View source for Konstantin Stanislavski

{{Short description|Russian actor and theatre director (1863–1938)}}
<!---All Russian names and places are transliterated according to Benedetti's ''Stanislavski: His Life and Art'', which tends to prefer "i" over "y".--->
{{Family name hatnote|Sergeievich|Stanislavski|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]] -->
| name             = Konstantin Stanislavski<br/>{{nobold|{{lang|ru|Константин Станиславский}}}}
| honorific_suffix = 
| image            = Constantin Stanislavski.jpg
| birth_name       = Konstantin Sergeyevich Alekseyev
| birth_date       = {{OldStyleDate|17 January|1863|5 January}}{{efn|For dates before the Soviet state's switch from the [[Julian calendar]] to the [[Gregorian calendar]] in February 1918, this article gives the date in the [[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|New Style]] (Gregorian) date-format first, followed by the same day in the [[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|Old Style]] (Julian) date-format (which appears in square brackets and slightly smaller); this is to facilitate comparison between primary and secondary sources. The difference between the two is 12 days for Julian dates before 1 March 1900 [Gregorian 14 March] and 13 days for Julian dates on or after 1 March 1900. Thus, Stanislavski was born on 17 January according to the Gregorian calendar that is in use today, while his birthday was 5 January according to the Julian calendar that was in use at the time. For more information on the difference between the two systems, see the article [[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar]]. Dates after 1 February 1918 are presented as normal.}}
| birth_place      = [[Moscow]], [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|1938|8|7|1863|1|17|df=y}}<!-- Both dates must be in the Gregorian (N.S.) calendar. -->
| death_place      = [[Moscow]], [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]<!--See MOS:GEOLINK-->
| resting_place    = [[Novodevichy Cemetery]], [[Moscow]]
| occupation       = {{hlist|[[Actor]]|[[theatre director]]|[[Theatre practitioner|theatre theorist]]}}
| movement         = {{cslist|[[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalism]]|[[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]]|[[Realism (theatre)|psychological realism]]|[[socialist realism]]}}
|module            = 
{{Infobox person|embed=yes|known_for=Founder of the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]]<br/>[[Stanislavski's system]]}}
| notableworks     = {{unbulleted list|''An Actor's Work''|''An Actor's Work on a Role''|''[[My Life in Art]]''}}
| spouse           = {{unbulleted list|{{marriage|[[Maria Lilina]]|1889}}}}
}}

'''Konstantin Sergeyevich Stanislavski'''{{Efn|Stanislavski's first name is also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as ''Constantin'',<ref>[https://www.biography.com/actor/constantin-stanislavski Constantin Stanislavski Biography.] Biography.com. A&E Television Networks. 2 April 2014. Updated 21 May 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</ref> while his surname is also transliterated as ''Stanislavsky''<ref>Sonia Moore. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Konstantin-Stanislavsky "Konstantin Stanislavsky"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Updated 3 August 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</ref> and ''Stanislavskii''. As discussed [[#Family background and early influences|below]], ''Stanislavski'' is a stage name.}} ({{IPAc-en|s|t|æ|n|ɪ|ˈ|s|l|æ|v|s|k|i}};<ref>{{Cite Collins Dictionary|Stanislavski}}</ref> {{lang-rus|Константин Сергеевич Станиславский|p=kənstɐnʲˈtʲin sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ stənʲɪˈslafskʲɪj|links=yes}}; {{né|'''Alekseyev'''}};{{efn|{{langx|ru|Алексеев}}}} {{OldStyleDate|17 January|1863|5 January}}{{spaced ndash}}7 August 1938) was a seminal Russian and Soviet [[theatre practitioner]]. He was widely recognized as an outstanding [[character actor]], and the many [[List of productions directed by Konstantin Stanislavski|productions that he directed]] garnered him a reputation as one of the leading theatre directors of his generation.<ref>Benedetti (1999b, 254), Carnicke (2000, 12), Leach (2004, 14), and Milling and Ley (2001, 1).</ref> His principal fame and influence, however, rests on [[Stanislavski's system|his "system"]] of actor training, preparation, and rehearsal technique.<ref>Carnicke (2000, 16), Golub (1998a, 1032), and Milling and Ley (2001, 1).</ref>

Stanislavski (his stage name) performed and directed as an [[Amateur theatre|amateur]] until the age of 33, when he co-founded the world-famous [[Moscow Art Theatre]] (MAT) company with [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]], following a legendary 18-hour discussion.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 59), Braun (1982, 59), Carnicke (2000, 11–12), and Worrall (1996, 43).</ref> Its influential tours of Europe (1906) and the US (1923–24), and its landmark productions of [[Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull|''The Seagull'' (1898)]] and [[Moscow Art Theatre production of Hamlet|''Hamlet'' (1911–12)]], established his reputation and opened new possibilities for the art of the theatre.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 165), Carnicke (2000, 12), Gauss (1999, 1), Gordon (2006, 42), and Milling and Ley (2001, 13–14).</ref> By means of the MAT, Stanislavski was instrumental in promoting the new Russian drama of his day—principally the work of [[Anton Chekhov]], [[Maxim Gorky]], and [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]—to audiences in Moscow and around the world; he also staged acclaimed productions of a wide range of classical Russian and European plays.<ref>Carnicke (2000, 12–16, 29–33) and Gordon (2006, 42).</ref>

He collaborated with the director and designer [[Edward Gordon Craig]] and was formative in the development of several other major practitioners, including [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]] (whom Stanislavski considered his "sole heir in the theatre"), [[Yevgeny Vakhtangov]], and [[Michael Chekhov]].<ref>Bablet (1962, 133–158), Benedetti (1999a, 156, 188–211, 368–373), Braun (1995, 27–29), Roach (1985, 215–216), Rudnitsky (1981, 56), and Taxidou (1998, 66–69).</ref> At the MAT's 30th anniversary celebrations in 1928, a massive heart attack on-stage put an end to his acting career (though he waited until the curtain fell before seeking medical assistance).<ref name="Benedetti 1950">Benedetti (1999a, 317) and Magarshack (1950, 378).</ref> He continued to direct, teach, and write about acting until his death a few weeks before the publication of the first volume of his life's great work, the acting manual ''An Actor's Work'' (1938).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 374–375) and Magarshack (1950, 404).</ref> He was awarded the [[Order of the Red Banner of Labour]] and the [[Order of Lenin]] and was the first to be granted the title of [[People's Artist of the USSR]].<ref>Carnicke (1998, 33), Golub (1998a, 1033), and Magarshack (1950, 385, 396).</ref>

Stanislavski wrote that "there is nothing more tedious than an actor's biography" and that "actors should be banned from talking about themselves".<ref>From a note written by Stanislavski in 1911, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 289).</ref> At the request of a US publisher, however, he reluctantly agreed to write his autobiography, ''[[My Life in Art]]'' (first published in English in 1924 and a revised, Russian-language edition in 1926), though its account of his artistic development is not always accurate.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 1) and (1999a, xiv, 288), Carnicke (1998, 76), and Magarshack (1950, 367).</ref> Three English-language biographies have been published: [[David Magarshack]]'s ''Stanislavsky: A Life'' (1950); Jean Benedetti's ''Stanislavski: His Life and Art'' (1988, revised and expanded 1999).<ref>Benedetti (1999a) and Magarshack (1950).</ref> and Nikolai M Gorchakov's "Stanislavsky Directs" (1954).{{efn|This article draws substantially on these books.}} An out-of-print English translation of Elena Poliakova's 1977 Russian biography of Stanislavski was also published in 1982.

==Overview of the system==
{{Main|Stanislavski's system}}

Stanislavski subjected his acting and direction to a rigorous process of artistic self-analysis and reflection.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 1) and (2005, 109), Gordon (2006, 40–41), and Milling and Ley (2001, 3–5).</ref> His [[Stanislavski's system|system]]{{efn|Stanislavski began developing a "grammar" of acting in 1906; his initial choice to call it his System struck him as too dogmatic, so he wrote it as his "system" (without the capital letter and in inverted commas) to indicate the provisional nature of the results of his investigations—modern specialist scholarship and the standard edition of Stanislavski's works follow that practice; see Benedetti (1999a, 169), Gauss (1999, 3–4), Milling and Ley (2001, 1), and Stanislavski (1938) and (1957).}} of acting developed out of his persistent efforts to remove the blocks that he encountered in his performances, beginning with a major crisis in 1906.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 1), Gordon (2006, 42–43), and Roach (1985, 204).</ref> He produced his early work using an external, director-centred technique that strove for an organic [[Gesamtkunstwerk|unity of all its elements]]—in each production he planned the interpretation of every role, [[Blocking (stage)|blocking]], and the ''[[mise en scène]]'' in detail in advance.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 18, 22–23), (1999a, 42), and (1999b, 257), Carnicke (2000, 29), Gordon (2006, 40–42), Leach (2004, 14), and Magarshack (1950, 73–74). As Carnicke emphasises, Stanislavski's early prompt-books, such as that for [[Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull|the production of ''The Seagull'' in 1898]], "describe movements, gestures, ''[[mise en scène]]'', not inner action and [[subtext]]" (2000, 29). The principle of a unity of all elements (or what [[Richard Wagner]] called a ''[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]'') survived into Stanislavski's system, while the exclusively external technique did not; although his work shifted from a director-centred to an actor-centred approach, his system nonetheless valorises the absolute authority of the director.</ref> He also introduced into the production process a period of discussion and detailed analysis of the play by the cast.<ref>Milling and Ley (2001, 5). Stanislavski and [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko|Nemirovich]] found they had this practice in common during their legendary 18-hour conversation that led to the establishment of the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]].</ref> Despite the success that this approach brought, particularly with his [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalistic]] stagings of the plays of [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[Maxim Gorky]], Stanislavski remained dissatisfied.<ref>Bablet (1962, 134), Benedetti (1989, 23–26) and (1999a, 130), and Gordon (2006, 37–42). Carnicke emphasises the fact that Stanislavski's great productions of Chekhov's plays were staged without the use of the system (2000, 29).</ref>

[[File:Diagram of Stanislavski's 'system'.jpg|thumb|left|Diagram of [[Stanislavski's system]], based on his "Plan of Experiencing" (1935), showing the [[Psychotechnique|inner]] (''left'') and outer (''right'') aspects of a role uniting in the pursuit of a character's overall "supertask" (''top'') in the drama.]]

Both his struggles with Chekhov's drama (out of which his notion of [[subtext]] emerged) and his experiments with [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] encouraged a greater attention to "inner action" and a more intensive investigation of the actor's process.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 25–39) and (1999a, part two), Braun (1982, 62–63), Carnicke (1998, 29) and (2000, 21–22, 29–30, 33), and Gordon (2006, 41–45). For an explanation of "inner action", see Stanislavski (1957, 136); for [[subtext]], see Stanislavski (1938, 402–413).</ref> He began to develop the more actor-centred techniques of "[[Realism (theatre)|psychological realism]]" and his focus shifted from his productions to rehearsal process and [[pedagogy]].<ref>Benedetti (1989, 30) and (1999a, 181, 185–187), Counsell (1996, 24–27), Gordon (2006, 37–38), Magarshack (1950, 294, 305), and Milling and Ley (2001, 2).</ref> He pioneered the use of theatre studios as a laboratory in which to innovate actor training and to [[Experimental theatre|experiment with new forms of theatre]].<ref>Carnicke (2000, 13), Gauss (1999, 3), Gordon (2006, 45–46), Milling and Ley (2001, 6), and Rudnitsky (1981, 56).</ref> Stanislavski organised his techniques into a coherent, [[system]]atic methodology, which built on three major strands of influence: (1) the director-centred, unified aesthetic and disciplined, [[Ensemble cast|ensemble]] approach of the [[Meiningen Ensemble|Meiningen company]]; (2) the actor-centred realism of the [[Maly Theatre (Moscow)|Maly]]; and (3) the Naturalistic staging of [[André Antoine|Antoine]] and the independent theatre movement.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 5–11, 15, 18) and (1999b, 254), Braun (1982, 59), Carnicke (2000, 13, 16, 29), Counsell (1996, 24), Gordon (2006, 38, 40–41), and Innes (2000, 53–54).</ref>

