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{{Short description|Kuchan Buddhist monk and translator (344-413)}}
{{Infobox person
| name      = Kumārajīva
| image     = Kumarajiva at Kizil Caves, Kuqa (cropped).jpg
| birth_date  = 344 CE
| caption     = The Statue of Kumārajīva in front of the [[Kizil Caves]] in [[Kuqa County]], [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]
| birth_place = [[Kucha]] (now [[Kuqa County|Kuqa]], [[China]])
| death_date  = 413 CE (aged 68-69)
| death_place = [[Chang'an]], [[Later Qin]] (now [[Xi'an]], China)
| known      =  Translation of Buddhist texts written in [[Sanskrit]] to [[Chinese language|Chinese]], founder of the [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|Sanlun school]] of Mahayana Buddhism
| occupation =  [[bhikkhu|Buddhist monk]], scholar, [[translator]], and philosopher
| spouse         = 
| parents        = 
| children       = 
|}}
{{Buddhism and China}}

'''Kumārajīva''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|कुमारजीव}}; {{zh|t=鳩摩羅什 |s=鸠摩罗什 | first= t|p=Jiūmóluóshí |w=Chiu<sup>1</sup> mo<sup>2</sup> lo<sup>2</sup> shih<sup>2</sup>}}, 344&ndash;413 CE){{sfn|Pollard|2015|p=287}} was a [[bhikkhu|Buddhist monk]], scholar, missionary and [[translator]] from [[Kucha]] (present-day [[Aksu City|Aksu]] Prefecture, [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest translators of [[Chinese Buddhism]]. According to [[Lu Cheng]], Kumarajiva's translations are "unparalleled either in terms of translation technique or degree of fidelity".<ref>Beeby Lonsdale, Allison; Ensinger, Doris; Presas, Marisa (2000). ''Investigating Translation: Selected Papers from the 4th International Congress on Translation, Barcelona, 1998,'' p. 48. John Benjamins Publishing.</ref>

Kumārajīva first studied teachings of the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadin]] schools, later studied under [[Buddhasvamin (monk)|Buddhasvāmin]], and finally became an adherent of [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]], studying the [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]] doctrine of [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna.]] After mastering the Chinese language, Kumārajīva settled as a translator and scholar in [[Chang'an]] (c. 401 CE) under the patronage of the [[Later Qin|Later Qin dynasty]] during the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period.<ref>Rahul, Ram (2000). ''March of Central Asia,'' p. 83. Indus Publishing.</ref> He was the head of a team of translators which included his amanuensis [[Sengrui]].<ref>Lai, Whalen (1991). "Tao Sheng's Theory of Sudden Enlightenment Re-examined". In Gregory, Peter N. ''Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. p. 180</ref> This team was responsible for the translation of many [[Sanskrit]] Buddhist texts into [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. 

Kumārajīva also introduced the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy into China which would later be called [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|Sanlun]] (the "Three Treatise school").<ref name=":0" />

==Life==

=== Early life ===
Kumārajīva was born in the kingdom of [[Kucha]] in the [[Tarim Basin]] in 344 CE. His father was an Indian monk called [[Kumārāyana]] who was probably from [[Kashmir]] while his mother was a member of the Kucha royal family called [[Jīva (nun)|Jīva]].{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=523}}{{sfn|Chandra|1977|p=180}}{{sfn|Smith|1971|p=115}} <ref>{{harvnb|Hansen|2015|p=66}}</ref>

Himself an eminent Buddhist monk, Kumārāyana endeavoured to journey from his native Kashmir to [[History of China|China]] to spread his Buddhist teachings. After crossing the [[Pamir Mountains]], Kumārāyana stopped in Kucha, where he stayed as a guest of the king. The king of Kucha was so impressed with Kumārāyana’s ideas that the king proposed the marriage of his younger sister Jīva (also known as Jīvaka), a Kuchan princess and herself a devout Buddhist, to Kumārāyana. Kumārāyana and Jīva both acquiesced to this marriage. It was therefore that Kumārajīva’s father Kumārāyana settled in Kucha, became the royal priest, met Kumārajīva’s mother Jīva who influenced both his own subsequent Buddhist studies and later those of their son, and thereafter begat Kumārajīva.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ikeda |first=Daisaku |title=The Flower of Chinese Buddhism |publisher=Middleway Press |year=1976 |pages=31-33 |language=en}}</ref>

