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{{Short description|Fox spirits in Japanese folklore}}
{{For-multi|the lifestyle brand|Maison Kitsuné|other uses|Kitsune (disambiguation)}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Japanese words and phrases]]}}
[[File:Yoshitoshi - 100 Aspects of the Moon - 91.jpg|thumb|The moon on Musashi Plain (fox) by [[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Tsukioka |last=Yoshitori |title=from the series ''One hundred aspects of the moon'' |publisher=National Gallery of Victoria, Australia |url=http://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/ngvschools/FloatingWorld/supernatural/The-moon-on-Musashi-Plain/ |access-date=2016-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826233420/http://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/ngvschools/FloatingWorld/supernatural/The-moon-on-Musashi-Plain/ |archive-date=2016-08-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

The {{nihongo|'''{{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}}'''|{{linktext|狐|lang=ja}}, きつね|extra={{IPA|ja|kʲi̥t͡sɨne̞|IPA|Ja-Kitsune.oga}}}}, in popular Japanese folklore, is a [[fox]] or fox spirit which possesses the [[supernatural]] ability to shapeshift or bewitch other life forms.

== General overview ==
[[File:Obake Karuta 3-01.jpg|left|thumb|This {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Karuta|obake karuta]]}} ('monster card') from the early 19th century depicts a {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}}. The associated game involves matching clues from folklore to pictures of specific creatures.]]
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{{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsune}}, though literally a 'fox', becomes in folklore a '[[fox spirit]]', or perhaps a type of {{lang|ja-Latn|[[yōkai]]}}. They are ascribed with intelligence and magical or supernatural powers, especially so with long-living foxes.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=127–128}}

The ''kitsune'' exhibit the ability of {{lang|ja-Latn|bakeru}}, or transforming its shape and appearance, like the ''[[bake-danuki|tanuki]]''{{Refn|As in the as in the proverbial {{nihongo|kitsune shichi bake, tanuki ya bake|狐七化け、狸八化け|extra='fox shapeshifts 7 times, [[racoon dog]] shapeshifts 8 times'}}.<ref name="miyao2009"/>}}{{efn|The [[racoon dog]] is commonly referred to as "badger" by Western orientalists, e.g. de Visser.{{sfn|de Visser|1908a}}}} as well as the ability to {{lang|ja-Latn|bakasu}}, i.e. beguile  or bewitch; these terms are related to the generic term {{lang|ja-Latn|bakemono}} meaning "spectre" or "goblin".{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=6}} Another scholar ascribes the ''kitsune'' with being a "disorienting deity" (that makes the traveler lose his way){{Refn|Itō's translation for {{nihongo|madoeshi kami|迷ヘシ神|extra='beguiling god'}} which he takes from a title of a tale in ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū|Konjaku monogatarishū]]''. Itō also uses the term {{nihongo|kitsubaka|狐化|extra="Bewitching Fox"}} but this is not standard vocabulary for a lay person (not listed in ''[[Kōjien]]'', 2nd rev. ed.), and perhaps is insider jargon, as Itō provides the instance of its use among researchers doing this type of fieldwork.}} and such capabilities were also ascribed to badgers{{sfn|Casal|1959|pp=6, 14}} (actually ''[[bake-danuki|tanuki]]'' or [[raccoon dog]]) and occasionally to cats (cf. ''[[bakeneko]]'').{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=6}}<ref name="miyao2009"/>

The archetypal method by which the ''kitsune'' tricks ({{lang|ja-Latn|bakasu}}) humans is to lead them astray, or make them lose their way. The experiences of people losing their way (usually in the mountain after dark) and blaming the ''kitsune'' fox has been recounted first or secondhand to folklorists well into the present times.{{efn|Ito says "someone" losing the way, which is understood to mean the informant or someone other.}}<ref name="ito2023&1999"/>

Other typical standard tricks occur as [[folktale]]{{efn|And subtypes of folktales called {{illm|seken banashi|ja|世間話}}, "chat over trifles of life", used by Itsuko Yamada who is cited.}} types: people are tricked into taking a "bath in a [[Night soil|night-soil]] pot" (i.e., [[Slurry pit|manure pit]]{{Refn|The fox may also trick people into falling into this {{nihongo|koe dame|[[:ja:肥溜め|肥溜め]]|extra='manure pit'}}<ref name="miyao2009"/>}}{{Refn|[[Lafcadio Hearn]]: "enter a [[cesspool]] in the belief they are taking a bath"{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=242|postscript=; [1896], p. 336}}}}), or eating "horse-[[feces|dung]] [[dumpling]]",{{Refn|Hearn: "eat horse-dung in the belief they are eating mochi"{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=242|postscript=; [1896], p. 336}}}} or accepting "leaf money" (cf. {{section link||Trickster}}).{{Refn|"104. Taking a Bath in a Nigh-soil Pot", "105. The Horse-dung Dumpling", "108. Leaf Money"{{sfn|Seki|1966|pp=57–58}}}}{{Refn|[[Keigo Seiki]] first published his folktale type in Japanese, but it used a different numbering system. So in Seki's {{nihongo|Nihon mukashibanashi shūsei|日本昔話集成}} (or {{nihongo|~taisei|大成}}), the major category is ''honkaku'' or genuine type ''mukashibanashi'' tale, mid-category is "People and Foxes" (#270-#287) of which we have as sampled by the sources #270 {{nihongo|shiri nozoki|「尻のぞき」|extra='butt-peeking'}},  #271A {{nihongo|furo wa koetsubo|「風呂は肥壺」|extra='bath is nightsoil pit'}}, #271B {{nihongo|uma no kuso dango|「馬の糞団子」|extra='horse dung dumpling'}}, #274{{nihongo|uma no kuso dango|銭は木の葉」|extra='money is tree-leaf'}}<ref name="n-m-shusei-honkaku"/>}}<ref name="yamada1985"/><ref name="yamauchi1980"/>{{sfn|Sakaita|1996|p=1310}}

The "fox wife" theme occurs in a number of noted medieval works (e.g. ''[[Nihon Ryōiki|Nihon ryōiki]]''),<ref>{{harvnb|Bathgate|2004}}. Chapter 2. "Foxes, Wives and Spirits: Shapeshifting and the Language of Marriage", pp. 33–70</ref> but on that theme, the story of [[nine-tailed vixen]] [[Tamamo-no-mae]] ('Jewel-algae ladyship') and ''[[sessho-seki]]'' ("murder stone") deserve special attention,<ref>{{harvnb|Bathgate|2004}}. Chapter 1. "The Jewel Maiden and the Murder Stone: Orientations to Shapeshifting and Signification", pp. 1–32</ref> as well as the story of a vixen [[Kuzunoha]] giving birth to the astrologist-magician [[Abe no Seimei]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bathgate|2004}}. Chapter 5.</ref>

The "Fox wife" is also a folktale type category.<ref>{{URL|1=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/9542001 |2=Nihon mukashibanashi shūsei II.i (honkaku mukashibanashi)}}, # 116ABC {{nihongo|kitsune nyōbō|「狐女房」|extra='fox wife'}}, pp. 161–170</ref>{{Refn|"147. Fox Wife".{{sfn|Seki|1966|p=78}}}} There is a weather myth that associates sunshine rain with the kitsune's wedding (Cf. {{section link||Kitsune no yomeiri}}), and the folktale type for it.{{Refn|#285 {{nihongo|kitsune no yometori|「狐の嫁取」|extra='fox's wife-taking'}}.{{sfn|Seki|1955|p=1362}}}}

The fox jewel or ''tama'' (cf. {{section link||Fox jewel}}) sometimes occur in folktale tradition as something held important by the fox, sometimes as the item necessary for it to transform or conduct other magic.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=126}} This and the ''[[kitsunebi]]'' ('fox-fire') which the creature is reputed capable of firing off (cf. {{section link||Kitsunebi control}}) are standard parts of the pictorial depictions of ''kitsune'', especially on a white kitsune or ''byakko''{{sfn|Hearn|1910|loc=p. 221 and note}} ({{section link||Iconography}}).

The {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} came to be associated with [[Inari Ōkami|Inari]], a [[Shinto]] {{lang|ja-Latn|[[kami]]}} or spirit, and serve as its messengers ({{section link||Inari Shinto deity}}). The fox also figures in Buddhist as the mount of the ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|deva]]'' [[Dakini]], and there is some conflation between the two deities ({{section link||Buddhist context}}).

Another dimension is that the ''kitsune'' was thought capable of [[spiritual possession]] or ''[[kitsunetsuki]]'' (q.v.), which was a superstition widespread throughout Japan.<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/> This is multi-faceted: the illness causing possession might be sought to be exorcized by hiring some shaman, but the fox can turn into a benevolent guardian spirit also,{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=70}} or a case of both as in the case of an 11th century tale{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=73}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=39}}<ref name="foster2024-p228">{{harvnb|Foster|2015|p=182}}; {{harvnb|Foster|2024|p=228}}</ref> (cf. [[Kitsunetsuki#Hungry fox]]).

For an unwanted possession to be exorcised, a professional ''miko'' priestess (as in the foregoing tale) or a ''[[shugendō]]'' priest would be consulted, well into the 20th century as the superstition persisted.{{sfn|Fairchild|1962|p=38}} A ''miko'' or ''[[itako]]'' purports to be  capable of forcing a controlled possession of herself by a fox spirit, and engage in {{illm|kuchiyose|ja|口寄せ|lt=''kuchiyose''}}, a sort of [[séance]] to speak on behalf of the spirit.<ref name="foster2009"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fairchild|1962|pp=37–38}}: ''kitsune no kuchiyose''; {{harvnb|Fairchild|1962|p=120}}: a ''izuna'' ''kuchiyose'' might also be considered fox spirit summoning ; but {{harvnb|Fairchild|1962|p=57}}, et passim, a miko performs such ''kuchiyose'' for various spirits not necessarily of the fox kind.</ref>

The concept of certain families being "fox owners" (''kitsune-mochi'') due to it taming a ''jinko'' or ''ninko'' were written about in the Edo Period and Meiji era, but appear to be localized around [[Izumo Province]] (also further described under ''[[kitsunetsuki]]'')<ref name="chamberlain1908"/><ref name="inoue1886"/> which was the backdrop of [[Lafcadio Hearn]]'s folkloristics.{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=224}} In Izumo, the "owner" families were feared as being able to unleash the fox spirits on normal people.{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=235}}

In other regions, it is only the ''[[yamabushi]]'' or lay priests trained in ''shugendō'' who have the reputation of using {{nihongo|''kiko''|気狐|extra=lit. "air/''chi'' fox"}}.{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=24}} In some cases, the fox or fox-spirit summoned is called the ''[[osaki]]''.{{sfn|Casal|1959|pp=24–25}} The familiar may also be known as the {{nihongo|''[[kuda-gitsune]]''|管狐|extra=lit. "tube fox, pipe fox"}} because they were believed to be so small, or become so small as to fit inside a tube.{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=25}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|pp=66, 92, 109, 111, 157}}

The kitsune appears in numerous Japanese works. [[Noh]] ({{illm|Kogitsunemaru#Kokaji|ja|小狐丸#謡曲『小鍛冶』|lt=''Kokaji''}}), [[kyogen]] ({{interlanguage link|Tsurigitsune|ja|釣狐|lt=''Tsurigitsune''}}), or [[bunraku]] and [[kabuki]] ({{illm|Ashiya Dōman ōuchi kagami|ja|芦屋道満大内鑑|lt=''Ashiya Dōman ōuchi kagami''}}, ''[[Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura]]'') plays derived from folk tales feature them,{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=109–124}}<!--{{sfn|Hearn|2005|pp=162–163}}--><ref>{{harvnb|Hearn|1910|p=241}}: "the most interesting part of fox-literature belongs to the Japanese stage". However, Hearn's example which he excepts as if it is a play with dialogues, is ''[[Hizakurige]]'', an Edo Period novel widely known in Japan.</ref> as do contemporary works such as native animations, comic books and [[video game]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Weinstock|editor-first=Jeffrey Andrew|last=Nakamura|first=Miri|title=The Ashgate Encyclopedia of Literary and Cinematic Monsters|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4724-0060-4|pages=358–360|chapter=Kitsune}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The full etymology of {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is in the text ''[[Shin'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki]]'', dating to 794.

Other old sources include the aforementioned story in the ''Nihon ryōiki'' (810–824) and ''[[Wamyō Ruijushō]]'' (c. 934). These old sources are written in [[Man'yōgana]], which clearly identifies the [[Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai|historical form]] of the word (when rendered into a Latin-alphabet transliteration) as {{lang|ja-Latn| ki<sub>1</sub>tune}}. Following several [[Historical linguistics|diachronic]] phonological changes, this became {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}}.