The system cultivates what Stanislavski calls the "art of experiencing" (to which he contrasts the "[[art of representation]]").<ref name=rep>Benedetti (1999a, 201), Carnicke (2000, 17), and Stanislavski (1938, 16–36). Stanislavski's "[[art of representation]]" corresponds to [[Mikhail Shchepkin]]'s "actor of reason" and his "art of experiencing" corresponds to Shchepkin's "actor of feeling"; see Benedetti (1999a, 202).</ref> It mobilises the actor's [[Consciousness|conscious]] thought and [[Will (philosophy)|will]] to activate other, less-controllable psychological processes—such as emotional experience and [[subconscious]] behaviour—sympathetically and indirectly.<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 170">Benedetti (1999a, 170).</ref> In rehearsal, the actor searches for inner motives to justify action and the definition of what the character seeks to achieve at any given moment (a "task").<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 182–183">Benedetti (1999a, 182–183).</ref> Stanislavski's earliest reference to his system appears in 1909, the same year that he first incorporated it into his rehearsal process.<ref>Carnicke (1998, 72) and Whyman (2008, 262).</ref> The MAT adopted it as its official rehearsal method in 1911.<ref>Milling and Ley (2001, 6).</ref>

Later, Stanislavski further elaborated the system with a more physically grounded rehearsal process that came to be known as the "Method of Physical Action".<ref name=MOPA>Benedetti (1999a, 325, 360) and (2005, 121) and Roach (1985, 197–198, 205, 211–215). The term "Method of Physical Action" was applied to this rehearsal process after Stanislavski's death. Benedetti indicates that though Stanislavski had developed it since 1916, he first explored it practically in the early 1930s; see (1998, 104) and (1999a, 356, 358). Gordon argues the shift in working methods happened during the 1920s (2006, 49–55). Vasili Toporkov, an actor who trained under Stanislavski in this approach, provides in his ''Stanislavski in Rehearsal'' (2004) a detailed account of the Method of Physical Action at work in Stanislavski's rehearsals.</ref> Minimising at-the-table discussions, he now encouraged an "active analysis", in which the sequence of dramatic situations is [[Improvisation|improvised]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 355–256), Carnicke (2000, 32–33), Leach (2004, 29), Magarshack (1950, 373–375), and Whyman (2008, 242).</ref> "The best analysis of a play", Stanislavski argued, "is to take action in the given circumstances."<ref name=ANALYSIS>Quoted by Carnicke (1998, 156). Stanislavski continues: "For in the process of action the actor gradually obtains the mastery over the inner incentives of the actions of the character he is representing, evoking in himself the emotions and thoughts which resulted in those actions. In such a case, an actor not only understands his part, but also feels it, and that is the most important thing in creative work on the stage"; quoted by Magarshack (1950, 375).</ref>

Just as the First Studio, led by his assistant and close friend [[Leopold Sulerzhitsky]], had provided the forum in which he developed his initial ideas for the system during the 1910s, he hoped to secure his final legacy by opening another studio in 1935, in which the Method of Physical Action would be taught.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 359–360), Golub (1998a, 1033), Magarshack (1950, 387–391), and Whyman (2008, 136).</ref> The Opera-Dramatic Studio embodied the most complete implementation of the training exercises described in his manuals.<ref name=ODS>Benedetti (1998, xii) and (1999a, 359–363) and Magarshack (1950, 387–391), and Whyman (2008, 136). Benedetti argues that the course at the Opera-Dramatic Studio is "Stanislavski's true testament". His book ''Stanislavski and the Actor'' (1998) offers a reconstruction of the studio's course.</ref> Meanwhile, the transmission of his earlier work via the students of the First Studio was revolutionising acting in the [[Western culture|West]].<ref>Carnicke (1998, 1, 167) and (2000, 14), Counsell (1996, 24–25), Golub (1998a, 1032), Gordon (2006, 71–72), Leach (2004, 29), and Milling and Ley (2001, 1–2).</ref> With the arrival of [[Socialist realism]] in the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] and Stanislavski's system were enthroned as exemplary models.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 354–355), Carnicke (1998, 78, 80) and (2000, 14), and Milling and Ley (2001, 2).</ref>

==Family background and early influences==
[[File:Glikeriya Fedotova in 1887 cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Glikeriya Fedotova]], a student of [[Mikhail Shchepkin|Shchepkin]], encouraged Stanislavski to reject [[Artistic inspiration|inspiration]], embrace training and observation, and to "look your partner straight in the eyes, read his thoughts in his eyes, and reply to him in accordance with the expression of his eyes and face."<ref>[[Glikeriya Fedotova|Fedotova]], quoted by Magarshack (1950, 52); see also Benedetti (1989, 20; 2005, 109) and Golub (1998b, 985).</ref>]]

Stanislavski had a privileged youth, growing up in one of the richest families in Russia, the Alekseyevs.<ref>Benedetti (199), Carnicke (2000, 11), Magarshack (1950, 1), and Leach (2004, 6).</ref> He was born Konstantin Sergeyevich Alekseyev—he adopted the stage name "Stanislavski" in 1884 to keep his performance activities secret from his parents.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 21, 24) and Carnicke (2000, 11). The prospect of becoming a professional actor was [[taboo]] for someone of his social class; actors had an even lower [[social status]] in Russia than in the rest of Europe, having only recently been [[Russian serfdom|serfs]] and the [[property]] of the [[nobility]].</ref> Up until the [[October Revolution|communist revolution]] in 1917, Stanislavski often used his inherited wealth to fund his experiments in acting and directing.<ref>Braun (1982, 59) and Carnicke (2000, 11).</ref> His family's discouragement meant that he appeared only as an [[Amateur theatre|amateur]] until he was thirty three.<ref>Carnicke (2000, 11).</ref>

As a child, Stanislavski was interested in the [[circus]], the ballet, and [[puppetry]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 6–11) and Magarshack (1950, 9–11, 27–28).</ref> Later, his family's two private theatres provided a forum for his theatrical impulses.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 13, 18), Carnicke (2000, 11), Gordon (2006, 40), and Magarshack (1950, 31–32, 77).</ref> After his debut performance at one in 1877, he started what would become a lifelong series of notebooks filled with critical observations on his acting, aphorisms, and problems—it was from this habit of self-analysis and critique that [[Stanislavski's system]] later emerged.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 2), (1999a, 14), and (2005, 109), Gordon (2006, 40), and Magarshack (1950, 21–22).</ref> Stanislavski chose not to attend university, preferring to work in the family business.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 18) and Magarshack (1950, 26).</ref>

Increasingly interested in "experiencing the role", Stanislavski experimented with maintaining a [[characterization]] in real life.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 18–19) and Magarshack (1950, 25, 33–34). He would disguise himself as a [[tramp]] or drunk and visit the railway station, or as a fortune-telling [[Romani people|gypsy]]. As Benedetti explains, however, Stanislavski soon abandoned the technique of maintaining a characterisation in real life; it does not form a part of his system.</ref> In 1884, he began vocal training under [[Fyodor Petrovich Komissarzhevsky|Fyodor Komissarzhevsky]], with whom he also explored the coordination of body and voice.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 19–20), Magarshack (1950, 49–50), and Whyman (2008, 139).</ref> A year later, Stanislavski briefly studied at the Moscow Theatre School but, disappointed with its approach, he left after little more than two weeks.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 21). Students were encouraged to mimic the theatrical tricks and conventions of their tutors.</ref> Instead, he devoted particular attention to the performances of the [[Maly Theatre (Moscow)|Maly Theatre]], the home of Russian [[Realism (theatre)|psychological realism]] (as developed in the [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th century]] by [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]] and [[Mikhail Shchepkin]]).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 14–17) and (2005, 100).</ref>

Shchepkin's legacy included a disciplined, [[Ensemble cast|ensemble]] approach, extensive rehearsals, and the use of careful observation, self-knowledge, imagination, and emotion as the cornerstones of the craft.<ref>Golub (1998b, 985).</ref> Stanislavski called the Maly his "university".<ref>Benedetti (1989, 2).</ref> One of Shchepkin's students, [[Glikeriya Fedotova]], taught Stanislavski; she instilled in him the rejection of [[Artistic inspiration|inspiration]] as the basis of the actor's art, stressed the importance of training and discipline, and encouraged the practice of responsive interaction with other actors that Stanislavski came to call "communication".<ref>Golub (1998b, 985), Benedetti (1989, 20) and (2005, 109), and Magarshack (1950, 51–52). For more on [[Glikeriya Fedotova|Fedotova]], see Schuler (1996, 64–88). The development of a responsive interaction between actors was a significant innovation of the conventions of theatrical performance at the time; as Benedetti explains: "Leading actors would simply plant themselves downstage centre, by the [[Prompter (theatre)|prompter's]] box, wait to be fed the lines and then deliver them straight at the audience in a ringing voice, giving a fine display of passion and 'temperament'. Everyone spoke their lines out front. Direct communication with other actors was minimal. Furniture was so arranged as to allow the actors to face front" (1989, 5). Fedotova encouraged Stanislavski to "look your partner straight in the eyes, read his thoughts in his eyes, and reply to him in accordance with the expression of his eyes and face"; quoted by Magarshack (1950, 52). Stanislavski's term "communication" ({{langx|ru-latn|obshchenie}}) was translated as "communion" in ''[[An Actor Prepares]]''.</ref> As well as the artists of the Maly, performances given by foreign stars influenced Stanislavski.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 17) and Gordon (2006, 41).</ref> The effortless, emotive, and clear playing of the Italian [[Ernesto Rossi (actor)|Ernesto Rossi]], who performed major [[Shakespearean tragedy|Shakespearean tragic]] [[protagonist]]s in Moscow in 1877, particularly impressed him.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 17).</ref> So too did [[Tommaso Salvini]]'s 1882 performance of [[Othello (character)|Othello]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 18), Gordon (2006, 41), and Milling and Ley (2001, 5).</ref>

==Amateur work as an actor and director==
[[File:Stanislavski Love and Intrigue 1889.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Stanislavski with his soon-to-be wife Maria Lilina in 1889 in [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller's]] ''[[Intrigue and Love]]''.]]

By now well known as an [[Amateur theatre|amateur]] actor, at the age of twenty-five, Stanslavski co-founded a Society of Art and Literature.<ref>Magarshack (1950, 52, 55–56). The society was officially inaugurated on {{OldStyleDateNY|15 November|3 November}} with a ceremony attended by [[Anton Chekhov]]; see Benedetti (1999a, 29–30) and Worrall (1996, 25).</ref> Under its auspices, he performed in plays by [[Molière]], [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]], and [[Alexander Ostrovsky|Ostrovsky]], as well as gaining his first experiences as a director.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 30–40) and Worrall (1996, 24).</ref> He became interested in the [[Aesthetics|aesthetic theories]] of [[Vissarion Belinsky]], from whom he took his conception of the role of the artist.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 35–37). Belinsky's conception provided the basis for a moral justification for Stanislavski's desire to perform that accorded with his family's sense of social responsibility and ethics.</ref>

On {{OldStyleDate|5 July|1889|23 June}}, Stanislavski married [[Maria Lilina]] (the stage name of Maria Petrovna Perevostchikova).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 37) and Magarshack (1950, 54), and Worrall (1996, 26).</ref> Their first child, Xenia, died of pneumonia in May 1890, less than two months after she was born.<ref name=b42>Benedetti (1999a, 42).</ref> Their second daughter, Kira, was born on {{OldStyleDate|2 August|1891|21 July}}.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 43).</ref> In January 1893, Stanislavski's father died.<ref>Magarshack (1950, 81).</ref> Their son Igor was born on {{OldStyleDate|26 September|1894|14 September}}.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 47).</ref>

In February 1891, Stanislavski directed [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Fruits of Enlightenment]]'' for the Society of Art and Literature, in what he later described as his first fully independent directorial work.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 42–43), Magarshack (1950, 78–80), and Worrall (1996, 27).</ref> But it was not until 1893 he first met the great [[Realism (literature)|realist]] novelist and playwright that became another important influence on him.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 46), Carnicke (2000, 17), Magarshack (1950, 82–85), and Roach (1985, 216). Tolstoy's ''[[What Is Art?]]'' (1898) promoted immediate intelligibility and transparency as an aesthetic principle. Stanislavski's concept of "experiencing the role" was based on Tolstoy's belief that, rather than knowledge, art communicates felt experience.</ref> Five years later, the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] would be his response to Tolstoy's demand for simplicity, directness, and accessibility in art.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 54) and Roach (1985, 216).</ref>

Stanislavski's directorial methods at this time were closely modelled on the disciplined, [[Autocracy|autocratic]] approach of [[Ludwig Chronegk]], the director of the [[Meiningen Ensemble]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 40–43), Braun (1995, 27), Gordon (2006, 40–42), Magarshack (1950, 70–74), Milling and Ley (2001, 6), and Worrall (1996, 28–29).</ref> In ''[[My Life in Art]]'' (1924), Stanislavski described this approach as one in which the director is "forced to work without the help of the actor".<ref>Quoted by Magarshack (1950, 73).</ref> From 1894 onward, Stanislavski began to assemble detailed prompt-books that included a directorial commentary on the entire play and from which not even the smallest detail was allowed to deviate.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 23) and (1999a, 47), Leach (2004, 14), Magarshack (1950, 86–90), and Worrall (1996, 28–29).</ref>

[[File:Stanislavski as Othello 1896 edit.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Stanislavski as [[Othello (character)|Othello]] in 1896.]]