When Kumārajīva was just seven, his mother Jīva joined the Tsio-li nunnery, north of Kucha.<ref>{{harvnb|Hansen|2015|p=66}}</ref> Beginning at the age of nine, Kumārajīva studied the [[Āgama (Buddhism)|Agamas]] and the [[Abhidharma|Sarvastivada Abhidharma]] under masters in North India, [[Kashmir]], and Kucha: all centers of [[Sarvastivada]] monasticism and scholarship.<ref name=":3">Zürcher 2007 p. 226.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|p=71}}</ref> He later converted to and studied [[Mahayana]] under the [[Kashmir]]ian [[Buddhayaśas]] in [[Kashgar]].<ref name=":3" />

In Kucha at the age of 20, Kumārajīva received full monastic ordination. Around this time he also began to study the Sarvastivada [[Vinaya]] and the [[Madhyamaka]] philosophy.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|pp=73}}</ref> Over his early life, Kumārajīva became a famous figure in [[Buddhism]], known for his breadth of studies and skill in debate.<ref name=":3" />

===Capture, imprisonment and release===
[[File:White Horse Pagoda, Duhuang.jpg|thumb|[[White Horse Pagoda, Dunhuang|White Horse Pagoda]], [[Dunhuang]], commemorating Kumarajiva's white horse which carried the scriptures to China, c. 384 CE]]

In 379 CE, Kumārajīva's fame reached China when a Chinese Buddhist monk named Seng Jun visited Kucha and described Kumārajīva's abilities. Efforts were then made by Emperor [[Fú Jiān|Fu Jian]] ({{lang|zh|苻堅}}) of the [[Former Qin]] Dynasty to bring Kumārajīva to the Qin capital of [[Chang'an]].{{sfn|Kumar|2005|p=107}} To do this, his general [[Lü Guang]] was dispatched with an army in order to conquer Kucha and return with Kumārajīva. Fu Jian is recorded as telling his general, "Send me Kumārajīva as soon as you conquer Kucha."<ref>Duan, Wenjie. ''Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie.'' 1995. p. 94</ref> However, when Fu Jian's main army at the capital was defeated, his general Lü Guang declared his own state and became a warlord in 386 CE, and had Kumārajīva captured when he was around 40 years old.{{sfn|Nan|1998|p=84}} Being a non-Buddhist, Lü Guang had Kumārajīva imprisoned for many years, essentially as booty. During this time, it is thought that Kumārajīva became familiar with the Chinese language. Kumārajīva was also coerced by Lü into marrying the Kucha King's daughter, and so he was forced to give up his [[Vinaya|monk's vows.]]<ref>Wu 1938, p. 455</ref> 

After the Yao family of [[Later Qin]] overthrew the previous ruler Fu Jian, the ruler [[Yao Xing]] made repeated pleas to the warlords of the Lü family to free Kumārajīva and send him east to Chang'an.{{sfn|Kumar|2005|p=108}} When the Lü family would not free Kumārajīva from their hostage, an exasperated Yao Xing had armies dispatched to Liangzhou in order to defeat the warlords of the Lü family and to have Kumārajīva brought back to them.{{sfn|Kumar|2005|p=108}} Finally the armies of Emperor Yao succeeded in defeating the Lü family, and Kumārajīva was brought east to the capital of Chang'an in 401 CE.{{sfn|Kumar|2005|p=108}}