The fox-wife narrative in ''Nihon ryōiki'' gives the folk etymology {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsu-ne}} as 'come and sleep',{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=72}}{{sfn|Brinkley|1902|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2jnQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA197 197–198]}} while in a double-entendre, the phrase can also be parsed differently as {{lang|ja-Latn|ki-tsune}} to mean 'always comes'.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=72}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=20}}

Many etymological suggestions have been made, though there is no general agreement:
*Myōgoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always ({{lang|ja-Latn|tsune}}) yellow ({{lang|ja-Latn|ki}})".
<!--- [This is known as a later source for the version of the fox-wife tale in ''Nihon Ryōiki'' so is redundant here] *The early [[Kamakura period|Kamakura-period]] {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Mizukagami]]}} indicates that it means "came ({{lang|ja-Latn|ki}}) [<nowiki />[[perfective aspect]] particle ''tsu''] to bedroom ({{lang|ja-Latn|ne}})", from a legend that a {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} could take a human woman form, marry a man, and bear children.-->
*[[Arai Hakuseki]] in {{lang|ja-Latn|Tōga}} (1717) suggests that {{lang|ja-Latn|ki}} means 'stench', {{lang|ja-Latn|tsu}} is a [[possessive]] [[Grammatical particle|particle]], and {{lang|ja-Latn|ne}} is related to {{lang|ja-Latn|inu}}, the word for 'dog'.
*Tanikawa Kotosuga in {{lang|ja-Latn|Wakun no Shiori}} (1777–1887) suggests that {{lang|ja-Latn|ki}} means 'yellow', {{lang|ja-Latn|tsu}} is a possessive particle, and {{lang|ja-Latn|ne}} is related to {{lang|ja-Latn|neko}}, the word for 'cat'.
*[[Ōtsuki Fumihiko]] in {{lang|ja-Latn|Daigenkai}} (1932–1935) proposes that the word comes from {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsu}}, which is an [[onomatopoeia]] for the bark of a fox, and {{lang|ja-Latn|ne}}, which may be an [[honorific]] referring to a servant of an [[Inari shrine]].
* Nozaki also suggests that the word was originally onomatopoetic: {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsu}} represented a fox's yelp and came to be the general word for 'fox'; {{lang|ja-Latn|-ne}} signified an affectionate [[Grammatical mood|mood]].{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|page=3}}

{{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsu}} is now archaic; in modern Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as {{lang|ja-Latn|kon kon}} or {{lang|ja-Latn|gon gon}}.

== Nihongi chronicle ==
In the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' (or ''Nihongi'', compiled 720), the fox is mentioned twice, as omens.{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=12}} In the year 657 a ''byakko'' or "white fox" was reported to have been witnessed in [[Iwami Province]],<ref name="nihongi-tr-aston-saimei3"/>{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=12}} possibly a sign of good omen.{{efn|The translator Aston's footnoted opinion that this was a good omen<ref name="nihongi-tr-aston-saimei3"/> is endorsed by Smyers.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=76}}}} And in 659, a fox bit off the end of a creeping vine plant held by the laborer (shrine construction worker),{{efn|Although Aston translated that the governor (''[[Kuni no miyatsuko]]'') was ordered to repair the "Istuki Shrine",<ref name="nihongi-tr-aston-saimei5"/> modern scholarship identify this as the [[Kumano Taisha]] in {{interlanguage link|Ou District|ja|意宇郡}}, Izumo Province.{{efn|{{harvnb|Watanabe|1974|p=87}}: "The reasons given by the ''Nihon Shoki'' for renovating the [Kumano] [S]hrine were that a fox had appeared in the Ou district, bitten off a piece of vine, and then disappeared..[and] a dog had bitten off the forearm.. and left it at Iuya Shrine<!--The shrine in question, then, was to be rebuilt to ward off any misfortunes that might be caused by these inauspicious events. However, Iuya was the main shine for the ancient Ou district, which is near the present-day city of Matsue in Shimane Prefecture.-->"}}<ref name="nihonshoki-tr-ujitani-saimei5"/> And it was a [[Conscription|conscripted]] laborer<!--役夫--> from this Ou District who was holding the vine, which was a construction material for rebuilding the shrine, according to Ujitani's translation.<ref name="nihonshoki-tr-ujitani-saimei5"/>}} interpreted as an inauspicious omen foreshadowing the death of [[Empress Saimei]] the following year.<ref name="nihongi-tr-aston-saimei5"/>{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=12}}{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=76}}

For pre-historic considerations before the chronicles, Cf. {{section link||Foxes in Japanese archaeology}}

=={{Anchor|Kyūbi}} Anciently-aged foxes ==
{{For|general Eastern and Chinese myth|nine-tailed fox|Sky Fox (mythology)|fox spirits}}
[[File:NineTailsFox.JPG|right|thumb|A nine-tailed fox, from the Qing edition of the ancient text ''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas]]'']]

{{illm|Asakawa Zen'an|ja|朝川善庵}} (1850) argued that there were three classes of foxes, gradable by age, the sky or celestial ''tenko'',{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The ''tenko'' being designated "celestial fox" or "heavenly fox" is preferable over "sky fox" because "sky" could apply to ''kūko''. Casal renders ''tenko'' as celestial vs. {{nihongo|''kūko''|空狐|extra='air fox"}}.{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=3}}}} the white fox ''byakko'' and black fox, of which the ''tenko'' was the most ancient,{{Refn|Zen'an's essay, sourced vaguely to ''[[Taiping Guangji]]'' and other sources.<ref name="hyakka_setsurin-zenanzuihitsu1891"/> The ''tenko'' being the most ancient is citable to {{illm|Dai Fu|zh|戴孚}}'s ''[[Guang yi ji (Dai Fu)|Guang yi ji]]''.}} but had no corporeal form and was strictly a spirit{{Refn|Zenan's essay (1891)'s: "{{lang|ja|"精神のみ存在して形はなし}}"<ref name="hyakka_setsurin-zenanzuihitsu1891"/> exactly echoes de Visser (1908a)'s "mere spirit (精神) without shape".{{harvnb|de Visser|1908a|p=35}}}}<!--This page from Hyakka anthology (pp. 671ff) is cited by de Visser 1908a, p. 36, but this content is not touched on.-->(cf. {{section link||Classifications}}).

In [[Japanese folklore]], {{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsune}} have as many as nine tails{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=129}} (but this is derived straight from Chinese classics, as explained below). Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful {{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsune}}; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years.{{sfn|Hamel|1915|p=91}}{{efn|The typical lifespan of a wild fox is one to three years, although individuals may live up to ten years in captivity.}} One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folktales.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academia.issendai.com/fox-misconceptions.shtml#tails |title=Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox |access-date=2006-12-14 |date=2003-04-28}}</ref>

The story was later introduced or invented (established by the 14th century), that the queen-consort [[Daji]] (Japanese pronunciation: {{lang|zh-Latn|Dakki}}) was really a nine-tailed fox that led to the destruction of Yin/[[Shang dynasty]],{{efn|The [[Western Zhou]] which succeeded was also destroyed in the end by her becoming concubine to its last king.}} and the same vixen some 2,000 years later appeared as [[Tamamo-no-mae]] in Japan (q.v., also {{section link||Tamamo-no-mae}} and [[Hokusai]]'s painting of Tamamo previously [[#kayofuji-by-hokusai|as Lady Kayō of India]]). Tamamo clearly draws from Chinese myth and literature,{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=8}}{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Goff|1997|pp=67–68}} so her being depicted as a golden-furred and {{Nihongo|''[[Nine-tailed fox|kyūbi no kitsune]]''|九尾の狐||'nine-tailed fox'}}{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=241|postscript=; [1896], p. 335}} matches precisely what the Chinese classics writes about the [[Sky Fox (mythology)|celestial fox]] (''tian hu'' {{lang|zh|天狐}}) which a 1,000 year old fox turns into.{{Refn|{{harvnb|Smyers|1999|p=129}} collates from her cited source, [[William Frederick  Mayers|Mayers, William Frederick]] (1924) ''{{URL|1=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015058523815&seq=95 |2=The Chinese Reader's manual}}'' , p. 65, cites two sources, ''Yuan zhong ji'' ({{lang|zh|元中記}}, 1834) (originally called  ''Xuan zhong ji'' {{lang|zh|玄中記}} attributed to [[Guo Pu]]. Under either title, the relevant quote reads: "{{lang|zh|狐五十歲能變化為婦人;百歲為美女、為神巫,或為丈夫,與女人交接,能知千里外事,善蠱惑,使人迷惑失智;千歲即與天通為天狐}}" stating the fox at 50 learns to transform, at 100 becomes a beautiful woman,.. becomes aware of things 1000 li away ... ) and then (to quote Mayer) "when a 1,000 years old, is admitted to the Heavens and becomes the 'celestial fox'". The "celestial fox" is described as golden-haired, nine-tailed, and "versed in all secrets of nature" in the second source,  ''Liu tie'' {{lang|zh|六帖}} or ''Bai Kong Liu tie'': {{lang|zh|白孔六帖}}: "{{lang|zh|天狐言九尾金色役於日月宫可洞逹}}".}}

(Cf. also {{section link||Chinese parallels}})

== Inari Shinto deity ==
[[File:Fushimi Inari mini torii.jpg|upright|thumb|The [[Fushimi Inari]] shrine in [[Kyoto, Japan|Kyoto]] features numerous kitsune statues.]]
According to Hiroshi Moriyama, a professor at the [[Tokyo University of Agriculture]], foxes have come to be regarded as sacred by the Japanese because they are the natural enemies of rats that eat up rice or burrow into rice paddies. Because fox urine has a rat-repelling effect, Japanese people placed a stone with fox urine on a ''[[hokora]]'' of a [[Shinto shrine]] set up near a rice field. In this way, it is assumed that people in Japan acquired the culture of respecting {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} as messengers of [[Inari Okami]].<ref>Hiroshi Moriyama. (2007) ''「ごんぎつね」がいたころ――作品の背景となる農村空間と心象世界''. pp.80–84. Rural Culture Association Japan.</ref>

Inari's kitsune are white, a color of a good [[omen]].<!--ref name="Hearn154"-->{{sfn|Hearn|1910|pp=223–224|postscript=; [1896], p. 317}} They possess the power to ward off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome ''nogitsune'', those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.<ref name="Ashkenazy148"/>

There can also be attendant or servant foxes associated with Inari, the [[Shinto]] deity of rice.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=76}}  Originally, kitsune were Inari's messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari Ōkami may be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where devotees can leave [[Offering (Buddhism)|offering]]s.<!--ref name="Hearn154"-->{{sfn|Hearn|1910|pp=223–224|postscript=; [1896], p. 317}}

According to beliefs derived from ''fūsui'' (''[[feng shui]]''), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil ''[[qi|kimon]]'', or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous [[Fushimi Inari]] shrine in [[Kyoto]], feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.

=== Swordsmith deity  ===
[[File:Blacksmith Munechika, helped by a fox spirit, forging the blade Ko-Gitsune Maru, by Ogata Gekkō.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Inari Ōkami]] and its fox spirits help the blacksmith {{illm|Sanjō Munechika|ja|三条宗近}} forge the blade {{lang|ja-Latn|Kogitsune-maru}} ('Little Fox') at the end of the 10th century. The legend is the subject of the {{lang|ja-Latn|[[noh]]}} drama {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Sanjō Kokaji]]}}.]]
{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

=== Aburage ===
[[File:Shuryo-zusetsu(1892)-p141-kitsunetsuri-foxtrap.png|thumb|A ''kitsune-tsuri'' ({{lit|fox-fishing}}) trap set with oil-fried rodent (here called "''nezumi no tempura''") as bait. 19th century Japan.]]
{{also|kitsune udon}}

The fact that Japanese soup noodles garnished with fried slice of tofu called ''aburage'' or ''[[abura-age]]'' are called kitsune [[udon]] and kitsune [[soba]] (in Eastern Japan) stems from the popular belief the Inari deity (and its fox minions) prefer to be offered the abura-age (or sushi-rice stuffed in aburage pouches, called [[inarizushi]]{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=96}}).<ref name="mizusawa2010"/>

However, the custom of offering abura-age must have arisen rather late (in the Edo Period).{{Refn|name=""tanaka-apud-mizusawa"|{{illm|Takako Tanaka (literary scholar)|ja|田中貴子 (国文学者)|lt=Tanaka, Takako}} 1993 ''Gehō to aihō no chūsei'' 外法と愛法の中世 ''apud'' Mizusawa;{{sfn|Mizusawa|2010|p=256}}also Tanaka 1997.<ref name="tanaka1997"/>}} In comparison, the notion that the fox's favorite food being {{nihongo|''nezumi no abura-age''|鼠の油揚げ|estra="oil-fried mice or rat"}} dates farther back, since it is attested in {{illm|Oyamada Tomokiyo|ja|小山田与清}}'s ''Matsunoya hikki''<!--松屋筆記--> (c. 1845), which also cites a Muromachi period work ''Sekyō shō''<!--世鏡抄--> (where there is a metaphor of "springing up like a fox at a ''yaki-nezumi'' [roasted rat]").{{Refn|name=""tanaka-apud-mizusawa"}}<ref>{{illm|Oyamada Tomokiyo|ja|小山田与清}} {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=9u1Q-kzVl-MC&pg=PP174 |2=''Matsunoya hikki'' 『松屋筆記』}}卷九十六</ref>