Whereas the Ensemble's effects tended toward the grandiose, Stanislavski introduced [[Lyric poetry|lyrical]] elaborations through the ''[[mise-en-scène]]'' that dramatised more mundane and ordinary elements of life, in keeping with Belinsky's ideas about the "poetry of the real".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 35–36, 44).</ref> Using his rigid and detailed control of all theatrical elements, including the strict choreography of the actors' every gesture, in Stanislavski's words "the inner kernel of the play was revealed by itself".<ref>Benedetti (1989, 23) and (1999a, 48), Leach (2004, 14), and Magarshack (1950, 80).</ref> Analysing the Society's production of ''Othello'' (1896), Jean Benedetti observes that:

<blockquote>Stanislavski uses the theatre and its technical possibilities as an instrument of expression, a language, in its own right. The dramatic meaning is in the staging itself. [...] He went through the whole play in a completely different way, not relying on the text as such, with quotes from important speeches, not providing a 'literary' explanation, but speaking in terms of the play's dynamic, its action, the thoughts and feelings of the [[protagonist]]s, the world in which they lived. His account flowed uninterruptedly from moment to moment.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 44 and 50–51).</ref></blockquote>

Benedetti argues that Stanislavski's task at this stage was to unite the [[Realism (theatre)|realistic]] tradition of the creative actor inherited from [[Mikhail Shchepkin|Shchepkin]] and [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]] with the director-centred, organically [[Gesamtkunstwerk|unified]] [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalistic]] aesthetic of the Meiningen approach.<ref name=b42/> That synthesis would emerge eventually, but only in the wake of Stanislavski's directorial struggles with [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] theatre and an artistic crisis in his work as an actor. "The task of our generation", Stanislavski wrote as he was about to found the [[Moscow Art Theatre]] and begin his professional life in the theatre, is "to liberate art from outmoded tradition, from tired cliché and to give greater freedom to imagination and creative ability."<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 55).</ref>

==Creation of the Moscow Art Theatre==
{{See also|Moscow Art Theatre}}
[[File:Владимир Иванович Немирович-Данченко.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]], co-founder of the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]], in 1916.]]

Stanislavski's historic meeting with [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]] on {{OldStyleDate|4 July|1897|22 June}} led to the creation of what was called initially the "Moscow Public-Accessible Theatre", but which came to be known as the [[Moscow Art Theatre]] (MAT).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 59), Braun (1982, 60), Leach (2004, 11), and Worrall (1996, 43).</ref> Their eighteen-hour-long discussion has acquired a legendary status in the [[history of theatre]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 61), Braun (1982, 60), Carnicke (2000, 12), and Worrall (1996, 64). Their discussion lasted from lunch at 2&nbsp;pm in a private room in the Slavic Bazaar restaurant to 8&nbsp;am the following morning over breakfast at Stanislavski's family estate at Liubimovka.</ref>

Nemirovich was a successful playwright, critic, theatre director, and acting teacher at the [[Russian Institute of Theatre Arts|Philharmonic School]] who, like Stanislavski, was committed to the idea of a popular theatre.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 16) and (1999, 59–60), Braun (1982, 60), and Leach (2004, 12).</ref> Their abilities complemented one another: Stanislavski brought his directorial talent for creating vivid stage images and selecting significant details; Nemirovich, his talent for dramatic and literary analysis, his professional expertise, and his ability to manage a theatre.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 60–61).</ref> Stanislavski later compared their discussions to the [[Treaty of Versailles]], their scope was so wide-ranging; they agreed on the conventional practices they wished to abandon and, on the basis of the working method they found they had in common, defined the policy of their new theatre.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 16) and Leach (2004, 11–13).</ref>

Stanislavski and Nemirovich planned a professional company with an [[Ensemble cast|ensemble]] ethos that discouraged individual vanity; they would create a [[Realism (theatre)|realistic]] theatre of international renown, with popular prices for seats, whose organically [[Gesamtkunstwerk|unified aesthetic]] would bring together the techniques of the [[Meiningen Ensemble]] and those of [[André Antoine]]'s [[Théâtre Libre]] (which Stanislavski had seen during trips to Paris).<ref>Benedetti (1989, 17–18) and (1999, 61–62), Carnicke (2000, 29), and Leach (2004, 12–13).</ref> Nemirovich assumed that Stanislavski would fund the theatre as a privately owned business, but Stanislavski insisted on a [[limited company|limited]], [[joint stock company]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 62–63) and Worrall (1996, 37–38).</ref> [[Viktor Simov]], whom Stanislavski had met in 1896, was engaged as the company's principal [[Scenic design|designer]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 67) and Braun (1982, 61).</ref>

[[File:Meyerhold reads Chekhov's The Seagull in 1898.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Vsevolod Meyerhold]] prepares for his role as Konstantin to Stanislavski's Trigorin in the [[Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull|MAT's 1898 production of Anton Chekhov's ''The Seagull'']].]]

In his opening speech on the first day of rehearsals, {{OldStyleDate|26 June|1898|14 June}}, Stanislavski stressed the "social character" of their collective undertaking.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 68), Braun (1982, 60), and Worrall (1996, 45).</ref> In an atmosphere more like a university than a theatre, as Stanislavski described it, the company was introduced to his working method of extensive reading and research and detailed rehearsals in which the action was defined at the table before being explored physically.<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 70">Benedetti (1999a, 70).</ref> Stanislavski's lifelong relationship with [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]] began during these rehearsals; by the end of June, Meyerhold was so impressed with Stanislavski's directorial skills that he declared him a genius.<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 70"/>

==Naturalism at the MAT==
{{See also|Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull|l1=Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull}}

The lasting significance of Stanislavski's early work at the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] lies in its development of a [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalistic]] performance mode.<ref>Gordon (2006, 37–38, 55), Innes (2000, 54), Leach (2004, 10).</ref> In 1898, Stanislavski co-directed with [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko|Nemirovich]] the first of his productions of the work of [[Anton Chekhov]].<ref>Allen (2000, 11–16), Benedetti (1999a, 85–87) and (1999b, 257–259), Braun (1982, 62–65), and Leach (2004, 13–14).</ref> The [[Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull|MAT production of ''The Seagull'']] was a crucial milestone for the fledgling company that has been described as "one of the greatest events in the history of Russian theatre and one of the greatest new developments in the [[History of drama|history of world drama]]."<ref>Rudnitsky (1981, 8); see also Benedetti (1999a, 85–87) and Braun (1982, 64–65).</ref> Despite its 80 hours of rehearsal—a considerable length by the standards of the conventional practice of the day—Stanislavski felt it was under-rehearsed.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 85), Braun (1982, 64), and Carnicke (2000, 12).</ref> The production's success was due to the fidelity of its delicate representation of everyday life, its intimate, [[Ensemble cast|ensemble playing]], and the resonance of its mood of despondent uncertainty with the psychological disposition of the Russian intelligentsia of the time.<ref>Allen (2000, 20–21) and Braun (1982, 64).</ref>

Stanislavski went on to direct the successful premières of Chekhov's other major plays: ''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' in 1899 (in which he played Astrov), ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'' in 1901 (playing Vershinin), and ''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' in 1904 (playing Gaev).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 386), Braun (1982, 65–74), and Leach (2004, 13–14). Stanislavski also played Shabelski in the MAT's production of Chekhov's ''[[Ivanov (play)|Ivanov]]'' in 1904.</ref> Stanislavski's encounter with Chekhov's drama proved crucial to the creative development of both men. His ensemble approach and attention to the psychological realities of its characters revived Chekhov's interest in writing for the stage, while Chekhov's unwillingness to explain or expand on the text forced Stanislavski to dig [[Subtext|beneath its surface]] in ways that were new in theatre.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 25–26). By 1922, Stanislavski had become disenchanted with the MAT's productions of Chekhov's plays—"After all we have lived through", he remarked to Nemirovich, "it is impossible to weep over the fact that an officer is going and leaving his lady behind" (referring to the conclusion of ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]''); quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 272).</ref>

[[File:1900_yalta-gorky_and_chekhov.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Anton Chekhov]] (''left''), who in 1900 introduced Stanislavski to [[Maxim Gorky]] (''right'').<ref>Braun (1988, xvi) and Magarshack (1950, 201, 226).</ref>]]

In response to Stanislavski's encouragement, [[Maxim Gorky]] promised to launch his playwrighting career with the MAT.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 119), Braun (1988, xvi), and Magarshack (1950, 201–202).</ref> In 1902, Stanislavski directed the première productions of the first two of Gorky's plays, ''The Philistines'' and ''[[The Lower Depths]]''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 119–131), Braun (1988, xvi—xvii), Magarshack (1950, 202, 229, 244), and Worrall (1996, 131). Nemirovich took over the direction of ''The Lower Depths'' during its rehearsal process, and the two directors disagreed on the correct approach to the play; neither of their names appeared on its posters, and Nemirovich claimed all the credit for its success.</ref> As part of the rehearsal preparations for the latter, Stanislavski took the company to visit [[Khitrovka|Khitrov Market]], where they talked to its down-and-outs and soaked up its atmosphere of destitution.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 127–129). [[Viktor Simov]], the company's scenic designer, based his designs for the production on photographs taken during the trip. Several photographs of the production, taken in 1904, appear in Dacre and Fryer (2008, 34–37).</ref> Stanislavski based his characterisation of Satin on an ex-officer he met there, who had fallen into poverty through gambling.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 127).</ref> ''The Lower Depths'' was a triumph that matched the production of ''The Seagull'' four years earlier, though Stanislavski regarded his performance as external and mechanical.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 130), Braun (1988, xvii—xviii) and Magarshack (1950, 202, 244).</ref>

The productions of ''The Cherry Orchard'' and ''The Lower Depths'' remained in the MAT's repertoire for decades.<ref>Houghton (1973, 8).</ref> Along with Chekhov and Gorky, the drama of [[Henrik Ibsen]] formed an important part of Stanislavski's work at this time—in its first two decades, the MAT staged more plays by Ibsen than any other playwright.<ref>Worrall (1996, 36).</ref> In its first decade, Stanislavski directed ''[[Hedda Gabler]]'' (in which he played Løvborg), ''[[An Enemy of the People]]'' (playing Dr Stockmann, his favorite role), ''[[The Wild Duck]]'', and ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]''.<ref>Benedetti (1989, 23) and (1999a, 386–387) and Meyer (1974, 529–530, 820).</ref> "More's the pity I was not a Scandinavian and never saw how Ibsen was played in Scandinavia," Stanislavski wrote, because "those who have been there tell me that he is interpreted as simply, as true to life, as we play Chekhov".<ref>Quoted by Meyer (1974, 820–821).</ref> He also staged other important Naturalistic works, including [[Gerhart Hauptmann]]'s ''[[Drayman Henschel]]'', ''Lonely People'', and ''Michael Kramer'' and [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Power of Darkness]]''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 386), Braun (1982, 61, 73), Counsell (1996, 26–27), Gordon (2006, 37–38, 45), Leach (2004, 10), Innes (2000, 54).</ref>

==Symbolism and the Theatre-Studio==
In 1904, Stanislavski finally acted on a suggestion made by [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]] two years earlier that he stage several [[one-act play]]s by [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], the Belgian [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 149, 151), Braun (1982, 74) and (1995, 28), and Magarshack (1950, 266).</ref> Despite his enthusiasm, however, Stanislavski struggled to realise a theatrical approach to the [[Maurice Maeterlinck#Static drama|static]], [[Lyric poetry|lyrical]] dramas.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 151), Braun (1995, 28), and Magarshack (1950, 265).</ref> When the triple bill consisting of ''[[The Blind (play)|The Blind]]'', ''[[Intruder (play)|Intruder]]'', and ''[[Interior (play)|Interior]]'' opened on {{OldStyleDateNY|15 October|2 October}}, the experiment was deemed a failure.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 151–152, 386) and Braun (1982, 74) and (1995, 28).</ref>

[[File:Theatre-Studio Schluck and Jau design 1905.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Design (by [[Nikolai Ulyanov]]) for Meyerhold's planned 1905 production of [[Gerhart Hauptmann|Hauptmann]]'s ''Schluck and Jau'' at the Theatre-Studio he founded with Stanislavski, which relocated the play to a stylised abstraction of France under [[Louis XIV]]. Around the edge of the stage, ladies-in-waiting embroider an improbably long scarf with huge ivory needles. Stanislavski was particularly delighted by this idea.<ref>Leach (1989, 104) and Rudnitsky (1981, 70–71).</ref>]]

