/05/25/how-pges-hydroelectric-staff-balances-the-power-of-the-sierra-snowpack/|title=How PG&E's Hydroelectric Staff Balances the Power of the Sierra Snowpack|author=Park, James|publisher=Pacific Gas & Electric Company|work=Currents|date=2011-05-25|access-date=2018-04-11}}</ref> In 2010, the four North Fork powerhouses plus Pine Flat generated more than 2 billion [[kilowatt hour]]s (7200 [[terajoule|TJ]]) of energy.<ref name="CA Energy Almanac">{{cite web|url=http://www.energy.ca.gov/almanac/renewables_data/hydro/index.php|title=California Hydroelectric Statistics & Data|publisher=California Energy Commission|date=2001–2015|access-date=2017-10-10|archive-date=2018-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226135225/http://www.energy.ca.gov/almanac/renewables_data/hydro/index.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Between 1977 and 1984, PG&E constructed the {{convert|1212|MW|hp|adj=on}} [[Helms Pumped Storage Plant]] located between the [[Wishon Dam|Wishon]] and [[Courtright Reservoir]]s. The Helms plant, which pumps water up into Courtright during periods of low demand and releases it during high demand periods, is crucial to stabilizing the California electric grid by providing [[peaking power]].<ref name="helms">{{cite web|url=http://www.energy.ca.gov/tour/helms/|title=Helms Pumped Storage Facility|publisher=California Energy Commission|access-date=2018-04-18|archive-date=2018-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411180708/http://www.energy.ca.gov/tour/helms/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgecurrents.com/2014/08/01/helms-at-30-hydroelectric-plant-delivers-safe-clean-affordable-energy/|title=Helms at 30: Hydroelectric Plant Delivers Safe, Clean Affordable Energy|author=Boyles, Denny|publisher=Pacific Gas & Electric Company|work=Currents|date=2014-08-01|access-date=2018-04-18}}</ref>

During the first half of the 20th century, the Kings River was the focus of a political fight over [[Los Angeles]]' proposal to dam the Middle and South Forks for power generation. Local farmers feared the city's real intention was to divert Kings water south, as it had gained notoriety for doing in the [[Owens Valley]] [[California Water Wars|water war]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/dilsaver-tweed/chap7a.htm|title=The Early Battles|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Challenge of the Big Trees|author=Dilsaver, Lary M. |author2=Tweed, William C.|year=1990|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> The KRCD, however, also wanted to dam these rivers for irrigation, and thus the proposed dam sites were excluded from Kings Canyon National Park as designated in 1940. It was not until 1965 when these areas were finally added to the park, ending a debate which had lasted more than sixty years.<ref name="2006 EIS">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDo3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA35|page=35|title=Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks: Final General Management Plan and Comprehensive River Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|year=2006|access-date=2017-09-23}}</ref> Today, the {{convert|11449|ft|m|adj=on}} fall from the head of the [[South Fork Kings River|South Fork]] to Pine Flat Reservoir remains the longest undammed drop of any U.S. river.<ref name="Houston">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-04-02-mn-2010-story.html|author=Houston, Paul|title=Kings River to Get Federal Protection in Compromise Bill|work=Los Angeles Times|date=1987-04-02|access-date=2018-05-02}}</ref>

===Flood control===
[[Image:A_view_of_Pine_Flat_Dam_near_Fresno,_Calif.,_June_17,_2013_(9127093735).jpg|thumb|right|Pine Flat Dam and the Kings River]]
'''Pine Flat Dam''', holding up to {{convert|1000000|acre feet|km3}} of water, is the primary flood control facility in the Kings River Basin. The winter and spring flood control reservation is {{convert|475000|acre feet|km3}}, although the reservoir can be drawn down further depending on the size of the Sierra snowpack.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a403359.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221061552/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a403359.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=February 21, 2017|title=Pine Flat Dam fish and wildlife habitat restoration, Fresno, California|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|date=Dec 2001|access-date=2018-09-20}}</ref>