Watchers of the  ''[[kyōgen]]''-play {{interlanguage link|Tsurigitsune|ja|釣狐|lt=''Tsurigitsune''|extra="Fox Trapping"}} know full well that part of the theatrics involves the fox character being driven crazy by the presence of its favorite food, the "oil-fried young mice",<ref name="kenny1968"/><ref name="koyama1990"/><ref name="omori2003"/>{{sfn|Odanaka|Iwai|2020|p=109}}{{efn|Also early versions of the bunraku play ''Shinoda zuma'' ("The Shinoda wife"). {{harvnb|Odanaka|Iwai|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k3jtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT109 109]}}: "in the early bunraku version (''The Shinoda Wife'') [...] she is attracted by the smell of a fried mouse [...] (the idea is also found in ''Tsuri-Gitsune'')"}}  While this freak food bait might be thought of as the stuff of popular belief,{{efn|As does Takako Tanaka.}} the oil-fried mouse was an effective bait for trapping foxes, and actually used into the modern era (see fig. right).<ref name="Noshomusho1892"/>

Some commentators have extrapolated (on websites, etc.{{sfn|Mizusawa|2010|p=256}}) that people used to offer deep-fried mice to Inari Jinja but was switched to vegetarian substitute, but this has already been rejected by scholar {{illm|Takako Tanaka (literary scholar)|ja|田中貴子 (国文学者)|lt=Takako Tanaka}} who offers an alternate origin, where in the esoteric rites of [[Dakini (Buddhism)|Dakini buddhism]] (associated with foxes, cf. {{section link||Buddhist context}}) dumpling coated with [[kinako|soy flour]] was offered, which was people colloquially called something like "oil [dump]ling",{{efn|Actually called {{nihongo|''Ikkai sōjō no abura-ko''|一階僧正の油子|extra="1st rank high priest's oil-ling"}} (''ko'' means "child", here taken to be a diminutive suffix).}} which hints at this actually being an oil-fried dough treat as found in Chinese cuisine.{{Refn|name=""tanaka-apud-mizusawa"}}{{Refn|Keiko Ōmori 大森恵子(2003) also argued along the same vein, pointing out that in the liturgical text ''Inari Ichiryū Daĳi'' 稲荷一流大事 the offerings to the Dakini are specified as: "''[[sekihan]]'' (red rice), mochi, sake, ''ma-gashi'' and ''aburamono'' 供物之事赤飯・餅・一酒・真菓子・油物",<ref name="omori2003" /> where the last two apparently refer to non-fried and oil-fried versions of dough confection called ''futo magari'' 太摩我里.}}

== Buddhist context ==
[[File:A man confronted with an apparition of the Fox goddess.jpg|upright|left|thumb|Inari Ōkami appears to a warrior accompanied by a kitsune. This portrayal shows the influence of {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Dakini]]ten}} concepts from Buddhism. Print by [[Utagawa Kuniyoshi]].]]
[[Karen Ann Smyers|Smyers]] (1999) notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to [[Buddhism]] were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=127–128}}

Foxes were blamed as a cause for illness, and the Buddhist liturgy called {{nihongo|rokujikyōhō|六字経法|extra=“Ritual of the Six-syllable Sutra}} were being performed to exorcize it since those times{{sfn|Lomi|2014|p=1256}} (cf. ''[[kitsunetsuki]]'').

Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the [[Dakini]]ten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female [[boddhisattva]] wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=82–85}}

== Classifications ==
A number authors tried to classify and sub-classify the foxes in different ways, starting from the Heian Period, intensifying in the Edo Period.{{sfn|Nakamura|2003|pp=322–325}} A sample of it is given as anonymously undated opinions by [[Lafcadio Hearn]].{{Refn|One unidentified source claims the four superior types are the {{nihongo|''byakko'', ''kokko'', ''zenko'', ''reiko''|白狐、黒狐、善狐、霊狐|extra='white, black, good, spiritual foxes'}}.}}<ref>Hearn's ''Gimpses'';  translated by [[:ja:平井呈一|Teiichi Hirai]]. (1964) {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=wI6UNKSVLUoC&pg=PT242 |2=''Nihon bekken ki''}} '''1''', Gutenberg21<!--unpaginagted-->; {{harvnb|Hearn|1910|pp=224–225ff}}; [1896], p. 317</ref>

The Inari Shinto liturgical text {{nihongo|''Inari no hiden''|意根利之秘伝}} (1780 [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]]) lists five types of foxes to be revered, mainly the three: ''tenko'' (celestial), {{nihongo|''kūko''|空狐|extra='sky'}}, ''chiko'' (earth), plus  ''byakko'' (white), and {{nihongo|''kūko''|吾紫霊|extra=probably related to the 'purple fox' of Chinese myth}}.{{sfn|Nakamura|2003|p=324}} {{illm|Minagawa Kien|ja|皆川淇園}}'s {{nihongo|''Yūhisai sakki''|有斐斎剳記}} (<!--An'ei 10--> 1781) appeared, which ranks the {{nihongo|''yako''|野狐|extra='wild foxes'}} as the most obtuse{{efn|{{langx|ja|鈍}}, i.e. stupidest.}}, followed by the newly created {{nihongo|''kiko''|気狐|extra='air fox'}}, ''kūko'' (sky), then ''tenko'' (celestial).{{sfn|Nakamura|2003|p=324}}{{Refn|The Chinese (''[[kanbun]]'') text of this work ''Yūhisai sakki'' is embedded in ''Zen'an zuihitsu'' (cf. below).{{sfn|Asakawa|1891|p=673}} but [[Zack Davisson]] credites Asakawa Zen'an directly.<ref name="davisson2024"/>}} {{illm|Asakawa Zen'an|ja|朝川善庵}}'s essay ''Zen'an zuihitsu'', Book 2 (1850) gives his own conclusion that there are {{nihongo|''tenko'', ''byakko'', ''genko''|天狐、白狐、玄狐|extra='sky/celestial/, white, black foxes'}}, graded by age, of which the celestial is the most ancient.<ref name="hyakka_setsurin-zenanzuihitsu1891"/>

Hearn was of the opinion that these precise and intricate stratifications of fox kind according to learned opinion could not be reconciled with the more down-to-earth picture of the ''kitsune'' held by the common peasantry.<ref>{{harvnb|Hearn|1910|p=224}}: "One cannot possibly unravel the confusion of these beliefs, especially among the peasantry".</ref>

(Cf. also {{section link||Chinese parallels}})

=== Good vs. evil, or ===
Hearn's observation was that the [[Izumo Province]] during the time of his residence there did conform to the idea that ''kitsune'' divided into the good, which are [[Inari Ōkami|Inari]] foxes, and the bad. The worst of the bad are called  {{nihongo|''ninko''|人狐|extra=({{lit|man foxes}})}} (associated with spiritual possession), and there are other bad, called the {{nihongo|''[[Yako (fox)|yako]]''/''nogitsune''|野狐|extra=({{lit|field foxes}})}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Hearn|1910|p=224}}: "I have only been able after a residence of fourteen months in Izumo.. etc., [made] the following very loose summary".</ref>

However, Hearn also doubts that such a stark differentiation between the Inari fox and possession fox (good vs. evil) had always been made by the populace in bygone times, and opines this was something imposed upon by the ''literati''.{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=224}} A similar verdict is rendered by {{illm|Teiri Nakamura|ja|中村禎里}}, that "practitioners of religion and the intelligentsia were the ones who made commonplace the divide between the good fox vs bad fox<!-- that had been implemented-->".<ref>{{harvnb|Nakamura|2003|p=365}}:"{{lang|ja|善狐と悪狐の分離実体化を一般化したのは、宗教者と知識人}}"</ref> And it was in that milieu that {{nihongo|Miyagawa Masakazu|宮川政運}} in Book 3 of his essay work (1858) set apart {{nihongo|''zenko''|善狐|extra='good foxes'}} and ''yako'' ('wild foxes') as the bad.{{Refn|Titled {{nihongo|''Miyagawa-no-ya manpitsu'' or ''Kyūsensha manpitsu''|宮川舎漫筆}}.}} According to Miyagawa, the good fox breaks down further into five subtypes: gold, silver, white, black, and celestial.{{sfn|Mozume|1916|p=145}}{{sfn|Nakamura|2003|p=365}}{{sfn|Davisson|2024|p=30}}

=== Eye for eye, favor for favor ===
One analysis is that the ''kitsune'' will avenge malice with malice, but generally does not repay goodwill with malice, and is loyal to its debt.<ref name="EncyRelEthics-lloyd1912"/>

An example of revenge is found in a tale set in [[Kai Province]]<ref name="EncyRelEthics-lloyd1912"/> from the 11th century ''[[Uji Shūi Monogatari|Uji shūi monogatari]]'', where the fox sets fire to a man's home.{{Refn|''[[Uji Shūi Monogatari|Uji shūi monogatari]]'',Book 3. {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=2bVDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP140 |2=狐、家に火つくる事}}.}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=38}}

An example tale of gratitude involving the ''[[dainagon]]'' (major counselor) Yasumichi<ref name="EncyRelEthics-lloyd1912"/> occurs in the ''[[Kokon Chomonjū]]'' of the mid-13th century, , who was pestered by a family of foxes that took up lair at his mansion, and their ''bake'' or mischief escalated to a level of intolerance. But the nobleman halted his plan to eradicate them after a fox appeared in his dream to beg mercy. The foxes after that rarely made rowdy noises, except to cry out loud to announce some good fortune about to happen.{{Refn|''[[Kokon Chomonjū]]'', Book 17, {{nihongo|''Henge''|変化|extra='transformation'}}, no title, incipit: "{{lang|ja|大納言泰道の五條坊門高倉の亭..}}".<ref name="sakurai1929"/> Translated by Tyler as "Enough is Enough",{{sfn|Tyler|1987|pp=114–115}}}}

=== Ninko ===
{{main|Kitsunetsuki#Ninko}}
A {{lang|ja-Latn|ninko}} ("man-fox") according to Lafcadio Hearn is a fox spirit, apparently smaller than the usual fox (no larger than a weasel) except its tail being like a normal full-sized fox's. It is invisible so cannot be detected until it takes [[Spirit possession|possession]] of some human.{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=224}} Actually the ''ninko'' is considered to be kept by the ''kitsune-mochi'', i.e., families gossiped to own and control a fox that can possess, gaining success via that power.{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=232}} As [[Inoue Enryō]] noted, the ''ninko'' held by ''kitsune-mochi'' is just a localized version in Izumo (of the lore of "Animal Spirit Families"{{sfn|Fairchild|1962|pp=37–38}}), which occurs as the lore of the ''inkgami'' or ''dohyō'' in neighboring [[Iwami Province]].<ref name="inoue1886"/>

==Tricksters==
Kitsune are often presented as [[trickster]]s, preferring to victimize laymen over monks according to one anthologist,{{sfn|Tyler|1987|p=xlix}} though this is  not always the case, such as with the fictionalized [[Hakuzōsu]], which in one version (''[[Hyaku Monogatari|Hyaku monogatari]]'') kills the priest and assumes his place.<ref name="gadai-jiten-hakuzosu"/><ref name="okimoto1993"/> In the theatrical comedy ([[kyōgen]]) version, the hunter realizes the hoax and makes the fox behave ridiculously using a bait of deep-fried mouse, and then captures the fox.<ref name="kenny1968"/>{{efn|So there is no grisly aftermath here of the old fox going to the temple to kill the priest.}}

A common trick is to transform into a beautiful woman to beguile men.{{sfn|Tyler|1987|p=xlix}}{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=26}} (cf. {{section link||Shape-shifters}}) The {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} that initiates sexual contact may also manifest the ability to suck the life force or spirit from human beings, reminiscent of [[vampire]]s or [[Succubus|succubi]].{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=26, 221}}

Besides the ability to transform, the {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} is credited with kitsune other supernatural abilities such as [[spiritual possession]] ({{illm|kitsunetsuki|ja|狐憑き|preserve=1}}), generating fox-fire{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=25}} (cf. [[kitsunebi]] and {{section link||Kitsunebi control}}).