[[Vsevolod Meyerhold|Meyerhold]], prompted by Stanislavski's positive response to his new ideas about [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] theatre, proposed that they form a "theatre studio" (a term which he invented) that would function as "a laboratory for the experiments of more or less experienced actors."<ref>Stanislavski, quoted by Rudnitsky (1981, 56); see also Benedetti (1999a, 155–156), Braun (1995, 29), and Magarshack (1950, 267).</ref> The Theatre-Studio aimed to develop Meyerhold's aesthetic ideas into new theatrical forms that would return the MAT to the forefront of the [[Russian avant-garde|avant-garde]] and Stanislavski's socially conscious ideas for a network of "people's theatres" that would reform Russian theatrical culture as a whole.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 154–156), Braun (1995, 27–29), Magarshack (1950, 267–274), and Rudnitsky (1981, 52–76).</ref> Central to Meyerhold's approach was the use of [[improvisation]] to develop the performances.<ref>Leach (2004, 56).</ref>

When the studio presented a work-in-progress, Stanislavski was encouraged; when performed in a fully equipped theatre in Moscow, however, it was regarded as a failure, and the studio folded.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 159–161) and Magarshack (1950, 272–274).</ref> Meyerhold drew an important lesson: "one must first educate a new actor and only then put new tasks before him", he wrote, adding that "Stanislavski, too, came to such a conclusion."<ref>Meyerhold, quoted by Rudnitsky (1981, 74); see also Benedetti (1999a, 161) and Magarshack (1950, 273–274). Meyerhold went on to explore physical expressivity, coordination, and rhythm in his experiments in actor training (which would found [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th-century]] [[physical theatre]]), while, for the moment, Stanislavski pursued psychological expressivity through the actor's inner "[[psychotechnique]]"; see Benedetti (1999a, 161), Leach (2004, 1) and Rudnitsky (1981, 73). Rudnitsky observes that "Stanislavski at that time still believed in the possibility of 'peaceful coexistence' for [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] abstractions and the live, physical and psychological realization of completely credibly acted characters. Stanislavski's subsequent Symbolist productions showed his ineradicable striving toward [[Realism (theatre)|realistic]] justification and prosaic circumstantiality of Symbolist motifs" (1981, 75).</ref> Reflecting in 1908 on the Theatre-Studio's demise, Stanislavski wrote that "our theatre found its future among its ruins."<ref>Stanislavski, quoted by Rudnitsky (1981, 75).</ref> [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko|Nemirovich]] disapproved of what he described as the malign influence of Meyerhold on Stanislavski's work at this time.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 156) and Braun (1995, 29).</ref>

Stanislavski engaged two important new collaborators in 1905: [[Liubov Gurevich]] became his literary advisor, and [[Leopold Sulerzhitsky]] became his personal assistant.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 154) and Magarshack (1950, 282–286).</ref> Stanislavski revised his interpretation of the role of Trigorin (and Meyerhold reprised his role as Konstantin) when the MAT revived [[Moscow Art Theatre production of The Seagull|its production of Chekhov's ''The Seagull'']] on {{OldStyleDate|13 October|1905|30 September}}.<ref name=b159>Benedetti (1999a, 159).</ref>

This was the year of [[1905 Russian Revolution|the abortive revolution in Russia]]. Stanislavski signed a protest against the violence of the secret police, [[Cossacks|Cossack]] troops, and the right-wing [[Extremism|extremist]] paramilitary "[[Black Hundreds]]", which was submitted to the [[Duma]] on the {{OldStyleDateNY|3 November|21 October}}.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 160).</ref> Rehearsals for the MAT's production of [[Alexander Griboyedov]]'s classic [[Verse (poetry)|verse]] [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]] ''[[Woe from Wit]]'' were interrupted by gun-battles on the streets outside.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 161), Magarshack (1950, 276), and Worrall (1996, 170–171).</ref> Stanislavski and Nemirovich closed the theatre and embarked on the company's first tour outside of Russia.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 162) and Magarshack (1950, 276).</ref>

==European tour and artistic crisis==
<!-- The article "Stanislavski's system" links here -->

The [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT's]] first European tour began on {{OldStyleDate|23 February|1906|10 February}} in Berlin, where they played to an audience that included [[Max Reinhardt]], [[Gerhart Hauptmann]], [[Arthur Schnitzler]], and [[Eleonora Duse]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 163–165) and Magarshack (1950, 276–277).</ref> "It's as though we were the revelation", Stanislavski wrote of the rapturous acclaim they received.<ref>Letter to his brother, Vladimir, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 169).</ref> The success of the tour provided financial security for the company, garnered an international reputation for their work, and made a significant impact on European theatre.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 165).</ref> The tour also provoked a major artistic crisis for Stanislavski that had a significant impact on ''his'' future direction.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 166–167) and Gordon (2006, 42).</ref> From his attempts to resolve this crisis, his [[Stanislavski's system|system]] would eventually emerge.<ref>Benedetti (1998, xx) and Gordon (2006, 42).</ref>

Sometime in March 1906, Jean Benedetti suggests that it was during ''[[An Enemy of the People]]''—Stanislavski became aware that he was acting without a flow of inner impulses and feelings and that as a consequence his performance had become mechanical.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 166–167) and Gordon (2006, 42–44).</ref> He spent June and July in [[Finland]] on holiday, where he studied, wrote, and reflected.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 167–168), Gordon (2006, 42), and Magarshack (1950, 281–282).</ref> With his notebooks on his own experience from 1889 onwards, he attempted to analyze "the foundation stones of our art" and the actor's creative process in particular.<ref>Stanislavski quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 168); see also Gordon (2006, 42–44).</ref> He began to formulate a psychological approach to controlling the actor's process in a ''Manual on Dramatic Art''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 167–168).</ref>

==Productions as research into working methods==
{{See also|List of productions directed by Konstantin Stanislavski}}
[[File:Sugar and Mytyl in Maeterlinck's The Blue Bird MAT 1908.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Sugar and Mytyl from Stanislavski's production of ''[[The Blue Bird (play)|The Blue Bird]]'' (1908).]]

Stanislavski's activities began to move in a very different direction: his productions became opportunities for [[Practice research|research]], he was more interested in the process of [[rehearsal]] than its product, and his attention shifted away from the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] towards its satellite projects—the theatre studios—in which he would develop his [[Stanislavski's system|system]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 181) and Magarshack (1950, 306).</ref> On his return to Moscow, he explored his new psychological approach in his production of [[Knut Hamsun]]'s [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] play ''The Drama of Life''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 159, 172–174) and Magarshack (1950, 287). Benedetti argues that Stanislavski's "attempts to base the production on psychological action only, without gestures, conveying everything through the face and eyes, met with only partial success" (1999, 174).</ref> [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko|Nemirovich]] was particularly hostile to his new methods, and their relationship continued to deteriorate in this period.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 172–173) and Magarshack (1950, 286–287).</ref> In a statement made on {{OldStyleDate|9 February|1908|27 January}}, Stanislavski marked a significant shift in his [[Theatre director|directorial]] method and stressed the crucial contribution he now expected from a creative actor:

<blockquote>The committee is wrong if it thinks that the director's preparatory work in the study is necessary, as previously, when he alone decided the whole plan and all the details of the production, wrote the ''[[mise en scène]]'' and answered all the actors' questions for them. The director is no longer king, as before, when the actor possessed no clear individuality. [...] It is essential to understand this—rehearsals are divided into two stages: the first stage is one of experiment when the cast helps the director, the second is creating the performance when the director helps the cast.<ref>Stanislavski in a statement made on {{OldStyleDate|9 February|1908|27 January}}, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 180); see also Magarshack (1950, 273–274).</ref></blockquote>

Stanislavski's preparations for [[Maurice Maeterlinck|Maeterlinck's]] ''[[The Blue Bird (play)|The Blue Bird]]'' (which was to become his most famous production to-date) included [[improvisation]]s and other exercises to stimulate the actors' imaginations; Nemirovich described one in which the cast imitated various animals.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 177, 179, 183).</ref> In rehearsals he sought ways to encourage his actors' [[Will (philosophy)|will]] to create afresh in every performance.<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 182–183"/> He focused on the search for inner motives to justify action and the definition of what the characters are seeking to achieve at any given moment (what he would come to call their "task").<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 182–183). The "task" ({{langx|ru-latn|Zadacha}}) is also translated as an "objective" or "problem"; see Carnicke (1998, 181).</ref> This use of the actor's [[Consciousness|conscious]] thought and will was designed to activate other, less-controllable psychological processes—such as emotional experience and [[subconscious]] behaviour—sympathetically and indirectly.<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 170"/>

Noting the importance to great actors' performances of their ability to remain relaxed, he discovered that he could abolish [[Stress (biological)|physical tension]] by focusing his attention on the specific action that the play demanded; when his concentration wavered, his tension returned.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 185) and Magarshack (1950, 304).</ref> "What fascinates me most", Stanislavski wrote in May 1908, "is the rhythm of feelings, the development of [[affective memory]] and the [[Psychophysiology|psycho-physiology]] of the creative process."<ref>Stanislavski, letter to Vera Kotlyarevskaya, {{OldStyleDate|18 May|1908|5 May}}; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 184) and Whyman (2008, 247–248). Benedetti indicates that this is the earliest mention of the concept of "[[affective memory]]" in Stanislavski's writings and occurs before his exposure to the work of [[Théodule-Armand Ribot]] in July 1908. Whyman highlights Stanislavski's interest in the unity of physical and psychological processes in the same year that he discovers Ribot, although she maintains that he sometimes discusses the relationship in [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|dualist]] terms; see Whyman (2008, 248–253).</ref> His interest in the creative use of the actor's personal experiences was spurred by a chance conversation in Germany in July that led him to the work of French psychologist [[Théodule-Armand Ribot]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 184–185) and Magarshack (1950, 304). Ribot's books ''The Diseases of the Memory'' and ''The Diseases of the Will'' had been published in Russian translation in 1900; see Ribot (2006) and (2007) for English-language versions.</ref> His "affective memory" contributed to the technique that Stanislavski would come to call "emotion memory".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 185), Counsell (1996, 28–29), and Stanislavski (1938, 197–198).</ref>

Together, these elements formed a new vocabulary with which he explored a "return to [[Realism (theatre)|realism]]" in a production of [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol's]] ''[[The Government Inspector]]'' as soon as ''The Blue Bird'' had opened.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 185–186) and Magarshack (1950, 294, 304). Drawing on Gogol's notes on the play, Stanislavski insisted that its exaggerated external action must be justified through the creation of a correspondingly intense inner life; see Benedetti (1999a, 185–186) and (2005, 100–101).</ref> At a theatre conference on {{OldStyleDate|21 March|1909|8 March}}, Stanislavski delivered a paper on his emerging system that stressed the role of his techniques of the "magic if" (which encourages the actor to respond to the fictional circumstances of the play "as if" they were real) and emotion memory.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 200) and Magarshack (1950, 304–305).</ref> He developed his ideas about three trends in the history of acting, which were to appear eventually in the opening chapters of ''An Actor's Work'': "stock-in-trade" acting, the [[art of representation]], and the art of experiencing (his own approach).<ref name=rep/>

[[File:Stanislavski-Knipper-1909.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Stanislavski and [[Olga Knipper]] as Rakitin and Natalya in [[Ivan Turgenev]]'s ''[[A Month in the Country (play)|A Month in the Country]]'' (1909).]]