===Chang'an and translation work===
[[File:Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg|thumb|Brief map of Han [[Chang'an]] painted in Qing dynasty]]
At Chang'an, Kumārajīva was introduced to the emperor [[Yao Xing]], the court, and the Buddhist leaders. He became a famous and well respected in China, being given the title of "National Preceptor" (''guoshi'').<ref name=":2">Yukteshwar Kumar (2005). ''A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. : Movement of Peoples and Ideas Between India and China from Kasyapa Matanga to Yi Jing,'' p. 128. APH Publishing.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|2008|p=76}}</ref> At Chang'an, Kumārajīva led a court sponsored translation team of scholars who worked on translating numerous Sanskrit Buddhist texts into the Chinese language.<ref name=":0">Mair, Victor H.; Sanping Chen, Wood, Frances (2013). ''Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization,'' #28, Kumarajiva. Thames & Hudson.</ref> Yao Xing looked upon him as his own teacher, and many young and old Chinese Buddhists flocked to him, learning both from his direct teachings and through his translation bureau activities at the Xiaoyao Gardens where daily sessions were held (attended by over a thousand monks).<ref name=":2" /> Within a dozen years, Kumārajīva's translation bureau had translated about thirty five sutras in 294 scrolls. His translations are still in use today in Chinese Buddhism.<ref name=":0" /> Kumarajiva had four main disciples who worked on his team: [[Daosheng]] ({{lang|zh|竺道生}}), [[Sengzhao]] ({{lang|zh|僧肇}}), Daorong ({{lang|zh|道融}}), and [[Sengrui]] ({{lang|zh|僧睿}}).
According to Paul Williams, {{tlit|sa|[[Dà zhìdù lùn|Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa]]}}, a text translated by him, also has a clear association with the [[Vaibhāṣika]]s ([[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivādins]]).<ref>Williams, Paul, and Tribe, Anthony. ''Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.'' 2000. p. 100</ref>

==Scholarly work==
[[File:Handwritten diamond sutra zhang jizhi song dynasty 1253.jpg|thumb|Section of the ''Diamond Sutra'', a handwritten copy by Zhang Jizhi, based on Kumarajiva's translation from [[Sanskrit]] to Chinese]]

=== Translation ===
Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, and his team's translation style is known for its clarity and for overcoming the previous ''[[geyi]]'' (concept-matching) system of translation which matched Buddhist terminology with Daoist and Confucian terms. Kumārajīva's [[Readability|readable]] [[translation]] style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness that reflects his prioritization on conveying the meaning as opposed to precise literal rendering.{{sfn|Nattier|1992|p=186}} Because of this, his renderings of seminal Mahāyāna texts have often remained more popular than later, more literal translations, e.g. those of [[Xuanzang]].{{sfn|Nattier|1992|p=188}} 

Kumārajīva's translations were very influential on the development of Buddhist Chinese and they introduced much commonly used terminology, such as:{{sfn|Eitel|Edkins|1871|p=217}}<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|p=79}}</ref>

* {{zhi|c=大乘|p=Dà chéng}}, or "greater vehicle", for the Sanskrit term {{tlit|sa|[[Mahāyāna]]}}
* {{zhi|c=念處|p=niàn chǔ}} for {{tlit|sa|Smṛtyupasthāna}} (placement of mindfulness)
* {{zhi|c=菩提|p=pú tí}} for {{tlit|sa|[[Enlightenment in Buddhism|Bodhi]]}} (awakening)
* {{zhi|c=性|p=xìng}} for {{tlit|sa|Dhatū}} (nature, source)

These translations were a group effort and therefore it is more accurate to say that they were translated by a committee which was guided by Kumārajīva, not by Kumārajīva alone. The process of translation began with the reading of the text by Kumārajīva who would also give a running commentary in Chinese. The Chinese monks and students would discuss the text with Kumārajīva and among themselves. A translation in Chinese would emerge from this process, which would be checked by Kumārajīva. The text was then written down and revised numerous times. These were also public events which were attended by devotees, including emperor Yao Xing.<ref name=Thompson78>{{harvnb|Thompson|2008|p=78}}</ref>