Another favorite trick of the fox is to give human fake money.<ref>{{harvnb|Seki|1966|p=58}}, Type of Tale "108. Leaf Money".</ref> Paper currency turns into a leaf once inside the wallet in modern versions,<ref>Mayer, Fanny Hagin 1984 {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=EvmAAAAAMAAJ&q=%22paper+money%22|2=Ancient Tales in Modern Japan}}, p. 212</ref> or gold coinage (''[[Koban (coin)|koban]]'') turns to leaf in older tales.{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=20}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Casal compares this to European tales where the devil's money turns from gold to excrement, and adds that "since Japan is not scatologically inclined" the motif involves a leaf and not excrement. Casal misspoke here. Seki's "Leaf Money" tale type concludes: "Money turns into leaves, or he finds horse - dung inside his purse".<!--And let alone the horse dung dumpling and Night Soil bath motifs.-->}}

The fox in fable is also famed for tricking humans into eating dumpling ([[dango]]) actually made of horse [[Feces|dung]].<ref>{{harvnb|Seki|1966|p=57}}, Type of Tale "105. The Horse-dung Dumpling".</ref> This is alluded to in the novel ''[[Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige]]'' (1822) colloquially known as Yaji-Kita after the characters making the journey. In one scene, Yajirobē who "imagines that the fox has taken the shape of [Kitahachi]" refuses the [[mochi]] offered him on suspicion of it being inedible horse dung.{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=242|postscript=; [1896], p. 336}} Foxes are also accused of tricking people into taking a bath in a [[night soil]] pot (human manure pit)<ref>{{harvnb|Seki|1966|p=57}}, Type of Tale "104. Taking a Bath in a Nigh-soil Pot".</ref> or a "cesspool" as Hearn puts it politely.<ref>{{harvnb|Hearn|1910|p=242}}, note</ref>

Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under a magical illusion.{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=195}} True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=103–105}}

=== Shape-shifters ===
A {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} may [[Shapeshifting|take on human form]], an ability learned when it reaches a certain age—usually 100 years, although some tales say 50.{{sfn|Hamel|1915|p=91}}

As a common prerequisite for the transformation, the fox must place a leaf (or reeds, weeds) or a skull over its head{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=25–26}}<ref>Komatsu 1990, pp. 49, 53, 56 ''apud'' {{harvnb|Smyers|1999|p=126}}</ref> (cf. ''Kitsune zōshi'' picture scroll). The fox's use of skull to transform derives from China, as it is attested in ''[[Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang|Youyang zazu]]'' (9th century).{{sfn|Sakaita|1996|p=1309}}<ref name="komatsu2003"/> It may have to run a circle around a tree three times to transform.<ref>Mayer, Fanny Hagin 1984 {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=EvmAAAAAMAAJ&q=%22three+times+now%22|2=Ancient Tales in Modern Japan}}, p. 140 ''apud'' {{harvnb|Smyers|1999|p=126}}</ref> The imagery held by present-day Japanese is that the fox will place a leaf on its head and do a flip in the air to turn into someone or some thing.<ref name="komatsu2003"/> The use of leaf is hard to explain, but when one examines the corpus of ''mukashibanashi'' folktales, the fox frequently stand by water (to look at the reflection of itself) transforms by placing [[aquatic plant|waterweeds]] on its head, the weed being a sort to ersatz [[wig]].<ref name="komatsu2003"/>。

Common forms assumed by {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} include beautiful women, young girls, elderly men, and less often young boys.<ref name="minzokugaku_jiten" /> These shapes are not limited by the fox's own age or gender,{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=127–128}} and a {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} can [[Human guise|duplicate the appearance of a specific person]].{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} {{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsune}} are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in [[History of Japan#Feudal Japan (1185-1603)|feudal Japan]] was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}}.{{sfn|Tyler|1987|p=xlix}} {{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsune-gao}} ('fox-faced') refers to human females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form.{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=95, 206}} Variants on the theme have the {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} retain other foxy traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection that shows its true form.<!--ref name="Hearn155"-->{{sfn|Hearn|1910|p=225|postscript= ; [1896], p. 321}}

A medieval tale describes an old fox that transformed into an enormously tall [[sugi]] ("cedar") tree, but this raised the suspicion of a man who was searching for his horse; he and his minions shot the tree with arrows, and later a fox was found  lying dead.{{Refn|''Konjaku monogatari'' Book 27.37 「狐変大榅木被射殺語」.{{sfn|Sakaita|1996|p=1314}}}}{{Refn|"The Story of the Fox who Got Killed Assuming the Form of a Cedar Tree".{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=36–37}}}}

In some stories, {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune}} retain—and have difficulty hiding—their tails when they take human form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the creature's true nature.<ref name="Ashkenazy148">{{harvnb|Ashkenazy|2003|page=148}}</ref> A particularly devout individual may even be able to see through a fox's disguise merely by perceiving them.<ref>{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Heine |title=Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-8248-2150-0 |page=153 }}</ref> {{lang|ja-Latn|Kitsune}} can also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred of dogs, and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee.

=== Yoshitsune story ===
{{main|Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura}}
In the fictional kabuki and puppet play material ''[[Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura]]'', the premises is that a 1,000 year old mother and father foxes are hunted for their skin to span the special set of [[tsuzumi]] drum, known as the Hatsune ("first sound"). The fox kit assumes the shape of [[Minamoto no Yoshitsune|Yoshitsune]]'s retainer Tadanobu in order to be with the drum made from its parents, or possibly to take possession of it.{{sfn|Smyers |1999|p=99}}{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=17}}

=== Kitsunebi control ===
[[File:Chouju 1st scroll-02-rabbit&fox&target.jpg|thumb|Rabbit and fox next to archery target (lotus leaf), awaiting shot.{{right|{{small|—''[[Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga|Chōjū giga]]'' (1150s)}}}}]]
{{Main|Kitsunebi}}
The ''kitsune'' was purportedly capable of firing off the ''kitsunebi'' ("fox fire") flame from their tail by stroking it, as portrayed in the ''[[Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga]]'' (fig. right),{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=25, 202}} or by striking the tail against the ground.{{sfn|Foster|2024|pp=230–231}}{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=10}}  Or it might have been the ''kitsune''{{'}}s fiery breath, according to regional tradition.{{sfn|Foster|2024|p=231}}{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=10}}

The kitsune were also said to employ their ''kitsunebi'' to lead travelers astray in the manner of a [[will-o'-the-wisp]].{{sfn|Addiss|1985|p=137}}

== Spiritual possession {{anchor|Kitsunetsuki}}==
{{Main|Kitsunetsuki}}
{{nihongo|''Kitsunetsuki''|狐憑き, 狐付き}}, also written {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsune-tsuki}}, literally means 'the state of being possessed by a fox'.{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=59}} Stories of fox possession (''kitsunetsuki'') are widespread throughout Japan.<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/>

Stories of ''kitsunetsuki'' s have already been attested during the [[Heian period]],{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=211}} and the ''[[setsuwa]]'' narrative blaming illness on a fox spirit in ''Nihon ryōiki'' can be taken as an early attestation of ''kitsunetsuki''.{{sfn|Maruyama|1992|p=48}}

From a clinical standpoint, those possessed by a fox are thought to suffer from a [[mental illness]] or similar condition.<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/> Such illness explanations were already being published by the 19th century, but the superstition was difficult to eradicate<ref name="komatsu1992"/> (cf. {{section link||Edo period criticism}}).

The patient struck ill by the ''kitsunetsuki'' syndrome is evidently unable to speak on the ''kitsune'' spirit's mind, so that a (hired) ''miko'' exorcist temporarily takes over the possession and explains what the fox wants, as in the case of the narrative in the 11th century ''[[Uji Shūi Monogatari|Uji shūi monogatari]]'', where the fox discloses it merely craved human food.{{Refn|''[[Uji Shūi Monogatari|Uji shūi monogatari]]'', Book. 4. {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=2bVDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP142 |2=狐、人に憑きてしとぎ食ふ事}}.}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=39}}<ref name="foster2024-p228"/>

The idea of fox possession arguably became more widespread in the fifteenth century.{{sfn|Smits|1996|p=84}} Various learned men argued fox possession as superstition or an illness during the Edo period to no avail, the superstition persisted.{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|pp=327, 365}} [[Lafcadio Hearn]] picked up on the ''kitsunetsuki'' lore during the Meiji Era current near his adoptive home province of Izumo,<ref>{{harvnb|Hearn|1910|pp=224227, 231}} et seqq.</ref> even while Medical science continued to tried to debunk the myth,{{sfn|Foster|2024|p=230}} and the belief in fox and other animal spirit owning families regionally persisted even in the studies conducted c. 1960.<ref>{{harvnb|Fairchild|1962|p=34}} and note 21, citing Ishizuka, T. (1959). "Tsukimono" ''MiInzokugaku taikei'' '''8''': 28ff</ref>

== Familiar spirits ==
There are families that tell of protective fox spirits, and in certain regions, possession by a {{lang|ja-Latn|[[kuda-gitsune]]}},<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/> {{lang|ja-Latn|[[osaki]]}},<ref name="minzokugaku_jiten" /><ref name="mukashibanashi_jiten"/> {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Yako (fox)|yako]]}},<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/> and [[hito-gitsune]] are also called {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsunetsuki}}.<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/><ref name="mukashibanashi_jiten" /> These families are said to have been able to use their fox to gain fortune, but marriage into such a family was considered forbidden as it would enlarge the family.<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/> They were also said to be able to bring about illness and curse the possessions, crops, and livestock of enemies.<ref name="mukashibanashi_jiten" /> This caused them to be considered taboo by the other families, which led to societal problems.<ref name="mukashibanashi_jiten" />

The great amount of faith given to foxes can be seen in how, as a result of the Inari belief where foxes were believed to be [[Inari Ōkami|Inari no Kami]] or its servant, they were employed in practices of {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Dakini#In Japanese Buddhism|dakini-ten]]}} by {{lang|ja-Latn|[[mikkyō]]}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|shugendō}} practitioners and in the oracles of {{lang|ja-Latn|miko}}; the customs related to {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsunetsuki}} can be seen as having developed in such a religious background.<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten"/>

==Wives and lovers==
Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman.{{sfn|Hamel|1915|p=90}} The kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in nature.<!--{{sfn|Hearn|2005|p=157}}--> Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame.

=== ''Nihon Ryōiki'' ===
The earliest "fox wife" ({{nihongo|''kitsune nyōbo''|狐女房}}{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=34}}) tale type, concerning a wife whose identity as fox is revealed after being frightened by the house pet dog,{{Refn|Cf. Nakamura's translation of the narrative.{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|pp=103–104}} and }} occurs in ''[[Nihon Ryōiki]]'', an anthology of Buddhist tales compiled around 822.{{sfn|Goff|1997|p=67}}<ref>{{harvnb|Bathgate|2004|p=34}}: "prototype of a recurring motif.. the theme of the 'fox wife' ''kitsune nyōbo'' 狐女房".</ref> The plotline involves a man who takes a wife, whose identity is later revealed to be a fox pretending to be a woman.

In this story,{{Refn|Japanese texts: {{harvnb|Nakata tr.|1975}}, translation<!--snippet viewable, with extensive note/commentary by Nakano who is not the translator (to be cited elsewhere)-->, and also {{harvnb|Nakata tr.|1978}}, Old Japanese, pp. 42–43 vs. modern Japanese translation, pp. 43–45.<!--Non-previewable, with short notes by translator-->}} a man from {{interlanguage link|Ōno no kōri|ja|大野郡 (美濃国)}}, [[Mino Province]]{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Ōno no kōri means roughly "Ōno County", and now corresponds to the village of Ōno,{{sfn|Nagata|1980|p=78}} now the town of [[Ōno, Gifu|Ōno]], in [[Ibi District, Gifu]],{{sfn|Nagata|1980|p=78}} or rather, the eastern portion of Ibi District.{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|loc=p. 104, n3}}}}<!-- long ref start
-->{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"
| The archaic place-name is read {{nihongo|Ōno-no-kōri|大野郡}} in medieval geography. Although translated as "Ōno district",{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Watson|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NSI2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 14–15] }} it probably should be clarified that the modern day [[Ōno District, Gifu]] (Ōno-gun) lies in the north central part of the prefecture, whereas the actual setting of the tale occurs in  Ibi District,{{sfn|Nagata|1980|p=78}}{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|loc=p. 104, n3}} at the southwest end of the prefecture, a completely different location. Hamel's book mistook "Ono (Ōno)" to be the man's name (surname).{{sfn|Hamel|1915|p=89}}}}<!-- long ref end
--> found and married a fox-wife, who bore a child by him. But the household dog born the same time as the baby always harassed the wife, until one day frightened her so much she transformed back into a {{nihongo|''yakan''|野干}}, construed to mean "wild fox".{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=34}}{{efn|The term {{interlanguage link|Yakan (Buddhist scripture)|ja|野干|lt=''yakan''}} ({{lit|field-shield}}{{sfn|Casal|1959|p=3}}) comes from Buddhist scripture, and in the original context referred to a different animal, perhaps a jackal.{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=151}}{{sfn|Sanford|1991}} }}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=20}} Although the husband and wife become separated (during the day), she fulfills the promises to come sleep with him every night,{{efn|{{harvnb|Hamel|1915|p=89}}: "So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms".}} hence the Japanese name of the creature, meaning "come and sleep" or "come always", according to the [[folk etymology]] presented in the tale.{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=20}}{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=72}}{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Watson|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NSI2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 14–15] }}

Alternate versions of the fox-wife tale appeared later during the [[Kamakura period|Kamakura-period]] in the works ''[[Mizukagami]]'' and ''[[Fusō Ryakuki]]'' of the 12th century.{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=20}}

The fox-wife's descendants were also depicted as doing evil things by taking advantage of their power.<ref>Yoshihiko Sasama. (1998) ''Kaii ・ kitsune hyaku monogatari'' 怪異・きつね百物語. pp. 1, 7, 12. Yuzankaku. {{ISBN|978-4639015444}}</ref> According to the foregoing story, the fox-wife's child became the first ancestor of the surname {{nihongo|Kitsune-no-atae|狐直}}.{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Watson|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NSI2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 14–15] }} However, in another tale from the ''Nihon Ryōiki'', a story was told about a ruffian female descendant;<ref name="watson-tr-2.4">{{harvnb|Watson|2013}}, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=NSI2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 On a Contest between Two Women of Extraordinary Strength (2:4)]", pp. 70–71</ref>{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=44}} the tale was also placed in the repertoire of the later work ''Konjaku monogatari''.{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=44}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=21}} Here, the woman nicknamed "Mino kitsune" (Mino fox), was tall and powerful and engaged in open banditry seizing goods from merchants.<ref name="watson-tr-2.4"/>{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=44}}

=== Abe no Seimei ===
[[File:Kuniyoshi Kuzunoha.jpg|left|upright|thumb|The kitsune [[Kuzunoha]] casts a fox's shadow even in human form. Kuzunoha is a popular figure in folklore and the subject of puppet and [[kabuki]] plays. Print by [[Utagawa Kuniyoshi]].]]