Stanislavski's production of ''[[A Month in the Country (play)|A Month in the Country]]'' (1909) was a watershed in his artistic development.<ref>Carnicke (2000, 30–31), Gordon (2006, 45–48), Leach (2004, 16–17), Magarshack (1950, 304–306), and Worrall (1996, 181–182). Magarshack describes the production as "the first play he produced according to his system."</ref> Breaking the MAT's tradition of open rehearsals, he prepared [[Ivan Turgenev|Turgenev's]] play in private.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 190), Leach (2004, 17), and Magarshack (1950, 305).</ref> They began with a discussion of what he would come to call the "through-line" for the characters (their emotional development and the way they change over the course of the play).<ref>Leach (2004, 17) and Magarshack (1950, 307).</ref> This production is the earliest recorded instance of his practice of analysing the action of the script into discrete "bits".<ref name=b190>Benedetti (1999a, 190).</ref>

At this stage in the development of his approach, Stanislavski's technique was to identify the emotional state contained in the psychological experience of the character during each bit and, through the use of the actor's emotional memory, to forge a subjective connection to it.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 190). This approach was changed substantially in subsequent years.</ref> Only after two months of rehearsals were the actors permitted to physicalise the text.<ref>Leach (2004, 17).</ref> Stanislavski insisted that they should play the actions that their discussions around the table had identified.<ref>Leach (2004, 29).</ref> Having realised a particular emotional state in a physical action, he assumed at this point in his experiments, the actor's repetition of that action would evoke the desired emotion.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 198).</ref> As with his experiments in ''The Drama of Life'', they also explored [[Nonverbal communication|non-verbal communication]], whereby scenes were rehearsed as "silent ''études''" with actors interacting "only with their eyes".<ref>Carnicke (2000, 31) and Magarshack (1950, 305–306).</ref> The production's success when it opened in December 1909 seemed to prove the validity of his new methodology.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 194) and Leach (2004, 17).</ref>

Late in 1910, [[Maxim Gorky|Gorky]] invited Stanislavski to join him in [[Capri]], where they discussed actor training and Stanislavski's emerging "grammar".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 203) and Magarshack (1950, 320).</ref> Inspired by a popular theatre performance in [[Naples]] that employed the techniques of the ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'', Gorky suggested that they form a company, modeled on the [[Medieval theatre|medieval strolling players]], in which a playwright and group of young actors would [[Devised theatre|devise]] new plays together using [[Improvisational theatre|improvisation]].<ref name=DEVISE>Benedetti (1999a, 203–204), Magarshack (1950, 320–322, 332–333), and Whyman (2008, 242). In a speech given in 1920, [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]] proposed a similar practice (1991, 169–170). The British filmmaker [[Mike Leigh]] made it the basis of his work.</ref> Stanislavski would develop this use of improvisation in his work with his First Studio.<ref name=DEVISE/>

== Staging the classics ==
{{See also|Moscow Art Theatre production of Hamlet|l1=Moscow Art Theatre production of ''Hamlet''}}

In his treatment of the classics, Stanislavski believed that it was legitimate for actors and directors to ignore the playwright's intentions for a play's staging.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 225). A play could be adapted "to the actor's inner experiences", he explained to a sceptical [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko|Nemirovich]]. To support his position, Stanislavski cited [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol's]] advice to "take any play of [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]] or [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and stage it as contemporary art demands" and [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov's]] delight at the MAT actor [[Ivan Moskvin (actor)|Ivan Moskvin]]'s creative departure from Chekhov's intentions in his [[characterisation]] of Epikhodov in their production of ''[[The Cherry Orchard]]''.</ref> One of his most important—a collaboration with [[Edward Gordon Craig]] on [[Moscow Art Theatre production of Hamlet|a production of ''Hamlet'']]—became a landmark of [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th-century theatrical]] [[modernism]].<ref>Bablet (1962, 133–158), Benedetti (1999a, 188–211), Senelick (1982, xvi), and Taxidou (1998, 66–69).</ref> Stanislavski hoped to prove that his recently developed [[Stanislavski's system|system]] for creating internally justified, [[Realism (theatre)|realistic]] acting could meet the formal demands of a classic play.<ref>Bablet (1962, 135–136, 153–154, 156) and Benedetti (1999a, 189–195).</ref> Craig envisioned a [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] [[monodrama]] in which every aspect of production would be subjugated to the [[protagonist]]: it would present a dream-like vision as seen through [[Prince Hamlet|Hamlet's]] eyes.<ref>Bablet (1962, 141–142) and Benedetti (1999a, 189–195).</ref>

Despite these contrasting approaches, the two [[Theatre practitioner|practitioners]] did share some artistic assumptions; the system had developed out of Stanislavski's experiments with [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] drama, which had shifted his attention from a [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalistic]] external surface to the characters' [[subtext]]ual, inner world.<ref>Bablet (1962, 134–136), Benedetti (1999a, part two), Carnicke (1998, 29) and (2000, 29–30), Gordon (2006, 41–45), and Taxidou (1998, 38).</ref> Both had stressed the importance of achieving a unity of all theatrical elements in their work.<ref>Bablet (76–80), Benedetti (1989, 18, 23), and Magarshack (1950, 73–74).</ref> Their production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented worldwide attention for the theatre, placing it "on the cultural map for Western Europe", and it has come to be regarded as a seminal event that revolutionised the staging of Shakespeare's plays.<ref>Bablet (1962, 134), Benedetti (1999, 199), Innes (1983, 172), and Senelick (1982, xvi).</ref> It became "one of the most famous and passionately discussed productions in the history of the modern stage."<ref>Bablet (1962, 134).</ref>

Increasingly absorbed by his teaching, in 1913 Stanislavski held open rehearsals for his production of [[Molière]]'s ''[[The Imaginary Invalid]]'' as a demonstration of the system.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 211).</ref> As with his production of ''Hamlet'' and his next, [[Carlo Goldoni|Goldoni's]] ''[[The Mistress of the Inn]]'', he was keen to assay his system in the crucible of a classical text.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 214).</ref> He began to inflect his technique of dividing the action of the play into bits with an emphasis on improvisation; he would progress from analysis, through free improvisation, to the language of the text:<ref>Benedetti suggests that this inflection indicates the influence of Stanislavski's conversations with [[Maxim Gorky|Gorky]] (1999a, 215).</ref>
<blockquote>I divide the work into ''large bits'' clarifying the nature of each bit. Then, immediately, in my own words, I play each bit, observing all the curves. Then I go through the experiences of each bit ten times or so with its curves (not in a fixed way, not being consistent). Then I follow the successive bits in the book. And finally, I make the transition, imperceptibly, to the experiences as expressed in the actual words of the part.<ref>From notes in the Stanislavski archive, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 215).</ref></blockquote>
Stanislavski's struggles with both Molière and Goldoni [[Comedy (drama)|comedies]] revealed the importance of an appropriate definition of what he calls a character's "super-task" (the core problem that unites and subordinates the character's moment-to-moment tasks).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 216–218) and Carnicke (1998, 181).</ref> This impacted particularly on the actors' ability to serve the plays' genre, because an unsatisfactory definition produced [[Tragedy|tragic]] rather than comic performances.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 216, 218).</ref>

Other European classics directed by Stanislavski include: [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'', ''[[Twelfth Night]]'', and ''[[Othello]]'', an unfinished production of [[Molière]]'s ''[[Tartuffe]]'', and [[Pierre Beaumarchais|Beaumarchais's]] ''[[The Marriage of Figaro (play)|The Marriage of Figaro]]''. Other classics of the Russian theatre directed by Stanislavki include: several plays by [[Ivan Turgenev]], [[Alexander Griboyedov|Griboyedov]]'s ''[[Woe from Wit]]'', [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]'s ''[[The Government Inspector]]'', and plays by [[Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Alexander Ostrovsky|Ostrovsky]], and [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}

==Studios and the search for a system==
[[File:Sulergitski L A 1910x.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Leopold Sulerzhitsky]] in 1910, who led the First Studio and taught the elements of the [[Stanislavski's system|system]] there.]]

Following the success of his production of ''[[A Month in the Country (play)|A Month in the Country]]'', Stanislavski made repeated requests to the board of the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] for proper facilities to pursue his [[Pedagogy|pedagogical]] work with young actors.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 206–209) and Magarshack (1950, 331).</ref> [[Maxim Gorky|Gorky]] encouraged him not to found a drama school to teach inexperienced beginners, but rather—following the example of the Theatre-Studio of 1905—to create a studio for [[Practice research|research]] and [[Experimental theatre|experiment]] that would train young professionals.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 209), Gauss (1999, 34–35), and Rudnitsky (1981, 56).</ref>

Stanislavski created the First Studio on {{OldStyleDate|14 September|1912|1 September}}.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 209–11), Leach (2004, 17), and Whymann (2008, 31).</ref> Its founding members included [[Yevgeny Vakhtangov]], [[Michael Chekhov]], [[Richard Boleslawski]], and [[Maria Ouspenskaya]], all of whom would exert a considerable influence on the subsequent [[history of theatre]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 210) and Gauss (1999, 32, 49–50).</ref> Stanislavski selected Suler (as Gorky had nicknamed [[Leopold Sulerzhitsky|Sulerzhitsky]]) to lead the studio.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 209), Gauss (1999, 32–33), and Leach (2004, 17–18).</ref> In a focused, intense atmosphere, their work emphasised experimentation, [[improvisation]], and self-discovery.<ref>Gauss (1999, 40), Leach (1994, 18), and Whyman (2008, 242).</ref> Following Gorky's suggestions about [[Devised theatre|devising]] new plays through improvisation, they searched for "the creative process common to authors, actors and directors".<ref>From Sulerzhitsky's notes on a speech given by Stanislavski in September 1912, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 210); see also Magarshack (1950, 332–333).</ref>

Stanislavski created the Second Studio of the MAT in 1916, in response to a production of [[Zinaida Gippius]]' ''The Green Ring'' that a group of young actors had prepared independently.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 211) and Gauss (1999, 61–63).</ref> With a greater focus on pedagogical work than the First Studio, the Second Studio provided the environment in which Stanislavski developed the training techniques that would form the basis for his manual ''An Actor's Work'' (1938).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 236), Gauss (1999, 65), and Leach (2004, 19).</ref>

A significant influence on the development of the system came from Stanislavski's experience teaching and directing at his Opera Studio, which was founded in 1918.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 211, 255–270), Magarshack (1950, 350–352), Stanislavski and Rumyantsev (1975, x), and Whyman (2008, 135). A series of thirty-two lectures that he delivered at the Opera Studio between 1919 and 1922 were recorded by [[Konkordia Antarova]] and published in 1939; they have been translated into English as ''Stanislavsky on the Art of the Stage'' (1950). Pavel Rumiantsev documented the studio's activities until 1932; his notes were published in 1969 and appear in English under the title ''Stanislavski on Opera'' (1975).</ref> He hoped that the successful application of his system to opera, with its inescapable conventionality and artifice, would demonstrate the [[Universality (philosophy)|universality]] of his approach to performance and unite the work of [[Mikhail Shchepkin]] and [[Feodor Chaliapin]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 256), Magarshack (1950, 351), and Whyman (2008, 139).</ref> From this experience, Stanislavski's notion of "tempo-rhythm" emerged.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 259). Stanislavski's concept of "tempo-rhythm" is developed most substantially in part two of ''An Actor's Work''.</ref> He invited [[Serge Wolkonsky]] to teach [[diction]] and Lev Pospekhin to teach expressive movement and dance, and attended both of their classes as a student.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 256) and Whyman (2008, 129). [[Serge Wolkonsky]] popularised the work of [[François Delsarte]] and [[Émile Jaques-Dalcroze]] in Russia; see Whyman (2008, 123–130). Lev Pospekhin was from the [[Bolshoi Theatre|Bolshoi Ballet]].</ref>

== From the First World War to the October Revolution ==
Stanislavski spent the summer of 1914 in [[Mariánské Lázně|Marienbad]] where, as he had in 1906, he researched the [[history of theatre]] and theories of acting to clarify the discoveries that his practical experiments had produced.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 221) and Magarshack (1950, 336–337). His studies included books by [[Luigi Riccoboni]], his son François Riccoboni, Rémond de Saint-Albin, [[Adrienne Lecouvreur]], [[Gustave Doré]], [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], and [[Benoît-Constant Coquelin]], the theories of [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], and [[Denis Diderot]], and the history of the previous two centuries of theatre.</ref> When the [[First World War]] broke out, Stanislavski was in [[Munich]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 222) and Magarshack (1950, 337).</ref> "It seemed to me", he wrote of the atmosphere at the train station in an article detailing his experiences, "that death was hovering everywhere."<ref>From Stanislavski's article "A Prisoner of War in Germany," quoted by Magarshack (1950, 338).</ref>

The train was stopped at [[Immenstadt]], where German soldiers denounced him as a Russian spy.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 222) and Magarshack (1950, 338).</ref> Held in a room at the station with a large crowd with "the faces of wild beasts" baying at its windows, Stanislavski believed he was to be [[Execution|executed]].<ref>Magarshack (1950, 338–339).</ref> He remembered that he was carrying an official document that mentioned having played to [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm]] during their tour of 1906 that, when he showed it to the officers, produced a change of attitude towards his group.<ref>Magarshack (1950, 339).</ref> They were placed on a slow train to [[Kempten im Allgäu|Kempten]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 222) and Magarshack (1950, 339–340).</ref> [[Liubov Gurevich|Gurevich]] later related how during the journey Stanislavski surprised her when he whispered that:

<blockquote>[E]vents of recent days had given him a clear impression of the superficiality of all that was called human culture, [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] culture, that a completely different kind of life was needed, where all needs were reduced to the minimum, where there was work—real artistic work—on behalf of the people, for those who had not yet been consumed by this bourgeois culture.<ref>Gurevich, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 222); see also Magarshack (1950, 339).</ref></blockquote>

In Kempten they were again ordered into one of the station's rooms, where Stanislavski overheard the German soldiers complain of a lack of [[ammunition]]; it was only this, he understood, that prevented their execution.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 222) and Magarshack (1950, 340).</ref> The following morning they were placed on a train and eventually returned to Russia via [[Switzerland]] and France.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 222–223) and Magarshack (1950, 340–341).</ref>

[[File:Woe from Wisdom, by Aleksandr Griboyedov (A).jpg|thumb|left|Stanislavski as Famusov in the 1914 revival of [[Aleksandr Griboyedov|Griboyedov's]] ''[[Woe from Wit]]''.]]