During the winter and spring, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for determining the water release from Pine Flat Dam. The dam provides flood protection for {{convert|80000|acre|ha}} of farmland along the Kings River and another {{convert|260000|acre|ha}} in the old Tulare Lake bed.<ref name="USACE2001"/> Pine Flat Dam is operated so that the flow at Crescent Weir (about {{convert|50|mi|km}} downstream of Pine Flat, near [[Riverdale, California|Riverdale]]) does not exceed {{convert|4750|cuft/s|m3/s}}, although this amount is frequently exceeded due to the large size and heavy runoff from the Kings watershed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/mp/sccao/storage/docs/initial_alt_info/ta_iai_04_vol2_flood_dmg_ta.pdf|title=Flood Damage Reduction Technical Appendix|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|work=Upper San Joaquin River Basin Storage Investigation, Initial Alternatives Information Report|date=Jun 2005|access-date=2018-05-02}}</ref>

The floodwater capacity of the Kings River falls dramatically in downstream areas, from {{convert|50000|cuft/s|m3/s}} between Pine Flat Dam and [[California State Route 180|Highway 180]] to {{convert|13000|cuft/s|m3/s}} at Kingsburg.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> The key flood control facility on the lower river is the '''Island Weir''' and '''Army Weir''' complex, which control the water flow into the north and south forks of the Kings River, respectively. Flood flows up to {{convert|4750|cuft/s|m3/s}} are sent north; flows of up to {{convert|1200|cuft/s|m3/s}} above that level are diverted south into the Tulare Lake bed, and flows above that combined level are sent north.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/>

On the north fork floodwaters are again divided at the '''Crescent Weir''' with the first {{convert|4750|cuft/s|m3/s}} sent north via Fresno Slough and James Bypass into the San Joaquin River, and the next {{convert|2000|cuft/s|m3/s}} south into the Tulare Lake bed. Any flows exceeding the total {{convert|7950|cuft/s|m3/s}} channel capacity of the north and south Forks are divided in whichever direction is currently safer.<ref name="Tulare Basin"/>

The Kings River Conservation District (KRCD) is in charge of maintaining the system of flood control channels and levees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krcd.org/water/water_management/|title=Water Management|publisher=Kings River Conservation District|access-date=2018-05-02|archive-date=2018-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501123947/http://krcd.org/water/water_management/|url-status=dead}}</ref> On the lower river west of Highway 99, the KRCD has worked since the 1950s to maintain the floodwater capacity of the Kings River and its various distributaries in the San Joaquin Valley. The KRCD service area consists of {{convert|140|mi|km}} of levees starting from below [[Kingsburg, California|Kingsburg]], to [[California State Route 145|SR 145]] on the North Fork of the river, and to near [[Stratford, California|Stratford]] on the South Fork. During flood conditions, KRCD patrols the levees 24 hours a day to monitor and repair any damages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krcd.org/water/water_management/kings_river_flood.html|title=Kings River Flood Control Maintenance|publisher=Kings River Conservation District|access-date=2018-05-13|archive-date=2017-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803194311/http://www.krcd.org/water/water_management/kings_river_flood.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since its construction in 1954, Pine Flat Dam has not provided the high degree of flood protection originally intended by the project. An average of {{convert|200000|acre feet|km3}} of water are spilled each year because the reservoir is not big enough to hold it.<ref name="Kings River Handbook"/> In 1969 a total of {{convert|1017000|acre feet|km3}}, more than the entire capacity of the lake, flowed over the spillway, causing heavy damage downstream.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/mp/sccao/storage/docs/phase1_rpt_fnl/tech_app/10_rodgers_crossing.pdf|title=Rodgers Crossing Reservoir|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|work=Upper San Joaquin River Basin Storage Investigation|date=Oct 2003|access-date=2018-05-02}}</ref> The Bureau of Reclamation has studied the possibility of raising Pine Flat Dam to store more water.<ref name="Raise Pine Flat">{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/mp/sccao/storage/docs/phase1_rpt_fnl/tech_app/09_pine_flat.pdf
|title=Raise Pine Flat Dam|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|work=Upper San Joaquin River Basin Storage Investigation|date=Oct 2003|access-date=2018-05-11}}</ref>