A well-known example of the fox woman motif involves the [[astrology|astrologer]]-magician [[Abe no Seimei]], to whom was attached a legend that he was born from a fox-woman (named Kuzunoha), and taken up in a number of works during the early modern period,
commonly referred to as "''Shinoda no mori''" ("Shinoda Forest") material (cf. below).<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975"/>

The historical Abe no Seimei later developed a fictional reputation of being the scion of fox-kind, and his extraordinary powers became associated with that mixed bloodline.<ref name="Ashkenazy">{{harvnb|Ashkenazy|2003|page=150}}</ref> Seimei was purported to have been  born a hybrid between the (non-historical) Abe no Yasuna,{{Refn|{{sfn|Foster|2015|loc=p. 294, n10}}}} and a white fox rescued by him that gratefully assumed the shape of the widower's sister-in-law, Kuzunoha{{efn|"Kuzunoha" means "leaf of [[kudzu|kuzu]] or vine".{{sfn|Odanaka|Iwai|2020|loc=Ch. 3}}}} to become his wife, a piece of fantasy with the earliest known example being the ''Abe no Seimei monogatari'' printed 1662, and later adapted into
puppet plays (and ''kabuki'') bearing such titles as ''Shinodazuma'' ("The Shinoda Wife", 1678) and {{interlanguage link|Ashiya Dōman ōuchi kagami|ja|芦屋道満大内鑑|lt=''Ashiya Dōman ōuchi kagami''}} ("A Courtly Mirror of Ashiya Dōman", 1734).{{sfn|Foster|2015|p=180}}{{sfn|Leiter|2014}}{{sfn|Odanaka|Iwai|2020|loc=Ch. 3}}<!--近世になって『[[葛の葉]]』、『[[信太妻]]（しのだづま）』を経、古[[浄瑠璃]]『[[信田妻]]（しのだづま）』などの作品を生んだ。-->

=== Konjaku monogatari ===
Another medieval "fox wife" tale is found in the {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Konjaku Monogatarishū|Konjaku monogatarishū]]}} (c. 11–12th century), Book 16, tale number 17, concerning the marriage of a man named Kaya Yoshifuji,{{efn|{{langx|ja|賀陽良藤}}.}} but the same narrative about this man and the fox had already been written down by [[Miyoshi Kiyotsura]] (d. 919) in ''Zenka hiki''{{efn|{{langx|ja|善家秘記}}.}} and quoted in the ''Fusō ryakki'' entry for the 9th month of [[Kanpyō (era)|Kanpyō]] 8 (Oct./Nov. 896),{{sfn|Iguro|2005|p=5}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|pp=22–23}} so it is in fact quite old.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The Kaya Yoshifuji was later also included in the Buddhist historical text ''[[Genkō Shakusho]]'' (14th century), Book 29 supplement "''Shūi shi'' 拾異志".<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975"/><ref name="takahashi_toru1987"/>}}

=== Otogi zōshi ===
{{External media|width=240px|image1=https://archive.wul.waseda.ac.jp/kosho/he12/he12_01586/he12_01586_p0011.jpg<br />Foxes revealing transformation techniques: skull or hair clump on head, used paper, etc.<ref name="komatsu2003"/> {{right|{{small|―''Kitsune no sōshi''. 1849 copy by Ichihara Entan <!--市原円潭 also styled with art name and real name as Entan Morizumi 淵潭守純 -->(given name Morizumi) of the original by [[Tosa Mitsunobu]]. Waseda University Collection.]}}}}}}

Later the medieval novella ''Kitsune zōshi'' (or ''Kitsune no sōshi'')<!--狐の草子--> appeared,<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975"/> which may be included in the [[Otogi-zōshi]] genre{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|loc=pp. 65–66 and n33}} under the broader definition,{{sfn|Kaneko|1975|p=77}} and the ''Kobata-gitsune'' include in the 23 titles of the Otogi-zōshi "library" proper.<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975"/>{{sfn|Kaneko|1975|p=77}} It has also been noted  that the context in ''Kitsune zōshi'', which is no longer a fox-wife tale strictly speaking, since the man is a Buddhist monk, and though he and the bewitching fox-woman spend a night of sensuality together, he is not taking on a spouse, and he merely suffers humiliation.{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|loc=pp. 65–66 and n33}}

One scene in ''Kitsune zōshi'' reveals the foxes caught in the act of performing transformation by placing as skull or human hair on its head<ref name="komatsu2003"/> (cf. image right).

=== Tamamo-no-mae ===
{{main|Tamamo-no-mae}}
{{anchors|kayofuji-by-hokusai}}[[File:Sankoyokoden-Kayo-fujin-SumidaHokusaiMus.jpg|thumb|Nine-tails. Tamomo, previously as Kayō fujin<!--花陽婦人 (sic.)--> to King Hanzoku of India (shown below).{{right|{{small|—Detail, [[Hokusai]] (1807)} ''Sangoku yōkoden''}}}}]]
<!-- Yoshitoshi already top image, this one is uninformative to this section [[File:Tamamo-no-mae-woodblock.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Tamamo-no-Mae]], a legendary kitsune featured in [[noh]] and [[kyogen]] plays. Print by [[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi|Yoshitoshi]].]] -->
[[File:Prince Hanzoku terrorised by a nine- tailed fox.jpg|right|thumb|A nine-tailed [[fox spirit]] ({{lang|ja-Latn|kyūbi no kitsune}}) scaring King Hanzoku ([[Kalmashapada]] of India); print by [[Utagawa Kuniyoshi]], [[Edo period]], 19th century{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=200, 204–206}}]]
The story about the Lady [[Tamamo-no-Mae]] developed in the 14th century, claiming that the vixen captivated the Emperor Konoe (reigned 1141–1155).{{sfn|Smits|1996|p=80}} This was a truly ancient nine-tailed fox, since two thousand years before that, she had been queen-consort [[Daji]] to [[King Zhou of Shang|King Zhou]] of Yin/[[Shang dynasty|Shang]] (Japanese: {{nihongo|In no Chū-ō|殷の紂王|}}), bringing about the downfall of the dynasty.{{sfn|Smits|1996|p=83}}{{sfn|Goff|1997|pp=67–68}} allowing the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty to come into being, only to cause its fall too by assuming the persona of the concubine [[Bao Si]] and seducing its last emperor.{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=8}}

After fleeing from Shang dynasty China, she was {{nihongo|花陽婦人|Kayō fujin}} consort named serving King Hanzoku ([[Kalmashapada]] of India (cf. figure right below).{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Davisson|2024|p=136}}

=== Takeda Shingen ===
[[Stephen Turnbull (historian)|Stephen Turnbull]], in ''Nagashino 1575'', relates the tale of the Takeda clan's involvement with a fox-woman. The warlord [[Takeda Shingen]], in 1544, defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named [[Suwa Yorishige (daimyo)|Suwa Yorishige]] and drove him to suicide after a "humiliating and spurious" peace conference, after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa Yorishige's beautiful 14-year-old daughter Lady Koi—Shingen's own niece. Shingen, Turnbull writes, "was so obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the white fox-spirit of the [[Suwa-taisha|Suwa Shrine]], who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge." When their son [[Takeda Katsuyori]] proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the [[battle of Nagashino]], Turnbull writes, "wise old heads nodded, remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical mother".<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian)|first=Stephen|last=Turnbull|title=Nagashino 1575|publisher=Osprey|date=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X9JxAAAAMAAJ&q=fox |page=12 |isbn=978-1-84176-250-0}}</ref>

=== Edo Period ===
Edo Period scholar [[Hayashi Razan]]'s {{interlanguage link|Honchō jinja kō|ja|本朝神社考|lt=''Honchō jinja kō''}}("Study of the Shrines of our Country", 1645<!--Lower volume part 6 下之六-->) records the lore concerning a man from the Tarui clan,{{sfn|Nagata|1980|p=77}} who wedded a fox and begot the historical {{interlanguage link|Tarui Gen'emon|ja|垂井源右衛門}}.

=== Ancestral lines ===
A number of stories of this type tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human, they possess special physical or [[supernatural]] qualities that often pass to their own children.<ref name="Ashkenazy148"/>

As aforementioned, the fox wife in the ''Nihon ryōiki'' tale gave rise to the ancestral line of the Kitsune-no-atae clan,{{sfn|Nakamura|1997|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Watson|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NSI2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 14–15] }} and a woman of great strength named "Mino kitsune" belonged to that heritage.<ref name="watson-tr-2.4"/>{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=44}}

== ''Kitsune no yomeiri'' ==
[[File:Inro with Fox's Wedding (reverse side).jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Inro]]'' depicting the ''[[kitsune no yomeiri]]''. The reverse side depicting the bride in a [[Litter (vehicle)|litter]].]]
Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear sky—a [[sunshower]]—is called ''[[kitsune no yomeiri]]'' or ''the kitsune's wedding'', in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions.{{sfn|Addiss|1985|p=132}} The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Vaux, Bert|url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/9/9-1795/|title=Sunshower summary|journal=Linguist|volume=9|issue=1795|date=December 1998}} A compilation of terms for sun showers from various cultures and languages.</ref> as is depicted in the 1990 [[Akira Kurosawa]] film ''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Fox's Wedding|first=Robert|last=Blust|journal=Anthropos|volume=94|issue=4/6|date=1999|pages=487–499|jstor=40465016}}</ref>

== Fox jewel ==
[[File:Hiroshige%2C_New_Year%27s_Eve_foxfires_at_the_changing_tree%2C_Oji%2C_1857.jpg|upright|right|thumb|"[[Kitsunebi]] on New Year's Night under the Enoki Tree near Ōji" in the [[One Hundred Famous Views of Edo]] by Hiroshige. Each fox has a {{lang|ja-Latn|kitsunebi}} floating close to its face.]]

There is the notion that the ''kitsune'' is in possession of a supernatural luminous jewel or ''tama'' lodged in their tail (or possibly kept externally),  while in the Chinese version the mythical fox has a special jewel or pearl embedded inside its heart.{{sfn|Hamel|1915|pp=91–92}}{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=126}} The jewel on the tail tip is also depicted in Buddhist temple art.{{efn|Where the fox is the mount on which the goddess [[Dakini]] rides.}}{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=169–170}}

A fox's jewel is described as a round white object the size of a small [[mandarin orange]]{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Probably considerably smaller than mandarin orange. The text reads {{nihongo|shōkōji|小柑子}} prefixed "small". The<!-- ''tachibana'' of yore is today's [[mikan]],--> "big" or ''ōkōji'' is today's [[koji orange]] (thin-skinned [[mikan]]), while the "small" ''shōkōji'' is today's [[tachibana orange]] or evern [[kumquat]] according to one explanation.<ref name="kojiruien-koji"/>}} in a tale from the ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū|Konjaku monogatarishū]]'' compilation (12th century). The  ''[[miko]]'' (female "exorcist") acting as [[spiritual medium]] for the fox is playing with it,{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The exorcist bit is lost in translation, and replaced by the patient possessed by the fox in, e.g., Nozaki's text.}} and a samurai snatches it away.<ref name="konjakumonogatari-kan27.40"/><ref>{{harvnb|Nozaki|1961|pp=33–35}}: "The Story of a Fox Repaying Kindness For Returning Its Treasured Ball"</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tyler|1987|pp=299–300}}: "The Fox's Ball"</ref>{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=78}}{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=126–127}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|This fox in this tale obfuscates on what the function of the jewel might be. The focus is on the fox's gratefulness, the [[moral]] being: humans ought to act as honorably as such mere critters{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=42}}). The ''kitsune''(inhabiting the exorcist) begs for its return, and promises to become the samurai's guardian spirit. The fox later honors the pact by leading the man out of harm's way past a band of armed robbers.{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=78}}}}

It is held that the fox jewel is necessary for the fox to change shape, or use its magical power.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=126}} Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for too long.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

An anecdote is recorded in the 18th century, which purports that an actual fox jewel was stolen from the creatures by several temple samurai, causing the temple's high priest ({{illm|sōjō|ja|僧正|lt=''sōjō''}}, "bishop") distress, prompting its return to the foxes.  The stone flashed ''kitsunebi'' fire according to the account.{{efn|This occurrence purportedly took place at {{nihongo|Chikurin-in|竹林院}} in [[Ōmi Province]]. It was communicated to author Kiuchi by his brother named {{nihongo|Yoshitake|義武}} who served as samurai at that temple.}}{{Refn|{{illm|Kiuchi Sekitei|ja|木内石亭}} (1779), Second Part of {{nihongo|''Unkonshi''|雲根志}}}, Book 1, p. 26.{{sfn|Mozume|1916|p=207}}<!--https://books.google.com/books?id=g4REAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP247-->}}{{Refn|"The Fox Fire Returned by a Bishop".{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=183}}}}

The fox jewel was frequently discussed under the name of {{nihongo|宝珠の玉|hōju no tama|extra='treasure-gem jewel', "[[cintamani]]"}} in the post-medieval period, and stories about {{nihongo|''hōshi no tama''|ホーシの玉}} is common in the popular telling (recorded oral literature), which often speaks of such stone or tufty object being found or acquired and given over to the custody of a temple, etc., to be enshrined.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The meaning of ''hōshi'' written phonetically in ''kana'' is ambiguous. It has been redacted as {{nihongo|''hōshi no tama''|法師の玉|extra='priest jewel'}} on [[Oki Islands]],<ref name="OkiIsland1984"/> or {{nihongo|''hoshi no tama''|星の玉|extra='star jewel'}} in [[Miyagi Prefecture]].<ref name="n-m-tsugan-miyagi4"/>}}<ref name="iikura2006"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichibun.ac.jp/cgi-bin/YoukaiDB3/simsearch.cgi?ID=1100076 |title=Shirogitsune no hōju no tama |script-title=ja:シロギツネノホウジュノタマ |author=Nichibunken |author-link=International Research Center for Japanese Studies |website=Yōkai database 怪異・妖怪伝承データベース|date=2002 |access-date=2025-03-12}} The top data is from Fukushima 1991, followed by ''Byakko no hōshi no tama''<!--ビャッコノホーシノタマ-->, Fukushima 1996, etc., followed by many different name headings.</ref>

(Cf. {{section link||Iconography}}).