Turning to the classics of Russian theatre, the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] revived [[Aleksandr Griboyedov|Griboyedov]]'s [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]] ''[[Woe from Wit]]'' and planned to stage three of [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin's]] "little [[Tragedy|tragedies]]" in early 1915.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 223–224) and Magarshack (1950, 342).</ref> Stanislavski continued to develop his system, explaining at an open rehearsal for ''Woe from Wit'' his concept of the state of "I am being".<ref name=b224>Benedetti (1999a, 224).</ref> This term marks the stage in the rehearsal process when the distinction between actor and character blurs (producing the "actor/role"), subconscious behavior takes the lead, and the actor feels fully present in the dramatic moment.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 224) and Carnicke (1998, 174–175).</ref> He stressed the importance to achieving this state of a focus on action ("What would I do if&nbsp;...") rather than emotion ("How would I feel if&nbsp;..."): "You must ask the kinds of questions that lead to dynamic action."<ref>Quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 224).</ref> Instead of forcing emotion, he explained, actors should notice what is happening, attend to their relationships with the other actors, and try to understand "through the senses" the fictional world that surrounds them.<ref name=b224/>

When he prepared for his role in Pushkin's ''[[Mozart and Salieri (play)|Mozart and Salieri]]'', Stanislavski created a biography for [[Antonio Salieri|Salieri]] in which he imagined the character's memories of each incident mentioned in the play, his relationships with the other people involved, and the circumstances that had impacted on Salieri's life.<ref name=b227>Benedetti (1999a, 227).</ref> When he attempted to render all of this detail in performance, however, the [[subtext]] overwhelmed the text; overladen with heavy pauses, Pushkin's [[Verse (poetry)|verse]] was fragmented to the point of incomprehensibility.<ref name=b227/> His struggles with this role prompted him to attend more closely to the structure and dynamics of language in drama; to that end, he studied [[Serge Wolkonsky]]'s ''The Expressive Word'' (1913).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 228–229), Gordon (2006, 49), and Whyman (2008, 122–130, 141–143).</ref>

The French [[theatre practitioner]] [[Jacques Copeau]] contacted Stanislavski in October 1916.<ref name=b248>Benedetti (1999a, 248).</ref> As a result of his conversations with [[Edward Gordon Craig]], Copeau had come to believe that his work at the [[Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier]] shared a common approach with Stanislavski's investigations at the MAT.<ref name=b248/> On {{OldStyleDate|30 December|1916|17 December}}, Stanislavski's assistant and closest friend, [[Leopold Sulerzhitsky]], died from chronic [[nephritis]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 239), Leach (2004, 18), and Magarshack (1950, 343–345). Worrall gives his cause of death as a boating accident (1996, 221).</ref> Reflecting on their relationship in 1931, Stanislavski said that Suler had understood him completely and that no one, since, had replaced him.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 341).</ref>

== Revolutions of 1917 and the Civil War years ==
[[File:Stanislavski as Krutitski 1910.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Stanislavski as General Krititski in [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky|Ostrovsky's]] ''[[Enough Stupidity in Every Wise Man]]''. His performance was particularly admired by [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]].]]

Stanislavski welcomed the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 and its overthrow of the [[absolute monarchy]] as a "miraculous liberation of Russia".<ref>Stanislavski, in a letter to Nestor Aleksandrovich Kotliarevski from {{OldStyleDate|16 March|1917|3 March}}, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 245).</ref> With the [[October Revolution]] later in the year, the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] closed for a few weeks and the First Studio was occupied by revolutionaries.<ref name=b247>Benedetti (1999a, 247).</ref> Stanislavski thought that the social upheavals presented an opportunity to realize his long-standing ambitions to establish a Russian popular theatre that would provide, as the title of an essay he prepared that year put it, "The Aesthetic Education of the Popular Masses".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 245–248) and Magarshack (1950, 348–349).</ref>

[[Vladimir Lenin]], who became a frequent visitor to the MAT after the revolution, praised Stanislavski as "a real artist" and indicated that, in his opinion, Stanislavski's approach was "the direction the theatre should take."<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 251).</ref> The revolutions of that year brought about an abrupt change in Stanislavski's finances when his factories were [[Nationalization|nationalized]], which left his wage from the MAT as his only source of income.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 245–246) and Carnicke (2000, 13). In 1919, the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] was [[Nationalization|nationalised]] (along with all other theatres).</ref> On 29 August 1918 Stanislavski, along with several others from the MAT, was arrested by the [[Cheka]], though he was released the following day.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 251–252).</ref>

During the years of the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]], Stanislavski concentrated on teaching his system, directing (both at the MAT and its studios), and bringing performances of the classics to new audiences (such as factory workers and the [[Red Army]]).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 252–253) and Magarshack (1950, 349–350).</ref> Several articles on Stanislavski and his system were published, but none were written by him.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 260) and Leach (2004, 46).</ref> On 5 March 1921, Stanislavski was evicted from his large house on Carriage Row, where he had lived since 1903.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 126, 257–258) and Carnicke (2000, 13).</ref> Following the personal intervention of Lenin (prompted by [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]]), Stanislavski was rehoused at 6 Leontievski Lane, not far from the MAT.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 257–258), Carnicke (2000, 13), and Magarshack (1950, 352). The house contained a large ballroom that he used for rehearsals, teaching, and performances, which, following his Opera Studio production of ''[[Eugene Onegin (opera)|Eugene Onegin]]'' (1922), became known as the Onegin Room; see Benedetti (1999a, 259). Leontievski Lane was renamed Stanislavski Lane on 18 January 1938; see Magarshack (1950, 396).</ref> He was to live there until his death in 1938.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 258).</ref> On 29 May 1922, Stanislavski's favourite pupil, the director [[Yevgeny Vakhtangov]], died of cancer.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 274), Magarshack (1950, 356), and Worrall (1996, 221).</ref>

==MAT tours in Europe and the United States==
In the wake of the temporary withdrawal of the state [[subsidy]] to the MAT that came with the [[New Economic Policy]] in 1921, Stanislavski and Nemirovich planned a tour to Europe and the US to augment the company's finances.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 273–274) and Carnicke (2000, 14). The subsidy to the "academic" theatres was restored in November 1921.</ref> The tour began in Berlin, where Stanislavski arrived on 18 September 1922, and proceeded to [[Prague]], [[Zagreb]], and Paris, where he was welcomed at the station by Jacques Hébertot, [[Aurélien Lugné-Poë]], and [[Jacques Copeau]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Benedetti (1999a, 275–282) and Magarshack (1950, 357–9).</ref> In Paris, he also met [[André Antoine]], [[Louis Jouvet]], [[Isadora Duncan]], Firmin Gémier, and [[Harley Granville-Barker]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He discussed with Copeau the possibility of establishing an international theatre studio and attended performances by [[Ermete Zacconi]], whose control of his performance, economic expressivity, and ability both to "experience" and "[[Art of representation|represent]]" the role impressed him.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 282, 326).</ref>

[[File:Moskvin, Stanislavsky, Chaliapin, Kachaloc, Sorine 1923.jpg|thumb|left|300px|From left to right: [[Ivan Moskvin (actor)|Ivan Moskvin]], Stanislavski, [[Feodor Chaliapin]], [[Vasili Kachalov]], Saveli Sorine, in the US in 1923.]]

The company sailed to New York City and arrived on 4 January 1923.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 283) and Magarshack (1950, 360–362). Magarshack gives their arrival as late on Wednesday 3 January, disembarking the following day.</ref> When reporters asked about their repertoire, Stanislavski explained that "America wants to see what Europe already knows."<ref>Quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 283).</ref> [[David Belasco]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], and [[Feodor Chaliapin]] attended the opening night performance.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 284) and Magarshack (1950, 364). The opening night was 8 January 1923.</ref> Thanks in part to a vigorous publicity campaign that the American producer, [[Morris Gest]], orchestrated, the tour garnered substantial critical praise, although it was not a financial success.<ref>Benedetti (199a, 284–287), Carnicke (2000, 14), and Milling and Ley (2001, 13–14). Benedetti suggests that the financial difficulties were caused by Gest's decision to set ticket prices too high.</ref>

As actors (among whom was the young [[Lee Strasberg]]) flocked to the performances to learn from the company, the tour made a substantial contribution to the development of American acting.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 286), Carnicke (1998, 3), Gordon (2000, 45), Gordon (2006, 71). In a letter to Nemirovich, Stanislavski wrote: "No one here seems to have had any idea what our theatre and our actors were capable of. I am writing all this not in self-glorification, for we are not showing anything new here, but just to give you an idea at what an embryonic stage art is here and how eagerly they snatch up everything good that is brought to America. Actors, managers, all sorts of celebrities join in a chorus of the most extravagant praise. Some of the famous actors and actresses seize my hand and kiss it as though in a state of ecstacy"; quoted by Magarshack (1950, 364).</ref> [[Richard Boleslavsky]] presented a series of lectures on [[Stanislavski's system]] (which were eventually published as ''Acting: The First Six Lessons'' in 1933).<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 283, 286) and Gordon (2006, 71–72). [[Richard Boleslavsky|Boleslavsky]] had been able to extend his visa thanks to an invitation from Stanislavski to act as an assistant director to the company. The interest generated led to Boleslavsky's decision to establish the [[American Laboratory Theatre]].</ref> A performance of ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'' on 31 March 1923 concluded the season in New York, after which they travelled to Chicago, [[Philadelphia]], and [[Boston]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 287) and Magarshack (1950, 367).</ref>

At the request of a US publisher, Stanislavski reluctantly agreed to write his autobiography, ''[[My Life in Art]]'', since his proposals for an account of the system or a history of the MAT and its approach had been rejected.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 288), Carnicke (1998, 76), and Magarshack (1950, 367).</ref> He returned to Europe during the summer where he worked on the book and, in September, began rehearsals for a second tour.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 289–291) and Magarshack (1950, 367).</ref> The company returned to New York on 7 November and went on to perform in Philadelphia, Boston, [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]], Washington, D.C., [[Brooklyn]], [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], [[Pittsburgh]], Chicago, and Detroit.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 291–94) and Magarshack (1950, 368).</ref> On 20 March 1924, Stanislavski met President [[Calvin Coolidge]] at the White House.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 294) and Magarshack (1950, 368).</ref> They were introduced by a translator, Elizabeth Hapgood, with whom he would later collaborate on ''[[An Actor Prepares]]''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 294) and Carnicke (1998, 75).</ref> The company left the US on 17 May 1924.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 295).</ref>

==Soviet productions==
On his return to Moscow in August 1924, Stanislavski began with the help of [[Liubov Gurevich|Gurevich]] to make substantial revisions to [[My Life in Art|his autobiography]], in preparation for a definitive Russian-language edition, which was published in September 1926.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 297–298) and Magarshack (1950, 368).</ref> He continued to act, reprising the role of Astrov in a new production of ''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' (his performance of which was described as "staggering").<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 301).</ref> With [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko|Nemirovich]] away touring with his Music Studio, Stanislavski led the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] for two years, during which time the company thrived.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 299, 315).</ref>

[[File:Bulgakov The Days of the Turbins 1926.jpg|thumb|right|325px|Stanislavski's production of [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s ''The Days of the Turbins'' (1926), with [[scenic design]] by [[Aleksandr Golovin (artist)|Aleksandr Golovin]].]]