In addition, local irrigation districts are engaged in efforts to use floodwater for [[groundwater recharge]] rather than allowing it to drain away, including the use of certain farm fields as temporary flood basins in winter. This will both reduce flood damage and provide more water for farmers' use.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/grants_loans/irwmgp/docs/wrkshp072011/4-OnFarmBasinLevel_Orth_AgWrkshop_7-20-11.pdf|title=Elements of On-Farm and Basin-Level Agricultural Water Use Efficiency|publisher=California State Water Resources Control Board|date=2011-07-20|author=Orth, David|access-date=2018-05-11|archive-date=2017-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215151716/http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/grants_loans/irwmgp/docs/wrkshp072011/4-OnFarmBasinLevel_Orth_AgWrkshop_7-20-11.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Recreation==
[[Image:CALIFORNIA--KINGS RIVER, NEAR CENTREVILLE - NARA - 542522.tif|thumb|right|Fishing on the Kings River near [[Centerville, Fresno County, California|Centerville]]]]
The upper reaches of the Kings River, including the entirety of the Middle Fork and most of the South Fork, flow through rugged backcountry that can be reached only by foot or on horseback. The Middle and South Forks are part of the [[National Wild and Scenic Rivers System]], as is about {{convert|15|mi|km}} of the main Kings below their confluence. About {{convert|65.5|mi|km}} are classified as Wild and {{convert|15.5|mi|km}} as Recreational.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rivers.gov/rivers/kings.php|title=Kings River, California|publisher=National Wild and Scenic Rivers System|access-date=2018-05-11}}</ref> The North Fork is more accessible, with boating, camping and visitor facilities at [[Wishon Reservoir]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Wishon Reservoir|url=http://www.fresnobee.com/sports/outdoors/article19500675.html|author=Warszawski, Marek|work=The Fresno Bee|date=2009-07-30|access-date=2018-05-13}}</ref> and a boat launch at [[Courtright Reservoir]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/BoatingFacilities/Details/788|title=Courtright Reservoir Boat Ramp|publisher=California Division of Boating and Waterways|access-date=2018-05-13}}</ref>

Whitewater rafting and kayaking on the Middle and South Forks is "extremely dangerous" and is usually only done by experts.<ref name="environmental assessment"/> However, the main Kings between the Garnet Dike put-in and Pine Flat Lake is a popular run for both commercial rafting companies and private boaters. According to the Forest Service, "the Kings River has the highest volume of water which can safely be rafted in the Sierra Nevada", and due to the large size and high elevation of its drainage basin it has a longer boating season than most other Sierra rivers.<ref name="environmental assessment"/>

The Kings River and its forks above Pine Flat Lake has naturally reproducing populations of [[rainbow trout]], [[brown trout]] and [[brook trout]]. Fishing access above Pine Flat Lake extends as far upstream as Garlic Falls; beyond there, the canyon is too narrow to enter safely by foot except during periods of extremely low water.<ref name="environmental assessment">{{cite web|url=https://www.rivers.gov/documents/plans/kings-ea.pdf|title=Middle Fork, South Fork and The Kings Wild and Scenic Rivers, Fresno County, California|publisher=National Wild and Scenic Rivers System|author1=McCray, Wallace |author2=Dellavalle, Ann |author3=Whelan, Cynthia |access-date=2018-05-13}}</ref> In lower elevation reaches and in the reservoir, [[smallmouth bass]] and [[spotted bass]] are common.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/m/FishingLocations/Details/501721|title=Fishing Location - Kings River, Upper|publisher=California Department of Fish and Wildlife|access-date=2018-05-13}}</ref>