== Iconography ==
In traditional art, the white fox or ''byakko'' has been a favorite theme into the [[Meiji era]].{{sfn|Hearn|1910|loc=p. 221 and note}}

And the phosphorescent fox is not only depicted with the ''kitsune-bi'' fire floating above their heads, but with a luminous jewel (''tama'') at its tail tip, which [[Lafcadio Hearn]] surmises is the same {{illm|Cintamani|ja|宝珠|lt=''tama''|preserve=1}} from Buddhism (cf. [[Mani Jewel]] and {{section link||Fox jewel}}).{{sfn|Hearn|1910|loc=p. 221 and note}}

Fox Jewels are a common symbol of Inari and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.{{sfn|Smyers|1999|pp=112–114}}

In the Buddhist context, the fox is standardly depicted as the creature on which the goddess [[Dakini]] rides. The luminous jewel is depicted on the fox's tail.{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|pp=169–170}}

== Chinese parallels ==
Folktales from China tell of fox spirits called {{lang|zh-Latn|[[Huli jing|húli jīng]]}} ({{zh|c=狐狸精}}) also known as [[nine-tailed fox]] ({{zh|c=九尾狐}}) that may have up to nine tails. These fox spirits were adopted into Japanese culture through merchants as {{nihongo|{{lang|ja-Latn|kyūbi no kitsune}}|九尾の狐||({{lit|nine-tailed fox}})}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wallen|first1=Martin|title=Fox|date=2006|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|location=London|isbn=9781861892973|pages=69–70}}</ref>

The earliest "fox wife" ({{nihongo|''kitsune nyōbo''|狐女房}}{{sfn|Bathgate|2004|p=34}}) tale type in Japan in ''[[Nihon Ryōiki]]'' (Cf. {{section link||Wives and lovers}}) bears close resemblance to{{sfn|Nakata tr.|1978|p=46}} the Tang dynasty Chinese story ''[[Renshi zhuan]]'' ("The Story of Lady Ren", c. 800),{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|''Renshi zhuan'' ({{lang|zh|任氏傳}}, Japanese: {{transliteration|ja|Ninshiden}}. This story of "Miss Ren" belongs in the ''[[Chuanqi (short story)|chuanqi]]'' genre,{{sfn|Goff|1997|p=67}} and according to Nakata, it emphasizes human emotions like the Japanese ''Nihon Ryōiki'' tale, in contrast to the fox wife tale in ''Soushen ji'' ({{lang|zh|搜神記;}}; "[[In Search of the Supernatural]]"), which is classed in the earlier ''[[Zhiguai xiaoshuo|Zhiguai]]''<!--志怪小説--> genre.}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The Chinese wife or concubine (Lady Ren or Lady Jen) also exposes her fox identity after being barked at by a dog,{{sfn|Goff|1997|p=68}}<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975"/>}} and the possibility has been suggested that this is a remake of the Chinese version.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The legend of Miss Ren known in Japan to [[Ōe no Masafusa]] (11–12th cent.) who mentioned two classical Chinese instances in his ''Kobiki'' (cf. infra){{sfn|Goff|1997|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Iguro|2005|p=3}}<!--Even earlier, {{illm|Ōe no Koretoki|ja|大江維時}} who preserves lines from the poem '' Renshi yuan ge xing''  ({{任氏怨歌行}} "Song of resentment of Renshi") in his Chinese poetry selection ''Senzai kaku'' (c. 950), #442 and #897.{{sfn|Iguro|2005|p=3}}-->}}{{Refn|Takeshi Nakano<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975"/> apud {{harvnb|Nagata|1980|p=84}}}} A composite fashioned from the confluence of Tang dynasty wonder tales (''chuanqi''<!--伝奇小説--> genre, as exemplified by the ''Renshi zhuan'') and earlier wonder tales (''[[Zhiguai xiaoshuo|Zhiguai]]''<!--志怪小説--> genre) has also been proposed.{{Refn|{{interlanguage link|Akinori Maruyama|ja|丸山顕徳}}{{sfn|Maruyama|1992|p=52}} apud {{harvnb|Iguro|2005|p=2}}}}

The [[Trope (literature)|trope]] of the fox as ''[[femme fatale]]'' in Japanese literature also originates from China. [[Ōe no Masafusa]] (d. 1111) in ''Kobiki'' or {{nihongo|''Kobi no ki''|狐眉記|extra=''A record of fox spirits''}}{{sfn|de Visser|1908a|p=32}}{{sfn|Goff|1997|pp=67–68}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Masafusa borrowed the term ''kobi'' (Chinese pronunciation: ''{{lang|zh-Latn|humei}}'') makes reference to seductive fox spirits, though he altered the meaning somewhat.{{sfn|Smits|1996|p=80}} The original Chinese meaning refers specifically to foxes that transform into beautiful women.{{sfn|Smits|1996|pp=83–84}}}} The ''femme fatale'' vixen was the mult-millenarian Tamamo-no-mae who was queen-consort during the Yin/[[Shang dynasty]] of China according to the fantastic tale.{{sfn|Smits|1996|p=83}}{{sfn|Goff|1997|pp=67–68}}

== Foxes in Japanese archaeology ==
Foxes and humans lived close together in [[History of Japan#Classical Japan|ancient Japan]];<ref name="kaneko_H.1984"/><ref name="seino09"/> this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures.

The oldest relationship between the Japanese people and the fox dates back to the [[Jomon period]] necklace made by piercing the canine teeth and jawbone of the fox.<ref name="kaneko_H.1984">Kaneko, Hiromasa<!--金子浩昌--> (1984) ''Kaizuka no jūkotsu no chishiki: hito to dōbutsu no kakawari''　貝塚の獣骨の知識―人と動物とのかかわり. pp. 127–128. Tokyo bijutsu. {{ISBN|978-4808702298}}</ref><ref name ="seino09">Seino, Takayuki<!--清野孝之--> (2009) ''Hakkutsu sareta Nihon retto 2009'' 発掘された日本列島2009. p. 27. [[Agency for Cultural Affairs]]. {{ISBN|978-4022505224}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:MET DP149050.jpg|thumb|Top: Fox paws gesture; Left: Hunter holding rifle gesture; Right: Village head hands on knees gesture]]

A traditional game called ''kitsune-ken'' ('fox-fist') references the kitsune's powers over human beings. The game is similar to [[rock paper scissors]], but the three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox beats the headman, whom he bewitches.{{sfn|Nozaki|1961|p=230}}{{sfn|Smyers|1999|p=98}}

The ''kitsune'' figures in animations, comic books and [[video game]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Weinstock|editor-first=Jeffrey Andrew|last=Nakamura|first=Miri|title=The Ashgate Encyclopedia of Literary and Cinematic Monsters|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4724-0060-4|pages=358–360|chapter=Kitsune}}</ref>

Japanese metal idol band [[Babymetal]] refer to the kitsune myth in their lyrics and include the use of fox masks, hand signs, and animation interludes during live shows.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metalhammer.teamrock.com/features/2015-07-21/the-future-is-now-it-s-metal-hammer-273|title=Metal Hammer UK issue 273|publisher = Metal Hammer|access-date=2015-08-14|date=2015-07-21}}</ref>

Western authors of fiction have also made use of the kitsune legends although not in extensive detail.<ref>{{cite book|author=Johnson, Kij |title=The Fox Woman|url=https://archive.org/details/foxwoman00kijj|url-access=registration |date=2001|publisher=Tom Doherty |isbn=978-0-312-87559-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Mercedes Lackey |last1=Lackey |first1=Mercedes |last2=Edghill |first2=Rosemary |title=Spirits White as Lightning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ispqCirVSvQC&pg=PT91 |date=2001|publisher=Baen Books|isbn=978-0-671-31853-6|pages=91–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Highbridge|first1=Dianne|title=In the Empire of Dreams|date=1999|publisher=Soho Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56947-146-3|url=https://archive.org/details/inempireofdreams00high}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan|Mythology|Animals}}
* [[Fox spirit]], a general overview about this being in East Asian folklore
** {{lang|zh-Latn|[[Huli jing]]}}&nbsp;– a Chinese fox spirit
** {{lang|ko-Latn|[[Kumiho]]}}&nbsp;– a Korean fox spirit
** {{lang|vi|[[Hồ ly tinh]]}}&nbsp;– a Vietnamese fox spirit
* [[Foxes in popular culture, films and literature]]
* {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Hakuzōsu]]}}
* {{annotated link|Reynard the Fox}}
* ''[[The Sacred Book of the Werewolf]]''
* ''[[The Sandman: The Dream Hunters]]''
* {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Sessho-seki]]}}
* {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Tamamo-no-Mae]]}}
* [[Wild fox koan]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|24em|refs=
<ref name="chamberlain1908">{{cite book |last=Chamberlain|first=Basil Hall |author-link=Basil Hall Chamberlain　|title=Things Japanese: Being Notes on Various Subjects Connected with Japan for the Use of Travellers and Others |publisher=John Murray |date=1908 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyAQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA118 |pages=118–120}}</ref>

<ref name="davisson2024">{{cite book |last=Davisson |first=Zack |author-link=Zack Davisson|title=Ultimate Guide to Japanese Yokai: Ghosts, Demons, Monsters and other Creepy Creatures from Japan(with Over 250 Images)|publisher=Tuttle Publishing |date=2024 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQTrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |page=28 |isbn=<!--1462924778,-->9781462924776}}</ref>

<ref name="EncyRelEthics-lloyd1912">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Lloyd |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Lloyd (missionary) |entry=Demons and Spirits (Japanese) |editor1-last=Hastings |editor1-first=James |editor1-link=James Hastings (priest) |editor2-last=Selbie |editor2-first=John Alexander |editor2-link=<!--John Alexander Selbie--> |editor3-last=Gray |editor3-first=Louis Herbert |editor3-link=Louis Herbert Gray |title=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics |volume=4 |publisher=Scribner |year=1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4xXrTzO_LcUC&pg=PA610 |page=610}}</ref>

<ref name="foster2009">{{cite book|last=Foster |first=Michael Dylan |author-link=Michael Dylan Foster |title=Pandemonium and Parade: Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yokai |publisher=University of California Press |date=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m7IwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 |page=95 |isbn=<!--0520253620, -->9780520253629}}</ref>

<ref name="gadai-jiten-hakuzosu">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Saitō |first=Ryūzō |author-link=:ja:斎藤隆三 |entry=Hakuzōsu |script-entry=ja:はくざうす 白蔵主 |title=Gadai jiten |script-title=ja:畫題辭典|publisher=Hakubunkan<!--博文館--> |date=1925|entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRp9rCDMoS0C&pg=PP326 |page=302lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="hyakka_setsurin-zenanzuihitsu1891">{{cite book|last=Asakawa |first=Zen'an |author-link=:ja:朝川善庵 |chapter=Zen'an zuihitsu: Konata ni tengu to ieru mono |script-chapter=ja:善庵随筆：此方に天狗といへるもの |editor1-last=Imaizumi |editor1-first=Sadasuke<!--定介 (sic.)--> |editor1-link=:ja:今泉定助 |editor2-last=Hatakeyama |editor2-first=Takeshi |editor2-link=:ja:畠山健 (国文学者) |title=Hyakka setsurin |script-title=ja:百家説林 |volume=3 |publisher=Yoshikawa Hanshichi<!--吉川半七--> |date=1891<!--明24--> |orig-date=1850 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KR6b7GiwQQYC&pg=PP679 |pages=671<!--671–674--> |quote= |language=ja |postscript=;}} {{URL|1=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/899109/1/159 |2=no column edition}}@ ndl</ref>

<ref name="iikura2006">{{cite journal|last=Iikura |first=Yoshiyuki |author-link=<!--飯倉義之--> |title=Nazuke to chisiki no yōkai genshō: kesaranpasaran arui wa tensara pasara no 1970 nen-dai |script-title=ja:「名付け」と「知識」の妖怪現象―ケサランパサランあるいはテンサラパサラの一九七〇年代―|journal=Kōshō bungaku kenkyū |script-journal=ja:口承文藝研究 |publisher=<!--日本口承文藝學會--> |number=29 |date=March 2006 |url=https://ko-sho.org/download/K_029/SFNRJ_K_029-10.pdf |pages=130–131 and note 7<!--124–137-->}}</ref>