With a company fully versed in his [[Stanislavski's system|system]], Stanislavski's work on [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s ''The Days of the Turbins'' focused on the tempo-rhythm of the production's [[dramatic structure]] and the through-lines of action for the individual characters and the play as a whole.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 302). Benedetti emphasises the contrast between the perception of the system as being concerned principally with character and Stanislavski's actual attention to the play's "structure and meaning".</ref> "See everything in terms of action," he advised them.<ref>Quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 302).</ref> Aware of the disapproval of Bulgakov felt by the Repertory Committee (''Glavrepertkom'') of the [[People's Commissariat for Education]], Stanislavski threatened to close the theatre if the play was banned.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 302).</ref> Despite substantial hostility from the press, the production was a box-office success.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 304).</ref>

In an attempt to render a classic play relevant to a contemporary Soviet audience, Stanislavski re-located the action in his fast and free-flowing production of [[Pierre Beaumarchais]]' 18th-century comedy ''[[The Marriage of Figaro (play)|The Marriage of Figaro]]'' to pre-Revolutionary France and emphasised the democratic point of view of Figaro and Susanna, in preference to that of the [[Aristocracy|aristocratic]] Count Almaviva.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 306–308) and Magarshack (1950, 370).</ref> His working methods contributed innovations to the system: the analysis of scenes in terms of concrete physical tasks and the use of the "line of the day" for each character.<ref name=b308-9>Benedetti (1999a, 308–309).</ref>

In preference to the tightly controlled, [[Meiningen Ensemble|Meiningen]]-inspired scoring of the ''[[mise en scène]]'' with which he had choreographed crowd scenes in his early years, he now worked in terms of broad physical tasks: actors responded truthfully to the circumstances of scenes with sequences of improvised adaptations that attempted to solve concrete, physical problems.<ref name=b308-9/> For the "line of the day," an actor elaborates in detail the events that supposedly occur to the character "off-stage", in order to form a continuum of experience (the "line" of the character's life that day) that helps to justify his or her behaviour "on-stage".<ref name=b309>Benedetti (1999a, 309).</ref> This means that the actor develops a relationship to where (as a character) he has just come from and to where he intends to go when leaving the scene.<ref name=b309/> The production was a great success, garnering ten curtain calls on opening night.<ref name=b309/> Thanks to its cohesive unity and rhythmic qualities, it is recognised as one of Stanislavski's major achievements.<ref name=b309/>

With a performance of extracts from its major productions—including the first act of ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'' in which Stanislavski played Vershinin—the MAT celebrated its 30-year jubilee on 29 October 1928.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 317) and Magarshack (1950, 376–378).</ref> While performing Stanislavski suffered a massive heart attack, although he continued until the curtain call, after which he collapsed.<ref name="Benedetti 1950"/> With that, his acting career came to an end.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 317).</ref>

==A manual for actors==
While on holiday in August 1926, Stanislavski began to develop what would become ''An Actor's Work'', his manual for actors written in the form of a fictional student's diary.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 303) and Milling and Ley (2001, 15–16).</ref> Ideally, Stanislavski felt, it would consist of two volumes: the first would detail the actor's inner experiencing and outer, physical embodiment; the second would address rehearsal processes.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 331) and Carnicke (1998, 73).</ref> Since the Soviet publishers used a format that would have made the first volume unwieldy, however, in practice this became three volumes—inner experiencing, outer characterisation, and rehearsal—each of which would be published separately, as it became ready.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 331) and Milling and Ley (2001, 4).</ref>

The danger that such an arrangement would obscure the mutual interdependence of these parts in the [[Stanislavski's system|system]] as a whole would be avoided, Stanislavski hoped, by means of an initial overview that would stress their integration in his [[Psychophysiology|psycho-physical]] approach; as it turned out, however, he never wrote the overview and many English-language readers came to confuse the first volume on psychological processes—published in a heavily abridged version in the US as ''[[An Actor Prepares]]'' (1936)—with the system as a whole.<ref name=b332>Benedetti (1999a, 332).</ref>

The two editors—Hapgood with the American edition and [[Liubov Gurevich|Gurevich]] with the Russian—made conflicting demands on Stanislavski.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 344), Carnicke (1998, 74), and Milling and Ley (2001, 4).</ref> Gurevich became increasingly concerned that splitting ''An Actor's Work'' into two books would not only encourage misunderstandings of the unity and mutual implication of the psychological and physical aspects of the system, but would also give its Soviet critics grounds on which to attack it: "to accuse you of [[Mind–body dualism|dualism]], [[Spiritualism (beliefs)|spiritualism]], [[idealism]], etc."<ref>Gurevich, quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 345).</ref> Frustrated with Stanislavski's tendency to tinker with details in preference to addressing more important missing sections, in May 1932 she terminated her involvement.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 346).</ref> Hapgood echoed Gurevich's frustration.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 347).</ref>

In 1933, Stanislavski worked on the second half of ''An Actor's Work''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 350).</ref> By 1935, a version of the first volume was ready for publication in America, to which the publishers made significant abridgements.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 366–367) and Carnicke (1998, 73).</ref> A significantly different and far more complete Russian edition, ''An Actor's Work on Himself, Part I'', was not published until 1938, just after Stanislavski's death.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 374–375) and Carnicke (1998, 73).</ref> The second part of ''An Actor's Work on Himself'' was published in the Soviet Union in 1948; an English-language variant, ''Building a Character'', was published a year later.<ref name="Carnicke 1998">Carnicke (1998, 73) and Milling and Ley (2001, 15).</ref> The third volume, ''An Actor's Work on a Role'', was published in the Soviet Union in 1957; its nearest English-language equivalent, ''Creating a Role'', was published in 1961.<ref name="Carnicke 1998"/> The differences between the Russian and English-language editions of volumes two and three were even greater than those of the first volume.<ref>Carnicke (1998, 73).</ref> In 2008, an English-language translation of the complete Russian edition of ''An Actor's Work'' was published, with one of ''An Actor's Work on a Role'' following in 2010.<ref>The publication of ''An Actor's Work'' and ''An Actor's Work on a Role'', both translated by Jean Benedetti, enables a detailed comparison of the significant differences and omissions in ''An Actor Prepares'', ''Building a Character'', and ''Creating a Role''; see Stanislavski (1938 and 1957). Carnicke argues that despite some changes to the terminology of the system the "Russian books still serve as one of the best keys to his actual concerns about art" (1998, 82).</ref>

==Development of the Method of Physical Action==
[[File:Othello Production Plan Sketches by Stanislavski 1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sketches by Stanislavski in his 1929–1930 production plan for ''[[Othello]]'', which offers the first exposition of what came to be known as his Method of Physical Action rehearsal process.]]

While recuperating in [[Nice]] at the end of 1929, Stanislavski began a production plan for Shakespeare's ''[[Othello]]''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 324). Extracts of the plan are translated in Cole (1955, 131–138) and Stanislavski (1957, 27–43).</ref> Hoping to use this as the basis for ''An Actor's Work on a Role'', his plan offers the earliest exposition of the rehearsal process that became known as his Method of Physical Action. He first explored this approach practically in his work on ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'' and ''[[Carmen]]'' in 1934 and ''Molière'' in 1935.<ref name=MOPA/>

In contrast to his earlier method of working on a play—which involved extensive readings and analysis around a table before any attempt to physicalise its action—Stanislavski now encouraged his actors to explore the action through its "active analysis".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 70, 355–356), Leach (2004, 29), and Magarshack (1950, 373–375).</ref> He felt that too much discussion in the early stages of rehearsal confused and inhibited the actors.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 355), Carnicke (2000, 32), and Magarshack (1950, 374–375).</ref> Instead, focusing on the simplest physical actions, they [[Improvisation|improvised]] the sequence of dramatic situations given in the play.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 355), Magarshack (1950, 375), and Whyman (2008, 242).</ref> "The best analysis of a play", he argued, "is to take action in the given circumstances."<ref name=ANALYSIS/> If the actor justified and committed to the truth of the actions (which are easier to shape and control than emotional responses), Stanislavski reasoned, they would evoke truthful thoughts and feelings.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 355–356) and Magarshack (1950, 375). In a letter to Elizabeth Hapgood, Stanislavski wrote: "Do you know the words? Never mind, use your own. You can't remember the sequence of the conversation? Never mind, I'll prompt you. We go through the whole play like this because it is easier to control and direct the body than the mind which is capricious. That is why the physical line of a role is easier to create than the psychological. But can the physical line of a role exist without the psychological when the mind is inseparable from the body? Of course not. That is why simultaneously the physical line of the body evokes the inner line of a role. This method takes the creative actor's attention off feelings, leaves them to the subconscious which alone can properly control and direct them"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 356).</ref>

Stanislavski's attitude to the use of emotion memory in rehearsals (as distinct from its use in actor training) had shifted over the years.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 325–326) and Gordon (2006, 74). Emotion memory remained useful during training, Stanislavski felt, as a means of addressing emotional inhibition.</ref> Ideally, he felt, an instinctive identification with a character's situation should arouse an emotional response.<ref name=b325>Benedetti (1999a, 325).</ref> The use of emotion memory in lieu of that had demonstrated a propensity for encouraging self-indulgence or hysteria in the actor.<ref name=b325/> Its direct approach to feeling, Stanislavski felt, more often produced a block than the desired expression.<ref name=b325/> Instead, an indirect approach to the subconscious via a focus on actions (supported by a commitment to the given circumstances and imaginative "Magic Ifs") was a more reliable means of luring the appropriate emotional response.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 325–326).</ref>

This shift in approach corresponded both with an increased attention to the structure and dynamic of the play as a whole and with a greater prominence given to the distinction between the planning of a role and its performance.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 326) and Magarshack (1950, 372–373).</ref> In performance the actor is aware of only one step at a time, Stanislavski reasoned, but this focus risks the loss of the overall dynamic of a role in the welter of moment-to-moment detail.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 326) and (2005, 126).</ref> Consequently, the actor must also adopt a different point of view in order to plan the role in relation to its [[dramatic structure]]; this might involve adjusting the performance by holding back at certain moments and playing full out at others.<ref>Benedetti (1998, 108), (1999a, 326), and (2005, 125–127).</ref> A sense of the whole thereby informs the playing of each episode.<ref>Benedetti (1998, 108), (1999a, 349), and (2005, 125) and Magarshack (1950, 372).</ref> Borrowing a term from [[Henry Irving]], Stanislavski called this the "perspective of the role".<ref>Benedetti (1998, 108), (1999a, 221), and (2005, 125–126) and Whyman (2008, 149). In contrast to the "perspective of the role" that appreciates the role as a whole, Stanislavski called the moment-to-moment awareness the "perspective of the actor". For Stanislavski's explanation of this concept, see ''An Actor's Work'' (1938, 456–462).</ref>

Every afternoon for five weeks during the summer of 1934 in Paris, Stanislavski worked with the American actress [[Stella Adler]], who had sought his assistance with the blocks she had confronted in her performances.<ref name="Benedetti 2006">Benedetti (1999a, 351) and Gordon (2006, 74).</ref> Given the emphasis that emotion memory had received in New York City, Adler was surprised to find that Stanislavski rejected the technique except as a last resort.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 351) and Gordon (2006, 74). Under the influence of [[Richard Boleslavsky]], emotion memory had become a central feature of [[Lee Strasberg]]'s training at the [[Group Theatre (New York)|Group Theatre in New York]]. In contrast, Stanislavski recommended to [[Stella Adler]] an indirect pathway to emotional expression via physical action. Benedetti writes that "It has been suggested that Stanislavski deliberately played down the emotional aspects of acting because the woman in front of him was already over-emotional. The evidence is against this. What Stanislavski told Stella Adler was exactly what he had been telling his actors at home, what indeed he had advocated in his notes for [[Leonid Leonidov|Leonidov]] in the production plan for ''[[Othello]]''." Stanislavski confirmed this emphasis in his discussions with [[Harold Clurman]] in late 1935; see Benedetti (1999a, 351–352).</ref> The news that this was Stanislavski's approach would have significant repercussions in the US; [[Lee Strasberg]] angrily rejected it and refused to modify [[Method acting|his version]] of the [[Stanislavski's system|system]].<ref name="Benedetti 2006"/>

==Political fortunes under Stalin==
Following his heart attack in 1928, for the last decade of his life Stanislavski conducted most of his work writing, directing rehearsals, and teaching in his home on Leontievski Lane.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 318), Carnicke (1998, 33), Clark ''et al.'' (2007, 226), and Magarshack (1950, 396). In 1938, Leontievski Lane was renamed "Stanislavski Lane" as part of his 75th birthday celebrations.</ref> In line with [[Joseph Stalin]]'s policy of "isolation and preservation" towards certain internationally famous cultural figures, Stanislavski lived in a state of internal exile in Moscow.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 372) and Carnicke (1998, 33).</ref> This protected him from the worst excesses of Stalin's "[[Great Purge|Great Terror]]".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 372).</ref>

A number of articles critical of the terminology of [[Stanislavski's system]] appeared in the run-up to a [[Russian Association of Proletarian Writers|RAPP]] conference in early 1931, at which the attacks continued.<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 335–336">Benedetti (1999a, 335–336).</ref> The system stood accused of philosophical [[idealism]], of a-historicism, of disguising social and political problems under ethical and moral terms, and of "biological psychologism" (or "the suggestion of fixed qualities in nature").<ref name="Benedetti 1999a, 335–336"/> In the wake of the first congress of the [[USSR Union of Writers]] (chaired by [[Maxim Gorky]] in August 1934), however, [[Socialist realism]] was established as the official party line in aesthetic matters.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 354–355) and Carnicke (1998, 78).</ref> While the new policy would have disastrous consequences for the [[Russian avant-garde|Soviet avant-garde]], the [[Moscow Art Theatre|MAT]] and Stanislavski's system were enthroned as exemplary models.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 355) and Carnicke (1998, 78, 80).</ref>

==Final work at the Opera-Dramatic Studio==
[[File:Konstantin Stanislavski in 1938.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Stanislavski at work in the final year of his life.]]