Below Pine Flat Dam the Kings River is wide and slow-flowing, with [[tailwater]] fishing for trout roughly between the dam and Highway 180; further downstream, carp, bass and catfish are more common. The lower river is suitable for swimming, floating and canoeing with many public access points between the dam and Avocado Lake. Below there, most of the banks are private property, with exceptions such as Pierce's Park at Highway 180.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.americanwhitewater.org/content/River/detail/id/226/|title=Kings, California, US 4. Pine Flat Dam to Centerville (Route 180)|publisher=American Whitewater|access-date=2018-05-13}}</ref> Although there are few natural obstructions along the lower Kings, there are a number of diversion weirs that pose a hazard to boaters and must be [[portage]]d.<ref>{{cite book|title=Pine Flat Dam Fish and Wildlife Habitat Restoration Investigation, Draft Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact Report|year=2001|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|pages=3–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Nidever, Seth|title=River opens, floating/boating season begins|work=Hanford Sentinel|date=2017-07-12|url=https://hanfordsentinel.com/news/local/river-opens-floating-boating-season-begins/article_4aebd0d0-3220-52a7-832e-4ed581ab7fe2.html}}</ref>

{{wide image|Kings_River,_Fresno_County,_California.JPG|850px|align-cap=center|Panorama of the Kings River near Piedra}}