<ref name="inoue1886">{{cite book|last=Inoue |first=Enryō |author-link=Inoue Enryō |title=Yōkaigaku kōgi: Rigaku |publisher=Tetsugakkan |date=2024 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8QtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP244 |page=232|lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="ito2023&1999">{{harvnb|Itō|2023|p=21}}; {{cite journal|last=Itō |first=Ryōhei |author-link=:ja:伊藤龍平 |title=Madowashigami-gata kitsubakatan no kōsatsu<!--マドワシガミガタ キツバカタン ノ コウサツ-->|script-title=ja:「迷ハシ神」型狐化譚の考察 |journal=Mukashibanashi densetsu kenkyū |script-journal=ja:昔話伝説研究 |publisher=<!--昔話伝説研究会--> |date=March 1999 |number=19 |issn=1342-2790 |url=<!--n/a--> |pages=}}</ref>

<ref name="kenny1968">{{cite book|last=Kenny |first=Don |author-link=<!--Don Kenny--> |title=A Guide to Kyogen |publisher=Hinoki Shoten |year=1968|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6uBAAAAIAAJ&q=fried+mouse |pages=276–277}}</ref>

<ref name="kojiruien-koji">{{Cite encyclopedia|last= |first=|author-link= |entry=Kōji |script-entry=ja:柑子 |title=Koji ruien |script-title=ja:古事類苑 |publisher=Jingū shichō<!--神宮司廳--> |date=1896 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ig1WSaezAbwC&pg=PP440 |pages=408–409 |lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="komatsu1992">{{cite book|last=Komatsu |first=Kazuhiko |author-link=:ja:小松和彦 |title=Monogatari bungei no hyōgenshi |script-title=ja:憑霊信仰 |location= |publisher=Yuzankaku<!--雄山閣--> |series=Minshū shūkyōshi sōsho 民衆宗教史叢書 30 |date=1992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wu82AAAAMAAJ |pages=288–299 |isbn=<!--4639010931, -->9784639010937}}</ref>

<ref name="komatsu2003">{{cite book|last=Komatsu |first=Kazuhiko |author-link=:ja:小松和彦 |title=Ikai to nihonjin: e-monogatari no sōzōryoku |script-title=ja:異界と日本人：絵物語の想像力 |location= |publisher=Kadokawa gakugei shuppan<!--角川学芸出版--> |date=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGwSEDl9GEsC&pg=PA144 |pages=144–147 |isbn=<!--4047033561, -->9784047033566}}</ref>

<ref name="konjakumonogatari-kan27.40">{{cite book|editor-last=Kuroita |editor-first=Katsumi |editor-link=:ja:黑板勝美 |chapter=27.40. Kitsune, hito ni tsukite torareshi tama wo kaeshite on wo hōzuru koto |script-chapter=ja:巻27第40 狐託人被取玉乞返報恩語<!--（きつね、ひとにつきてとられしたまをこひかへしておんをほうずること）--> |title=Kokushi taikei |script-title=ja:國史大系 |edition=<!--新訂增補・--> |volume=17 |location= |publisher=Yoshikawa kobunkan<!--吉川弘文館閣--> |series=Minshū shūkyōshi sōsho 民衆宗教史叢書 30 |date=1929 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5bTAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP905|pages=857–859 |lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="koyama1990">{{Cite book|last=Koyama |first=Hiroshi |author-link=:ja:小山弘志 |chapter=Tsurigitsune |script-chapter=ja:釣狐 |title=Iwanami kōza: kyōgen: kyōgen kanshō annai |script-title=ja:岩波講座能・狂言: 狂言鑑賞案内 |series=<!--岩波講座: 能・狂言 7 -->|publisher=Iwanami shoten |date=1990 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7IvAQAAIAAJ|page=482 |isbn=<!--4000102974, -->9784000102971}}</ref>

<ref name="minkan_shinko_jiten">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Miyamoto |first=Kesao |author-link=:ja:宮本袈裟雄 |entry=Kitsunetsuki |script-entry=ja:狐憑き キツネツキ |editor-last=Sakurai |editor-first=Tokutarō |editor-link=:ja:桜井徳太郎 |title=Minkan shinkō jiten |script-title=ja:民間信仰辞典 |publisher=Tōkyōdō shuppan<!--東京堂出版--> |date=1980 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=syAvAAAAYAAJ&q=狐憑き |pages=97–98 |isbn=978-4-490-10137-9|lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="minzokugaku_jiten">{{Cite encyclopedia|editor=Minzokugaku kenkyūsho 民俗学研究所 |entry=Kitsunetsuki |script-entry=ja:狐憑 |title=Minzokugaku jiten |script-title=ja:民俗学辞典 |publisher=Tōkyōdō shuppan<!--東京堂出版--> |date=1951 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDImAAAAMAAJ&q=狐 |pages=137–138 |id=NCID BN01703544 |lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="miyao2009">{{cite book|last=Miyao |first=Yoshio |author-link=:ja:宮尾與男 |title=Taiyaku nihon mukashibanashishū |script-title=ja:対訳日本昔噺集 |trans-title=Japanese Fairy Tale Series |volume=2 |location= |publisher=Sairyūsha<!--彩流社--> |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pT80AQAAIAAJ |page=220 |isbn=<!--4779114470, -->9784779114472}}</ref>

<ref name="mizusawa2010">{{cite journal|last=Mizusawa |first=Tatsuki |author-link=<!--水澤龍樹-->|title=Hyōhaku suru tami no zankono (dai 20 kai) Kijo to Tennō |script-title=ja:漂泊する民の残痕(第20回)鬼女と天皇 |journal=Rekishi Tokuhon |script-journal=ja:歴史読本 |volume=55 |number=8/Cumulative #854 |date=August 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2JMAQAAIAAJ |page=254<!--254–262-->}}</ref>

<ref name="mukashibanashi_jiten">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Sato |first=Yoneshi |author-link=<!--佐藤米司--> |collaboration= |entry= |script-entry= |editor-last=Inada |editor-first=Kōji |editor-link=:ja:稲田浩二 |title=Nihon mukashibanashi jiten |script-title=ja:日本昔話事典 |publisher=Kōbundō<!--弘文堂--> |date=1977 |url=<!--N/A--> |pages=250–251 |isbn=978-4-335-95002-5 |lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="nakano-commentary-in-nihonryoiki-tr-nakata1975">Nakano, Takeshi 中野猛. "''Kaisetsu'' 解説 [Commentary] 4", in：{{cite book|ref={{SfnRef|Nakata tr.|1975}}|author=Kyōkai |author-link=:ja:景戒 |translator-last=Nakata |translator-first=Norio |translator-link=:ja:中田祝夫 |title=Nihon ryōiki |script-title=ja:日本霊異記 |location= |publisher=Shogakukan |date=1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3oEPAAAAYAAJ&q=扶桑略記欽明 |pages= |series=日本古典文学全集 6<!--Nihon koten bungaku zenshū 6-->}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=hI4PAAAAYAAJ&q=扶桑略記欽明　Reprinted 1995])</ref>

<ref name="nihongi-tr-aston-saimei3">{{cite book|ref={{SfnRef|Aston|1924}}|translator-last=Aston |translator-first=W. G. |translator-link=William George Aston |title=Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697  |location=London |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner |date=1924 |orig-date=1896 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z48xN727Wh4C&pg=RA1-PA252 |at='''2''': 252}}</ref>

<ref name="nihongi-tr-aston-saimei5">{{harvnb|Aston|1924}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Z48xN727Wh4C&pg=RA1-PA263 '''2''': 252]
</ref>

<ref name="nihonshoki-tr-ujitani-saimei5">{{cite book|ref={{SfnRef|Ujitani|1996}}|translator-last=Ujitani |translator-first=Tsutomu |translator-link=:ja:宇治谷孟 |title=Nihon shoki: zenyaku gendaibun |script-title=ja:日本書紀: 全訳現代文 |volume=2 |location=Osaka |publisher=Sōgei shuppan<!--創芸出版--> |date=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=81wfAQAAMAAJ&q=熊野大社 |page=196 |isbn=978-4-915479-14-4 |quote=出雲国造に命ぜられて神の宮(意宇郡〔おうのこおり〕の熊野大社)を修造させられた。その時狐が、意宇郡の役夫の採ってきた葛(宮造りの用材)を噛み切って逃げた |language=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="n-m-shusei-honkaku">{{cite book|last=Seki |first=Keigo <!--関敬吾--> |author-link=Keigo Seki |chapter=25. Hito to Kitsune: #270 Shiri nozoki - #287 Kitsune no bakekurabe |script-chapter=ja: 25. 人と狐: #270 尻のぞき - #287 狐の化け比べ |trans-chapter=25. Man and Fox: #270 Buttock peeking - #287 Fox's shapeshift contest |title=Nihon mukashibanashi shūsei II.iii (honkaku mukashibanashi) |script-title=ja:日本昔話集成. 第2部 第3 (本格昔話)|publisher=Kadokawa |year=1955 |chapter-url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/9542002 |pages=1306–1372}}</ref>

<ref name="n-m-tsugan-miyagi4">{{cite book|editor1-last=Inada |editor1-first=Kōji |editor1-link=:ja:稲田浩二 |editor2-last=Ozawa |editor2-first=Toshio |editor2-link=:ja:小澤俊夫 |title=Nihon mukashibanashi tsūgan: Miyagi |script-title=ja:日本昔話通観: 宮城 |publisher=Dohosha<!--同朋舎-->|year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D8iAAAAMAAJ |pages=<!--not generating--> |isbn=<!--4810406172, -->9784810406177|lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="Noshomusho1892">{{cite book|author=Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce |author-link=:ja:農商務省 (日本) |title=Shuryō zusetsu |script-title=ja:狩猟図説|location= |publisher=Tokyo hakubunkan<!--東京博文館--> |date=1892|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DL_x3pwXtUC&pg=PA139 |pages=139–141}}</ref>

<ref name="OkiIsland1984">{{cite book|first=<!----> |author-link= |chapter=Kitsune no hōshi no tama |script-chapter=ja:狐の法師の玉 |title=Oki・Tōgo minwashū |script-title=ja:隠岐・島後民話集 |publisher=Shimane daigaku mukashi banashi kenkyūkai <!--島根大学昔話研究会-->|year=1984 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0EkEAAAAMAAJ |page=88 |lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="okimoto1993">{{cite journal |last=Okimoto|first=Katsumi |author-link=<!--沖本克己--> |title=Zenkiga: Expressing the Spirit of Zen |journal=Chanoyu Quarterly |number=75  |date=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njpLAAAAYAAJ&q=fox |page=57<!--23–57-->}}</ref>

<ref name="omori2003">{{cite book|last=Ōmori |first=Keiko|author-link=<!--大森惠子--> |chapter=Kyōgen 'Tsurigitsune' no enshutsu to inari shinkō |script-chapter=ja:狂言「釣狐」の演出と稲荷信仰 |editor=Koki kinen ronshū kankō iinkai<!--古稀記念論集刊行委員会--> |others=[[:ja:福田晃|Akira Fukuda]] as supervising editor |title=|script-title=ja:伝承文化の展望 : 日本の民俗・古典・芸能 |location= |publisher=Miyai shoten<!--三弥井書店--> |date=2003 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4RMAQAAIAAJ&q=油 |pages=52–53, 60 |isbn=<!--4838230982, -->9784838230983}}</ref>

<ref name="sakurai1929">{{cite book|last=Sakurai |first=Hide |author-link=<!--櫻井秀--> |title=Shinkō to fūzoku |script-title=ja:信仰と風俗 |publisher=Yuzankaku <!--雄山閣-->|year=1929|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXmgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP109 |pages=109–110 |series=<!-- 日本風俗史講座 10-->|lang=ja}}</ref>

<ref name="takahashi_toru1987">{{cite book|last=Takahashi |first=Tōru |author-link=:ja:高橋亨 (国文学者) |title=Mongatari bungei no hyōgenshi |script-title=ja:物語文芸の表現史 |location= |publisher=Nagoya daigaku shuppankai<!--名古屋大学出版会--> |date=1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fi3UAAAAMAAJ&q=元亨釈書 |pages=288–299 |isbn=<!--4930689740, -->9784930689740}}</ref>

<ref name="tanaka1997">{{cite book|last=Tanaka |first=Takako |author-link=:ja:田中貴子 (国文学者) |title=Seiai no nihon chūsei |script-title=ja:性愛の日本中世 |location= |publisher=Yosen sha<!--洋泉社--> |date=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1K01AQAAIAAJ |pages=2–3, 262–267 |isbn=<!--4930689740, -->9784930689740}}</ref>

<ref name="yamada1985">{{cite journal|last=Yamada |first=Itsuko |author-link=<!--山田巌子-->|title=Seken banashi no bunrui: Yamanashi ken Fujishi no jirei wo chūshin ni |script-title=ja:世間話の分類―山梨県富士吉田市の事例を中心に― |script-journal=ja:東洋大学大学院紀要 |journal=Bulletin of the Graduate School, Toyo University |volume=21 |date=1985-02-28  |issn=1342-2790 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CEM3AAAAIAAJ |pages=<!--不出力-->}}</ref>