Kumārajīva also developed a system of [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] in order to render Sanskrit terms in Chinese by using certain Chinese characters and their sounds to represent each syllable of a foreign word. This system would go on to become the basis of the development of [[pinyin]] romanization.<ref name=":1">{{harvnb|Hansen|2015|pp=69-70}}</ref> This encounter with Sanskrit influenced the development of the Chinese language itself, not only in the adoption of specifically Buddhist terms, but also regarding certain secular terms as well (such as "moment").<ref name=":1" /> 

Kumārajīva has sometimes been regarded by both the Chinese and by western scholars as abbreviating his translations, with later translators such as Xuanzang being regarded as being more "precise." According to Jan Nattier, this is actually an erroneous and mistaken view, and the main difference was due to the earlier versions of Kumarajiva's source texts:

{{quote|{{bracket|W}}here Kumārajīva's work can be compared with an extant Indic manuscript &ndash; that is, in those rare cases where part or all of a text he translated has survived in a Sanskrit or [[Prakrit]] version &mdash; a somewhat surprising result emerges. While his translations are indeed shorter in many instances than their extant (and much later) Sanskrit counterparts, when earlier Indic-language manuscript fragments are available they often provide exact parallels of Kumārajīva's supposed "abbreviations." What seems likely to have happened, in sum, is that Kumārajīva was working from earlier Indian versions in which these expansions had not yet taken place.{{sfn|Nattier|2005|p=60}}}}

===Translated Texts===
According to John M. Thompson "at present there are fifty two translations in the [[Taishō Tripiṭaka|Taishō]] under his name and their authenticity is fairly well accepted."<ref name=Thompson78 /> They include [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sutras]] as well as works on [[Buddhist meditation]] ([[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]) and Abhidharma.<ref name=Thompson78 />

==== Sutras ====
Among the most important sutras translated by Kumārajīva and his team (probably from Kuchan target sources) are the following:<ref>Litian Fang (2018) ''Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture,'' chapter 2. Routledge.</ref><ref>Ramanan, K. Venkata (1987). ''Nāgārjuna's Philosophy: As Presented in the Mahā-Prajñāparamitā-Sastra'', p. 15. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|pp=74-76}}</ref>

* {{tlit|sa|[[Diamond Sutra|Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]}} (''Diamond Sutra'') 
* {{tlit|sa|[[Amitabha Sutra|Smaller Sukhāvatī-vyūha]]}} (T 366)
* {{tlit|sa|[[Lotus Sutra|Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra]]}} (Lotus Sutra) (T 263–62)
* {{tlit|sa|[[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra]]}} (T 475)
* {{tlit|sa|[[Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]}},  (T 227, 408 CE)
*{{tlit|sa|Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra}} (T 223, 403–404 CE)
*{{tlit|sa|[[Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra]]}}  (T 642)
*{{tlit|sa|[[Ten Stages Sutra|Daśabhūmikā Sūtra]]}} (T 286) in collaboration with Buddhayaśas.
*{{tlit|sa|Acintyaprabhāsa-nirdeśa-sūtra}} (T 484) 
*{{tlit|sa|Viśeṣacintā-brahma-paripṛcchā}} (T 585–86)
*{{tlit|sa|Bhadrakalpa}} (T 425) 
*{{tlit|sa|Vasudhara-sūtra}} (T 481–82)
*{{tlit|sa|Pūrṇa-paripṛcchā}} ( T 310, 17) 
*{{tlit|sa|Ratnajāli-paripṛcchā}} (T 433) 
*{{tlit|sa|Vidhi-hṛdaya-vyūha}} (T 307) 
*{{tlit|sa|Sarva-puṇya-samuccaya-samādhi-sūtra}} (T 381–82)
*{{tlit|sa|Maitreyavyākaraṇa Sūtra}} 

==== Treatises ====
They also translated several key treatises (mainly of the [[Madhyamaka]] school), which became the central works of [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|East Asian Madhyamaka]] Buddhism. These are:<ref>Nan, Huai-Chin. ''Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen.'' 1997. p. 91</ref>

* "The Middle Treatise" ({{zhi|c=中論|p=Zhonglun}}, T. 1564; {{tlit|sa|Madhyamakaśāstra}}), comprising Nāgārjuna's {{tlit|sa|[[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]]}} ("Fundamental Verses on the [[Middle Way]]") alongside a commentary by *[[Vimalākṣa]] / *[[Piṅgala]] ({{zhi|c=青目|p=Qingmu}}).