Given the difficulties he had with completing his manual for actors, Stanislavski decided that he needed to found a new studio if he was to ensure his legacy.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 359) and Magarshack (1950, 387).</ref> "Our school will produce not just individuals," he wrote, "but a whole company".<ref>Letter to Elizabeth Hapgood, quoted in Benedetti (1999a, 363).</ref> In June 1935, he began to instruct a group of teachers in the training techniques of the [[Stanislavski's system|system]] and the rehearsal processes of the Method of Physical Action.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 360), Magarshack (1950, 388–391), and Whyman (2008, 136).</ref> Twenty students (out of 3,500 auditionees) were accepted for the dramatic section of the Opera-Dramatic Studio, where classes began on 15 November.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 362–363).</ref> Stanislavski arranged a curriculum of four years of study that focused exclusively on technique and method—two years of the work detailed later in ''An Actor's Work'' and two of that in ''An Actor's Work on a Role''.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 363) and Whyman (2008, 136).</ref>

Once the students were acquainted with the training techniques of the first two years, Stanislavski selected ''[[Hamlet]]'' and ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' for their work on roles.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 368) and Magarshack (1950, 397–399). He "insisted that they work on classics, because, 'in any work of genius you find an ideal logic and progression'."</ref> He worked with the students in March and April 1937, focusing on their sequences of physical actions, on establishing their through-lines of action, and on rehearsing scenes anew in terms of the actors' tasks.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 368–369). "They must avoid at all costs", Benedetti explains, "merely repeating the externals of what they had done the day before."</ref> By June 1938, the students were ready for their first public showing, at which they performed a selection of scenes to a small number of spectators.<ref>Magarshack (1950, 400).</ref> The Opera-Dramatic Studio embodied the most complete implementation of the training exercises that Stanislavski described in his manuals.<ref name=ODS/>

From late 1936 onwards, Stanislavski began to meet regularly with [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]], with whom he discussed the possibility of developing a common theatrical language.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 368–369).</ref> In 1938, they made plans to work together on a production and discussed a synthesis of Stanislavski's Method of Physical Action and Meyerhold's [[Biomechanics (Meyerhold)|biomechanical]] training.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 371–373).</ref> On 8 March, Meyerhold took over the rehearsals for ''[[Rigoletto]]'', the staging of which he completed after Stanislavski's death.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 371, 373) and Whyman (2008, 136).</ref> On his deathbed, Stanislavski declared to Yuri Bakhrushin that Meyerhold was "my sole heir in the theatre—here or anywhere else".<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 373), Leach (2004, 23), and Rudnitsky (1981, xv).</ref> [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin's]] [[NKVD|police]] tortured and killed Meyerhold in February 1940.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 373).</ref>

Stanislavski died in his home at 3:45&nbsp;pm on 7 August 1938, having probably suffered another heart attack five days earlier.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 374) and Magarshack (1950, 404).</ref> Thousands of people attended his funeral.<ref>Magarshack (1950, 404).</ref> Three weeks after his death, his widow, Lilina, received an advanced copy of the Russian-language edition of the first volume of ''An Actor's Work''—the "labour of his life", as she called it.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 375).</ref> Stanislavski was buried in the [[Novodevichy Cemetery]] in Moscow, not far from the grave of [[Anton Chekhov]].<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 376) and Magarshack (1950, 404).</ref>

==See also==
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦--->
* [[Ion Cojar]]
* [[Ivana Chubbuck]]
* [[Sanford Meisner]]
* [[Psycho-physical Awareness]]
* [[Lee Strasberg]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
===Primary sources===
{{refbegin}}
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1936. ''[[An Actor Prepares]]''. London: Methuen, 1988. {{ISBN|0-413-46190-4}}.
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1938. ''An Actor's Work: A Student's Diary''. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and New York: Routledge, 2008. {{ISBN|0-415-42223-X}}.
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1950. ''Stanislavsky on the Art of the Stage''. Trans. David Magarshack. London: Faber, 2002. {{ISBN|0-571-08172-X}}.
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1957. ''An Actor's Work on a Role''. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and New York: Routledge, 2010. {{ISBN|0-415-46129-4}}.
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1961. ''Creating a Role.'' Trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Mentor, 1968. {{ISBN|0-450-00166-0}}.
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1963. ''An Actor's Handbook: An Alphabetical Arrangement of Concise Statements on Aspects of Acting.'' Ed. and trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Methuen, 1990. {{ISBN|0-413-63080-3}}.
* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1968. ''Stanislavski's Legacy: A Collection of Comments on a Variety of Aspects of an Actor's Art and Life.'' Ed. and trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. Revised and expanded edition. London: Methuen, 1981. {{ISBN|0-413-47770-3}}.
* Stanislavski, Constantin, and Pavel Rumyantsev. 1975. ''Stanislavski on Opera.'' Trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Routledge, 1998. {{ISBN|0-87830-552-1}}.
{{refend}}

===Secondary sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Allen, David. 2000. ''Performing Chekhov''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-18935-4}}.
* Bablet, Denis. 1962. ''The Theatre of Edward Gordon Craig.'' Trans. Daphne Woodward. London: Methuen, 1981. {{ISBN|978-0-413-47880-1}}.
* Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. ''The Cambridge Guide to Theatre.'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|0-521-43437-8}}.
* Benedetti, Jean. 1989. ''Stanislavski: An Introduction''. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1982. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-50030-6}}.
* Benedetti, Jean. 1998. ''Stanislavski and the Actor''. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-71160-9}}.
* Benedetti, Jean. 1999a. ''Stanislavski: His Life and Art''. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-52520-1}}.
* Benedetti, Jean. 1999b. "Stanislavsky and the Moscow Art Theatre, 1898–1938". In Leach and Borovsky (1999, 254–277).
* Benedetti, Jean. 2005. ''The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day.'' London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-77336-1}}.
* Benedetti, Jean. 2008a. Foreword. In Stanislavski (1938, xv–xxii).
* Benedetti, Jean. 2008b. "Stanislavski on Stage". In Dacre and Fryer (2008, 6–9).
* Botting, Gary. 1972. ''The Theatre of Protest in America'' (Edmonton, Harden House, 1972), Introduction.
* Braun, Edward. 1982. "Stanislavsky and [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]]". ''The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Grotowski''. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-46300-1}}. p.&nbsp;59–76.
* Braun, Edward. 1988. Introduction. In ''Plays: 1''. By [[Maxim Gorky]]. Methuen World Classics ser. London: Methuen. xv–xxxii. {{ISBN|0-413-18110-3}}.
* Braun, Edward. 1995. ''Meyerhold: A Revolution in Theatre.'' Rev. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-72730-0}}.
* Carnicke, Sharon M. 1998. ''Stanislavsky in Focus''. Russian Theatre Archive Ser. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. {{ISBN|90-5755-070-9}}.
* Carnicke, Sharon M. 2000. "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor". In Hodge (2000, 11–36).
* Clark, Katerina ''et al.'', ed. 2007. ''Soviet Culture and Power: A History in Documents, 1917–1953.'' Annals of Communism ser. New Haven: Yale UP. {{ISBN|0-300-10646-7}}.
* Counsell, Colin. 1996. ''Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre.'' London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-10643-5}}.
* Dacre, Kathy, and Paul Fryer, eds. 2008. ''Stanislavski on Stage.'' Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre, Rose Bruford College. {{ISBN|1-903454-01-8}}.
* Gauss, Rebecca B. 1999. ''Lear's Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Art Theatre 1905–1927''. American University Studies ser. 26 Theatre Arts, vol. 29. New York: Peter Lang. {{ISBN|0-8204-4155-4}}.
* Golub, Spencer. 1998a. "Stanislavsky, Konstantin (Sergeevich)". In Banham (1998, 1032–1033).
* Golub, Spencer. 1998b. "Shchepkin, Mikhail (Semyonovich)". In Banham (1998, 985–986).
* Gordon, Marc. 2000. "Salvaging Strasberg at the Fin de Siècle". In Krasner (2000, 43–60).
* Gordon, Robert. 2006. ''The Purpose of Playing: Modern Acting Theories in Perspective.'' Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. {{ISBN|0-472-06887-3}}.
* Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. ''Twentieth-Century Actor Training''. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-19452-0}}.
* Houghton, Norris. 1973. "Russian Theatre in the 20th Century". ''The Drama Review'' 17.1 (T-57, March): 5–13.
* Innes, Christopher, ed. 2000. ''A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre''. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-15229-1}}.
* Krasner, David, ed. 2000. ''Method Acting Reconsidered: Theory, Practice, Future.'' New York: St. Martin's P. {{ISBN|978-0-312-22309-0}}.
* Leach, Robert. 1989. ''Vsevolod Meyerhold''. Directors in perspective ser. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|0-521-31843-2}}.
* Leach, Robert. 2004. ''Makers of Modern Theatre: An Introduction''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-31241-8}}.
* Leach, Robert, and Victor Borovsky, eds. 1999. ''A History of Russian Theatre.'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|0-521-43220-0}}.
* [[David Magarshack|Magarshack, David]]. 1950. ''Stanislavsky: A Life.'' London and Boston: Faber, 1986. {{ISBN|0-571-13791-1}}.
* [[Pavel Markov|Markov, Pavel Aleksandrovich]]. 1934. ''The First Studio: Sullerzhitsky-Vackhtangov-Tchekhov.'' Trans. Mark Schmidt. New York: Group Theatre.
* [[Vsevolod Meyerhold|Meyerhold, Vsevolod]]. 1991. ''Meyerhold on Theatre''. Ed. and trans. Edward Braun. Revised edition. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-38790-9}}.
* Milling, Jane, and Graham Ley. 2001. ''Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal''. Basingstoke, Hampshire and New York: Palgrave. {{ISBN|0-333-77542-2}}.
* Poliakova, Elena I[vanovna]. 1982. ''Stanislavsky''. Trans. Liv Tudge. Moscow: Progress. . Trans. of ''Stanislavskii''. Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1977.
* [[Théodule-Armand Ribot|Ribot, Théodule-Armand]]. 2006. ''The Diseases of the Will.'' Trans. Merwin-Marie Snell. London: Kessinger Publishing's Legacy Reprints. {{ISBN|1-4254-8998-2}}. Online edition available.
* Ribot, Théodule-Armand. 2007. ''Diseases of Memory: An Essay in the Positive Psychology.'' London: Kessinger Publishing's Legacy Reprints. {{ISBN|1-4325-1164-5}}. Online edition available.
* Roach, Joseph R. 1985. ''The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting''. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. {{ISBN|0-472-08244-2}}.
* Rudnitsky, Konstantin. 1981. ''Meyerhold the Director.'' Trans. George Petrov. Ed. Sydney Schultze. Revised translation of ''Rezhisser Meierkhol'd''. Moscow: Academy of Sciences, 1969. {{ISBN|0-88233-313-5}}.
* Rudnitsky, Konstantin. 1988. ''Russian and Soviet Theatre: Tradition and the Avant-Garde''. Trans. Roxane Permar. Ed. Lesley Milne. London: Thames and Hudson. Rpt. as ''Russian and Soviet Theater, 1905–1932''. New York: Abrams. {{ISBN|0-500-28195-5}}.
* Schuler, Catherine A. 1996. ''Women in Russian Theatre: The Actress in the Silver Age.'' London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-11105-6}}.
* Taxidou, Olga. 1998. ''The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig''. Contemporary Theatre Studies ser. volume 30. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers. {{ISBN|978-90-5755-046-1}}.
* Toporkov, Vasily Osipovich. 2001. ''Stanislavski in Rehearsal: The Final Years.'' Trans. Jean Benedetti. London: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-413-75720-X}}.
* Whyman, Rose. 2008. ''The Stanislavsky System of Acting: Legacy and Influence in Modern Performance.'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|978-0-521-88696-3}}.
* Worrall, Nick. 1996. ''The Moscow Art Theatre.'' Theatre Production Studies ser. London and NY: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-05598-9}}.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://theatrefutures.org.uk/stanislavski-centre/ The Stanislavski Centre] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206190953/http://theatrefutures.org.uk/stanislavski-centre/ |date=6 December 2019 }}) at the [[Rose Bruford College]]
* [https://www.routledgeperformancearchive.com/browse/practitioners/stanislavski-konstantin Routledge Performance Archive: Stanislavski]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/016972}}
* [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=01434 Theater Arts Manuscripts]: An Inventory of the Collection at the [[Harry Ransom Center]]

{{Stanislavski system}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stanislavski, Konstantin}}
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