<ref name="yamauchi1980">{{cite book|last=Yamauchi |first=Yasuko |author-link=<!--山内靖子 -->|chapter=(Book Review) Inada Kōji・Ozawa Toshiwo hoka hen ''Nihon mukashibanashi tsūgan dai 19 kan Okayama'' |script-chapter=ja:(書評)稲田浩二・小沢俊夫他編『日本昔話通観第19巻岡山』|title=国文学年次別論文集: 国文学一般 |date=1980 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMgbAAAAMAAJ|pages=466, 469}}</ref>
}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book |last=Addiss |first=Stephen |author-link=<!--Stephen Addiss--> |title=Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural |place=New York |publisher=G. Braziller |date=1985 |isbn=978-0-8076-1126-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Ashkenazy |first=Michael |author-link=<!--Michael Ashkenazy-->|title=Handbook of Japanese Mythology |place=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-Clio |date=2003 |isbn=978-1-57607-467-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofjapane0000ashk }}
*{{cite book |last=Bathgate |first=Michael |author-link=<!--Michael Bathgate--> |title=The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities |publisher=Routledge |date=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sD6TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |isbn=<!--1135883912-->978-0-415-96821-8 }}
*{{cite book |last=Brinkley |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Brinkley |title=Japan, Its History, Arts and Literature |volume=5 |location=Boston<!--and Tokyo--> |publisher=J. B. Millet |year=1902}}
*{{cite journal|last=Casal |first=U. A. |author-link=<!--U. A. Casal --> |title=The Goblin Fox and Badger and Other Witch Animals of Japan |journal=Folklore Studies |volume=18 |date=1959 |publisher=Nanzan University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmsLAAAAIAAJ&q=kitsune |pages=1–93 |doi=10.2307/1177429 |jstor=1177429}}
*{{cite journal |last=de Visser |first=Marinus Willem |author-link=<!--Marinus Willem de Visser--> |title=The Fox and the Badger in Japanese Folklore |journal=Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan |volume=36 |issue=Part 3 |year=1908a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYFEAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA5-PA1 |pages=1–159}}

*{{cite journal |last=Fairchild |first=William P. |author-link=<!--William P. Fairchild--> |title=Shamanism in Japan |journal=Folklore Studies |volume=21 |year=1962 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-vsh_htvJVoC&q=fox |pages=1–122 |doi=10.2307/1177349 |jstor=1177349}}

* {{cite book|last=Foster |first=Michael Dylan |author-link=Michael Foster (folklorist) |title=The Book of Yokai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore |publisher=University of California Press |year=2015 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FdzjBAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-520-95912-5}}
** {{cite book|last=Foster |first=Michael Dylan |author-link=Michael Dylan Foster |title=The Book of Yokai, Expanded Second Edition: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore |publisher=University of California Press |date=2024 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYT9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA228 |page= |isbn=<!--0520389565, -->9780520389564}}

*{{cite journal|last=Goff |first=Janet |author-link=<!--Janet Goff --> |title=Foxes in Japanese culture: beautiful or beastly? |journal=Japan Quarterly |volume=44 |number=2 |date=April–June 1997 |url=https://faculty.humanities.uci.edu/sbklein/ghosts/articles/goff-foxes.pdf |pages=66–77}}
* {{cite book|last=Hamel |first=Frank |author-link=<!--Frank Hamel--> |chapter=XI. Wer-foxes and Wer-Vixen |title=Human Animals |location=London |publisher=William Rider & Son |year=1915 |isbn=978-7-220-01492-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGYKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA88 }}

* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Hearn |first=Lafcadio |author-link=Lafcadio Hearn |title=Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan |series=second series |volume=2 |location=Leipzig |publisher=Bernhard Tauchnitz |date=1896 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ulz4R9DZo_MC&q=horse-dung}}
** {{cite book|last=Hearn |first=Lafcadio |author-link=Lafcadio Hearn |author-mask=2 |title=Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan |series=second series |volume=2 |location=Leipzig |publisher=Bernhard Tauchnitz |date=1910 |orig-date=1896 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwhLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA242 }}

*{{Cite journal|last=Iguro |first=Kahoko |author-link=<!--井黒佳穂子 --> |title=Nihon ryōiki jō-kan dai-ni-en to Ninshiden |script-title=ja:『日本霊異記』上巻第二縁と『任氏伝』 |journal=Senshū kokubun <!--専修国文--> |number=76 |date=2005-01-07 |url=https://senshu-u.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=1112&item_no=1&attribute_id=32&file_no=1 |pages=1–20 |publisher=<!--専修大学日本語日本文学会 -->|language=ja}}

* {{cite journal|last=Itō |first=Ryōhei |author-link=:ja:伊藤龍平 |title=The Sites of Tales'Births and Deaths: "Disorienting Deity"-type Bewitching Fox Stories |journal=Kokugakuin Japan Studies |volume=4 |issue= |year=2023 |url=https://www2.kokugakuin.ac.jp/oardijcc/archives/pdf/KJS4-2Ito.pdf |pages=21–32|language=ja}}

* {{cite book|editor-last=Kaneko |editor-first=Junji |editor-link=<!--金子順二--> |title=|script-title=ja:日本狐憑史資料集成 |volume=1 |publisher=Makino shuppansha<!--牧野出版社--> |year=1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBExAAAAMAAJ&q=狐 |pages= }}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Leiter |first=Samuel L. |author-link=<!--Samuel L. Leiter --> |entry=Ashiya Dōman ōuchi kagami |title=Historical Dictionary of Japanese Traditional Theatre |edition=2 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |date=2014 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCkvBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |page=38|isbn=<!--1442239115, -->9781442239111}}

*{{cite journal|last=Lomi |first=Benedetta |author-link=<!--Benedetta Lomi--> |title= Dharanis, Talismans, and Straw-Dolls: Ritual Choreographies and Healing Strategies of the Rokujikyōhō in Medieval Japan |journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies |volume=41 |number=2 |date=2014 |url=https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/files/185939250/JJRS_41_2_Lomi_.pdf
 |pages=255–304 |doi=10.18874/jjrs.41.2.2014.255-304}}

*{{cite book|last=Maruyama |first=Akinori |author-link=:ja:丸山顕徳 |chapter=Dai-2 shō. Kitsune no Atai setsuwa (jō 2 kan) |script-chapter=ja:第二章狐の直説話（上2巻） |title=Nihon ryōiki setsuwa no kenkyū |script-title=ja:日本霊異記説話の研究 |location=Tokyo|publisher=Ōfūsha<!--桜楓社--> |date=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CuMwAAAAMAAJ&q=狐 |pages=46–61|isbn=<!--4273026163, -->9784273026165|language=ja}}

* {{citation|ref={{SfnRef|Mozume|1916}}|author=Mozume Takami |author-link=:ja:物集高見 |title=Kitsune |script-title=ja:きつね |work=Kōbunko |script-work=ja:広文庫 |volume=6<!--第6冊--> |publisher=Kōbunko kankōkai <!--広文庫刊行会--> |year=1926 |orig-year=1916 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4REAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP170  |pages=130–201 |lang=ja}}

*{{Cite journal|last=Nagata |first=Noriko |author-link=<!--永田典子 --> |title=Kitsune nyōbō kō: Nihon ryōiki jō-kan dai-ni-en wo megutte |script-title=ja:狐女房考—日本霊異記上巻第二縁をめぐって— |journal=Kōnan kokubun <!--甲南国文--> |number=27 |date=1980 |url=https://www.konan-wu.ac.jp/~nichibun/kokubun/27/nagata1980.pdf |pages=77–91 |language=ja}}

* {{cite book|ref={{SfnRef|Nakata tr.|1978}}|author=Kyōkai |author-link=:ja:景戒 |translator-last=Nakata |translator-first=Norio |translator-link=:ja:中田祝夫 |chapter=Kitsune wo me to shite ko wo umashimeshi en dai-2 |script-chapter=ja:狐を妻（め）として子を生ましめし縁 第二 |title=Nihon ryōiki (zen yaku chū) |script-title=ja:日本霊異記（全訳注） |volume=1<!--上--> |location= |publisher=Kodansha |date=1978 |pages=42–47}}

*{{cite book |editor-last=Nakamura |editor-first=Kyoko |translator=Kyoko Nakamura |chapter=Volume I, Tale 2. On Taking a Fox as a Wife and Bringing Forth a Child |title=Miraculous stories from the Japanese Buddhist tradition - the Nihon ryōiki of the monk Kyōkai |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1997 |orig-year=1973 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcjbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |pages=103–104 |isbn=9781136792601}}

* {{cite book|last=Nakamura |first=Teiri |author-link=:ja:中村禎里 |title=Kitsune no nhonshi kinsei |script-title=ja:狐の日本史近世 |series=Kitsune no nihonshi: kodai・chūseihen 狐の日本史: 古代・中世篇 2 |location= |publisher=日本エディタースクール出版部 |date=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a91NAAAAMAAJ|pages= |isbn=<!--4888883351, -->9784888883351}}

*{{cite book |last=Nozaki |first=Kiyoshi |url=http://delathehooda.com/kitsune/kitsunepdf.zip |title=Kitsuné&nbsp;— Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor |place=Tokyo |publisher=The Hokuseidô Press |date=1961|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305013057/http://delathehooda.com/kitsune/kitsunepdf.zip |archive-date=2016-03-05 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Odanaka |first1=Akihiro |author1-link=:ja:小田中章浩 |last2=Iwai |first2=Masami |author2-link=<!--岩井眞實--> |chapter=Chapter 3. A Courtly Mirror of Ashiya Dōman: Echoes of a shadowy domain |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3jtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT105 |title=Japanese Political Theatre in the 18th Century: Bunraku Puppet Plays in Social Context |publisher=Routledge |date=2020 |pages= |isbn=<!--0429620004, -->9780429620003 }}]

* {{cite journal|last=Sakaita |first=Hitomi |author-link=<!-- 坂井田ひとみ -->|title=|script-title=ja:日中狐文化の探索 |journal=Chukyo University Bulletin of the Faculty of Liberal Arts |script-journal=ja: 中京大学教養論叢 |volume=36 |number=4 |date=1996-04-26|url=https://chukyo-u.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/13197/files/KJ00004207295.pdf |pages=1330–1291}} ([https://chukyo-u.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/13197 repository])

*{{cite journal|last=Sanford |first=James H. |author-link=<!--James H. Sanford --> |title=The Abominable Tachikawa Skull Ritual |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |volume=46 |number=1 |date=Spring 1991 |publisher=<!--Sophia University--> |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQxDAAAAYAAJ&q=yakan |pages=1–20 |doi=10.2307/2385144 |jstor=2385144}}

*{{cite book|last=Seki |first=Keigo |author-link=Keigo Seki |title=Types of Japanese Folktales|location=<!--Honolulu--> |publisher=Society for Asian Folklore |year=1966|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIHfAAAAMAAJ&q=fox |isbn=}}

* {{cite book|last=Smits|first=Ivo |author-link=<!--Ivo Smits--> |chapter=An early anthropologist? Ōe no Masafusa's ''A record of fox spirits'' |editor1-last=Kornicki |editor1-first=P. F. |editor1-link=<!--P. F. Kornicki--> |editor2-last=McMullen |editor2-first=I. J. |editor2-link=<!--I. J. McMullen--> |title=Religion in Japan: Arrows to Heaven and Earth |location=|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsLDwvmnt_oC&pg=PA78 |pages=78–89 |isbn=<!--0521550289, -->9780521550284}}
*{{cite book|last=Smyers |first=Karen Ann |author-link=Karen Ann Smyers |title=The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship |location=<!--Honolulu--> |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cavXAAAAMAAJ |isbn=<!--0-8248-2102-5-->978-0824821029|oclc = 231775156}}
*{{cite book |author-link =Royall Tyler |last=Tyler |first=Royall |date=1987 |title=Japanese Tales |url=https://archive.org/details/japanesetales0000tyle |url-access=registration |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=978-0-394-75656-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Yasutada |last=Watanabe |author-link=<!--渡邊保忠 (architecture scholar, 1922–2000)--> |title=Shinto Art: Ise and Izumo Shrines |publisher=Weatherhill/Heibonsha |date=1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3efpAAAAMAAJ&q=fox |isbn=<!--0834810182, -->9780834810181}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Watson |editor-first=Burton |editor-link=Burton Watson |translator=Burton Watson |chapter=On Taking a Fox as a Wife and Producing a Child (1:2) |title=Record of Miraculous Events in Japan: The Nihon ryoiki |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSI2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |pages=14–15 |isbn=<!--0231535163, -->9780231535168}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|kitsune|狐|きつね}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Kitsune}}

{{Japanese folklore long}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kitsune (fox)| ]]
[[Category:Animals in Japanese mythology]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic foxes]]
[[Category:Inari faith]]
[[Category:Mythological foxes]]
[[Category:Mythological tricksters]]
[[Category:Shapeshifters]]
[[Category:Therianthropes]]
[[Category:Shinto kami]]
[[Category:Yōkai]]