* "The Treatise on the Twelve Gates" ({{zhi|c=十二門論|p=Shiermenlun}}, T. 1568), allegedly Nāgārjuna's *{{tlit|sa|Dvādaśadvāraśāstra}},<ref>Cheng, Hsueh-li (2013). &nbsp;Nagarjuna's Twelve Gate Treatise Translated With Introductory Essays, Comments, and Notes. Springer, {{ISBN|9789400977778}}. p. 5</ref> also reconstructed as {{tlit|sa|*Dvādaśamukhaśāstra}}<ref name=Liu27>Liu, Ming-Wood (1994). ''Madhyamaka thought in China''. E.J. Brill, {{ISBN|9004099840}}. p. 27</ref> or as {{tlit|sa|*Dvādaśanikāyaśāstra.}}<ref>Ruegg, David. ''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India, Volume 7''.</ref>

* "[[Śataśāstra|The Hundred(-Verse) Treatise]]" ({{zhi|c=百論|p=Bailun}}, T. 1569; {{tlit|sa|Śatakaśāstra}},<ref>Lamotte, Etienne. ''Surangamasamadhisutra''. p. 40</ref> or {{tlit|sa|Śataśāstra}}<ref name=Liu27 />), consisting of a commentary by a certain master Vasu on some verses by [[Aryadeva|Āryadeva]].<ref name=Liu27 />

* "Commentary on the Great Perfection of Wisdom" ({{zhi|c=大智度論|p=[[Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa|''Dazhidulun'']]}}, T. 1509; {{tlit|sa|Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa}}). A commentary on the {{tlit|sa|Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra}} attributed to Nāgārjuna, but this attribution is disputed by some modern scholars.<ref name=Liu27 />
*{{tlit|sa|[[Tattvasiddhi|Satyasiddhi]] Shastra}} ({{tlit|zh|Ch'eng-shih lun}}) – This [[Abhidharma]] text, while not being a work of Madhyamaka, was influential on Chinese Madhyamaka, since it also taught the emptiness of dharmas.<ref>Petzold, Bruno, The Classification of Buddhism, p. 300.</ref>
Other treatises that the team worked on include the {{tlit|sa|[[Dasabhumika-vibhāsā|Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā]]}} (T. 1521), a commentary to the {{tlit|sa|[[Ten Stages Sutra|Daśabhūmikā Sūtra]]}} attributed to [[Nagarjuna]] and the "Treatise On Arising Bodhicitta" (T. 1659).<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|p=74}}</ref>

==== Meditation texts ====
Kumārajīva and his team also translated some treatises on meditation {{tlit|sa|[[Dhyāna sutras|(dhyāna)]]}}. In the Taisho Tripitaka (vol. 15), five meditation works are attributed to Kumārajīva:<ref>Yamabe, Nobuyoshi; Sueki, Fumihiko (2009). ''The sutra on the concentration of sitting meditation (Taishō Volume 15, Number 614),'' pp. xiv-xvii. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.</ref><ref>Tansen Sen (2014) ''Buddhism Across Asia: Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, volume 1'', p. 116. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.</ref>