==List of tributaries==
Tributaries of the Kings River are listed going upstream from the North Fork/South Fork split near Lemoore. Major lakes/reservoirs and dams are also listed. [[Distributary|Distributaries]] of the Kings River below Lemoore are detailed in the [[Kings River (California)#Lower river|Course section]].
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*[[Fish Creek (Kings River)|Fish Creek]]
*[[Hughes Creek (Kings River)|Hughes Creek]]
*[[Mill Creek (Kings River)|Mill Creek]]
*''[[Pine Flat Dam]], [[Pine Flat Lake]]''
**[[Deer Creek (Kings River)|Deer Creek]]
**[[Zebe Creek (Kings River)|Zebe Creek]]
**[[Russian Charlie Creek (Kings River)|Russian Charlie Creek]]
**[[Lefever Creek (Kings River)|Lefever Creek]]
**[[Billy Creek (Kings River)|Billy Creek]]
**[[Sycamore Creek (Kings River)|Sycamore Creek]]
**[[Big Creek (Kings River)|Big Creek]]
**[[Sacata Creek (Kings River)|Sacata Creek]]
**[[Redoak Creek (Kings River)|Redoak Creek]]
**[[Lower Rancheria Creek (Kings River)|Lower Rancheria Creek]]
**[[Sycamore Springs Creek (Kings River)|Sycamore Springs Creek]]
*[[North Fork Kings River]]
**[[Dinkey Creek (California)|Dinkey Creek]]
**[[Basin Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Basin Creek]]
**[[Patterson Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Patterson Creek]]
**[[Weir Creek]]   
**[[Black Rock Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Black Rock Creek]]
**[[Williams Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Williams Creek]]
**[[Mule Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Mule Creek]] 
**Rancheria Creek
**[[Teakettle Creek]]
**[[Long Meadow Creek]]
**''[[Wishon Dam]], [[Wishon Reservoir]]''
***[[Woodchuck Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Woodchuck Creek]]
***[[Short Hair Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Short Hair Creek]]
***[[Sharp Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Sharp Creek]]
**[[Helms Creek]]
**''[[Courtright Dam]], [[Courtright Reservoir]]''
***[[Dusy Creek]]
**[[Post Corral Creek]]
***[[Burnt Corral Creek]]
**[[Flemming Creek]]
**[[Nichols Canyon (N. Fork Kings River)|Nichols Canyon]]
**[[Meadow Brook (N. Fork Kings River)|Meadow Brook]]
**[[Fall Creek (N. Fork Kings River)|Fall Creek]]
**''[[Division Lake]]''
**''[[Regiment Lake]]''
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*[[Davis Creek (Kings River)|Davis Creek]] 
**[[Mill Flat Creek (Kings River)|Mill Flat Creek]]
*[[Verplank Creek (Kings River)|Verplank Creek]]
*[[Fox Canyon (Kings River)|Fox Canyon Creek]]
*[[Converse Creek (Kings River)|Converse Creek]]
*[[Spring Creek (Kings River)|Spring Creek]]
*[[Cabin Creek (Kings River)|Cabin Creek]]
*[[Garlic Meadow Creek (Kings River)|Garlic Meadow Creek]]
*[[Rough Creek (Kings River)|Rough Creek]]
*[[Ten Mile Creek (Kings River)|Ten Mile Creek]]
**''[[Hume Lake]]''
*[[Middle Fork Kings River]]
**[[Deer Canyon (M. Fork Kings River)|Deer Canyon Creek]] 
**[[Brush Canyon (M. Fork Kings River)|Brush Canyon Creek]]
**[[Tombstone Creek]]
**[[Wren Creek]]
**[[Silver Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Silver Creek]]
**[[Crown Creek]]
***[[Rogers Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Rogers Creek]]
**[[Gorge of Despair]]
**[[Crystal Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Crystal Creek]]
**[[Blue Canyon Creek]]
**[[Lost Canyon Creek]]
**[[Rattlesnake Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Rattlesnake Creek]] 
**[[Alpine Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Alpine Creek]] 
**[[Dog Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Dog Creek]]
**[[Kennedy Creek (California)|Kennedy Creek]]
**[[Dougherty Creek]]
**[Horseshoe Creek
**[[Goddard Creek]]
***[[Disappearing Creek]]
**[[Windy Canyon (M. Fork Kings River)|Windy Canyon Creek]]
**[[Cartridge Creek]]
**[[Rimbaud Creek]]
**[[Palisade Creek]]
***[[Cataract Creek]]
***[[Glacier Creek (M. Fork Kings River)|Glacier Creek]]
**[[Dusy Branch]]
**[[Helen Lake (M. Fork Kings River)|Helen Lake]]
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*[[South Fork Kings River]]
**[[Lockwood Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Lockwood Creek]]
**[[Redwood Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Redwood Creek]]
**[[Windy Gulch (S. Fork Kings River)|Windy Gulch]]
**[[Boulder Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Boulder Creek]]
**[[Grizzly Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Grizzly Creek]] 
**[[Lightning Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Lightning Creek]] 
**[[Deer Cove Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Deer Cove Creek]] 
**[[Lewis Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Lewis Creek]]
***[[Comb Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Comb Creek]]
**[[Sheep Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Sheep Creek]]
**[[Hotel Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Hotel Creek]]
**[[Roaring River (California)|Roaring River]]
***[[Sugarloaf Creek]]
****[[Ferguson Creek]]
**[[Granite Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Granite Creek]]
**[[Copper Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Copper Creek]]
**[[Avalanche Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Avalanche Creek]]
**[[Bubbs Creek]]
***[[Sphinx Creek]]
***[[Charlotte Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Charlotte Creek]]
***[[Cross Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Cross Creek]]
***[[North Guard Creek]]
***[[East Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|East Creek]]
**[[Glacier Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Glacier Creek]]
**[[Gardiner Creek]]
**[[Woods Creek (California)|Woods Creek]]
***[[South Fork Woods Creek (California)|Woods Creek]]
**[[Arrow Creek (Fresno County, California)|Arrow Creek]]
**[[Kid Creek (S. Fork Kings River)|Kid Creek]]
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==See also==
*[[List of rivers of California]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Kings River (California)}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110725152244/http://www.centralvalleywater.org/_pdf/KingsRiverHandbook-03final.pdf Kings River Handbook]}}

{{Central Valley Rivers}}
{{Tulare Basin Hydrography}}
{{Sierra Nevada}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Kings River (California)| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Sierra Nevada (United States)]]
[[Category:Rivers of Fresno County, California]]
[[Category:Rivers of Kings County, California]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the San Joaquin River]]
[[Category:Tulare Basin watershed]]
[[Category:Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States]]
[[Category:Geography of the San Joaquin Valley]]
[[Category:Kings Canyon National Park]]
[[Category:Sierra National Forest]]
[[Category:Rivers of Northern California]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Sierra Nevada in California]]