*"Scripture of the Secret Essentials of {{tlit|sa|Dhyāna}} (T. 613. {{zhi|p=Chan mi yao fa jing|c=禪祕要法經}})
*"Scripture on the Samādhi of Sitting {{tlit|sa|Dhyāna}} (T. 614. {{zhi|p=Zuòchán sān mēi jīng|c=坐禪三昧經}}), ZSJ (also called the {{zhi|p=Bodhisattvadhyāna Pusa Chanfa Jing|c=菩薩禪法經}} or ''The Scripture on the Practice of Dhyāna in The Wilderness'' {{zhi|p=E lan Rou Xi Chan Fa Jing|c=阿蘭若習禪法經}}).
*"Scripture on the Bodhisattva's Methods of Censuring Sexual Desire" (T. 615. {{zhi|p=Pusa he seyu fa jing|c=菩薩訶色欲法經}})
*"Essential Explanation of The Method of {{tlit|sa|Dhyāna}} (T. 616. {{zhi|p=Chán fǎ yào jiě|c=禪法要解}}).
*"The Abridged Essence of {{tlit|sa|Dhyāna}} (T. 617. {{zhi|p=Siwei Lue Yao Fa|c=思惟略要法}})
Scholars are divided on how many of these were actually worked on by Kumārajīva (though T. 613 and T. 614 are well attested in early catalogs and prefaces). Furthermore, Chinese sources indicate that these works were edited, summarized and extracted from Indian sources.{{sfn|Greene|2012|p=41}} Eric Greene explains that the main methods of mediation taught in T. 614 are the "five gates of chan" ({{lang|zh|五門禪}}) "associated with the so-called yogācāras of northwest India", which "became a standard arrangement in later writings on meditation" and are the following:{{sfn|Greene|2012|p=44}}

* the contemplation of the impure ({{zhi|p=bu jing guan|c=不淨觀}}; {{tlit|sa|aśubha-bhāvanā}}) for those beset by lust, 
* the cultivation of love ({{zhi|p=ci xin|c=慈心}}; the four {{tlit|sa|apramāṇa meditations}}) for those with aversion, 
* the contemplation of dependent origination ({{zhi|p=yin yuan|c=因 緣}}; {{tlit|sa|pratītyasamutpāda}}) for those with ignorance, 
* meditation on the breath ({{zhi|p=nian xi|c=念息}}; {{tlit|sa|ānāpāna-smṛti}}) for those with "excessive thinking" ({{lang|zh|多思覺人}}; {{tlit|sa|vitarka}}), and
* recollection of the Buddha ({{zhi|p=nian fo|c=念佛}}; {{tlit|sa|buddhānusmṛti}}) for those with "equally distributed" ({{lang|zh|等分}}) defilements.

After having calmed the mind and entered dhyāna ({{zhi|p=chan|c=禪}}) through these methods, the meditator then proceeds to develop wisdom ({{tlit|sa|prajñā}}) by cultivating the four "foundations of mindfulness" ({{zhi|p=si nian chu|c=思念處}}; {{tlit|sa|[[Satipatthana|smṛtyupasthāna]]}}). According to Greene, "following this, one moves through the so-called four {{tlit|sa|nirvedha-bhāgīya-kuśalamūla}} ({{zhi|p=si shan gen|c=四善根}}), the "roots of good that lead to liberation", which in the Sarvāstivādin system are the highest levels of mundane accomplishment. This in turn leads to the so-called “path of vision” ({{tlit|sa|darśana-maraga}}), a sequence of sixteen mental moments in which, by means of insight into the four noble truths."{{sfn|Greene|2012|p=45}} 

While T. 614 discusses the path of hinayana as well as the bodhisattva path, the actual meditation practices are not different, they are just approached in different ways. For example, the bodhisattva practices the same contemplation of impurity as the sravaka, but they are also warned not to become so disgusted with the world that they seek immediate nirvāṇa. Instead, a bodhisattva should always practice these meditations with the wish for perfecting themselves in order to help others.{{sfn|Greene|2012|p=46}} As such, Kumārajīva seems to have understood the practice of a bodhisattva to have consisted of the same methods of meditation found in śrāvaka-yāna sources, the only difference being that bodhisattvas have a different motivation and a different goal (Buddhahood).{{sfn|Greene|2012|p=46}} 

==== Other ====
Other translations include the {{zhi|p=Da zhuang yan jing lun|c=大莊嚴經論}} {{tlit|sa|(*Mahālaṃkāra-sūtra-śāstra)}} of {{tlit|sa|[[Aśvaghoṣa|Asvaghosa]]}} and {{tlit|sa|Samyukta avadana sutra.}}<ref name=":2" />

According to Robinson,<blockquote>Kumārajīva's additions to the Vinaya section of the Chinese canon are the {{tlit|sa|Sarvāstivāda-vinaya}} (T. 1435), the {{tlit|sa|Sarvāstivāda-[[Pratimokṣa|prātimokṣa]]-sutra}} (T. 1436), and, according to tradition, the Pu-sa-chieh-p n ({{tlit|sa|bodhisattva-[[Pratimokṣa|prātimokṣa]]}}), which is probably the second half of the present {{tlit|sa|Brahmajala-sutra}} (T. 1484).<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|p=74}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Original works and philosophy ===
[[File:Wall painting and incense brazier.jpg|thumb|A painting of Kumārajīva at [[White Horse Pagoda, Dunhuang|White Horse Pagoda]], [[Dunhuang]]]]
Kumārajīva is also known to have authored a few original works, including his ''Commentary on the Vimalakīrti-nirdesa-sūtra'' ({{tlit|zh|Zhu Weimojie Jing.}} Taisho number 1775) and the {{tlit|zh|Shixiang lun}} (''Treatise on [[Tattva]],'' now lost).<ref>Lo Yuet-Keung ''"Persuasion and entertainment at once: Kumārajīva's Buddhist storytelling in his commentary on the Vimalakīrti sutra,"'' Bulletin of the Institute of Chinese Literature and Philosophy (Academia Sinica) 21 (2002), 93-103.</ref><ref name=Thompson78 /> Kumārajīva and his team are also responsible for a biography of Nagarjuna (T. 2047), which may have been based on Kumārajīva's own accounts to his students.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|pp=21-26}}</ref>

Another text which contains some original teachings by Kumārajīva is the {{tlit|zh|Jiumoluoshi fashi dayi}} (The Great Teaching of Dharma Master Kumārajīva; T. no. 1856), which is a series of letters between Kumārajīva and Lushan Huiyuan (334–416) discussing some basic Mahayana topics.<ref name=":6" />

Regarding Kumārajīva's own philosophical views, according to Richard H. Robinson:<blockquote>He shows himself to be an orthodox Śūnyavādin and Mādhyamika, rejects the authority of the Abhidharma, and interprets the Āgamas in a Mahāyāna way, holds that the Buddha's statements are purely pragmatic and do not imply any real entities, and denies that real entities arise, because (a) neither inherence nor non-inherence of the effect in the cause is admissible, and (b) simultaneous and successive occurrence of cause and effect are alike untenable. He maintains that reality transcends the four modes of the [[Catuṣkoṭi|tetralemma]], and he holds Nagarjuna's concept of negation.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|p=90}}</ref></blockquote>Likewise, according to John M. Thompson, the philosophy which emerges from the explanations of Kumārajīva is "virtually identical to the views of Nagarjuna and other Madhyamikas, stressing the [[Śūnyatā|emptiness]] of all dharmas (even the "emptiness of emptiness") and the [[Bodhisattva|Bodhisattva's]] non-attachment to all things and teachings".<ref name=":5">{{harvnb|Thompson|2008|p=79}}</ref> 

Thompson adds,<blockquote>Like both the {{tlit|sa|Prajñāpāramita}} sutras and Madhyamika commentaries, Kumārajīva says that the Buddha's teachings ultimately come from and lead us to a level beyond words and thought. Because the Buddha and Bodhisattvas reside in this transcendent realm (which is none other than our present world) their wisdom enables them to use various [[upaya]] to lead suffering beings to enlightenment. Apparent contradictions and confusions in Buddhist texts are due to their upāya, which accommodate to the audience's level and lead them to the truth. Kumārajīva even suggests that the teachings in the sutras may delude those who are unprepared, i.e. at a lower level of understanding. According to Kumārajīva, we truly understand the Dharma only when we attain complete and pure {{tlit|sa|prajñā}}. {{tlit|sa|Prajñā}} is the means of removing all obstacles and hindrances, all attachments–even attachments to itself. As Kumārajīva says, "In the Buddha-Dharma, the medicine of {{tlit|sa|prajñā}} is just like this. By this medicine, one demolishes the objects of addictions. If within {{tlit|sa|prajñā}} beings then conceive addiction, then one must practice a method of treatment. If within {{tlit|sa|prajñā}} there are no addictions to {{tlit|sa|prajñā}}, then further treatment is not applied."<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>These ideas are found in the {{tlit|zh|[[Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa|Dazhidulun]]}} (T. 1509; {{tlit|sa|Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa}}). Various modern scholars also hold that the {{tlit|zh|Dazhidulun}}, which was traditionally held to be an original work of [[Nagarjuna]] that was translated by Kumārajīva's team, actually contains numerous additions by Kumārajīva and his team or is actually a product of the editorship of Kumārajīva's student [[Sengrui]].<ref>R. Hikata, ''Suvikrāntavikrāmi-pariprcchā Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra'' (Fukuoka: Kyushu University Press, 1958), lii-lxxv.</ref><ref>Chou, Po-kan, ''The Problem of the Authorship of the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa: A Re-examination,'' BIBLID1012-8514(2004)34p.281-327 2004.10.19{{lang|zh|收稿}}，2004.12.21{{lang|zh|通過刊登}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1967|pp=21-26}}</ref> As [[Étienne Lamotte|Etienne Lamotte]] notes, Kumārajīva's team also edited and abridged the latter half of this text considerably.<ref>Lamotte, Etienne (French trans.); Karma Migme Chodron (English trans.); ''The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom of Nagarjuna - Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra'', Volume V Chapters XLIX – LII and Chapter XX (2nd series), p. 1772.</ref>

=== Influence ===
According to Rafal Felbur, <blockquote>The translations associated with his name – executed both from [[Prakrit]]s, i.e. vernacular forms of Sanskrit, and from early forms of Buddhist Sanskrit, into a form of classical Chinese – have enjoyed enormous success in the Sinitic tradition. This success is so great that even when, in the subsequent centuries, other scholars produced new and supposedly improved translations of the same texts, it has been the “Kumarajiva versions” that have remained in use in the devotional, exegetical, and literary life of East Asia up to the present day. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, as the Sinitic Buddhist traditions have contributed to the emergence of a distinctly global modernist Buddhism, the Kumarajiva corpus of early fifth-century translations has been an implicit major presence.<ref>Felbur, Rafal. ''[https://openphilology.eu/media/pages/publications-rafal-felbur/1125482332-1625255917/2020_kumarajiva.pdf Kumarajiva “Great Man” and Cultural Event.]'' A Companion to World Literature. Edited by Ken Seigneurie. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0312</ref></blockquote>Aside from the linguistic and terminological influence of Kumārajīva's translation work, his work also influenced the philosophical understanding of Buddhism in China. According to Fan Muyou, before Kumārajīva, many Chinese Buddhists had serious misunderstandings of emptiness and not-self. This is because they had been influenced by Neo-Taoist [[Xuanxue]] philosophy and thus they saw emptiness as either a kind of non-being, as a real, or absolute substance (both of which are mistaken interpretations of the concepts of ''[[śūnyatā]]'' and [[Anattā|''anatman'']]).<ref name=":6">Fan Muyou. ''A Reexamination of the Influence of Kumārajīva's Thought on His Translation of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa''. The Eastern Buddhist 47/1: 57-80 ©2018 The Eastern Buddhist Society.</ref> Kumārajīva and his students like Sengzhao and Sengrui recognized these errors and worked to correct them by introducing proper interpretations based on Indian Madhyamaka philosophy.<ref name=":6" />

==See also==
* [[Chinese Translation Theory]]
* [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]]

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{{Reflist}}

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==External links==
{{Commons category|Kumarajiva}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=31248}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Kumārajīva}}

{{Notable foreigners who visited China}}
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{{Buddhism topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kumarajiva}}
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