View source for Kunrei-shiki

{{Italic title}}
{{Short description|Japanese language romanization system}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=February 2009}}
{{Japanese writing}}

{{Nihongo|'''''Kunrei-shiki'''''|訓令式ローマ字|Kunrei-shiki rōmaji|{{abbr|rgh.|rough translation}} '[[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]]-ordered style of [[Latin script|Roman letters]]'|lead=yes}}, also known as the '''Monbusho system''' (named after the endonym for the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]]) or '''MEXT system''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/kunrei-shiki.html|title=What is Kunrei or Kunrei-shiki romanization?|website=sci.lang.japan|access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref> is a [[romanization]] system for transcribing the [[Japanese language]] into the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name is rendered '''''Kunreisiki''''' in the system itself. It is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. The [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] has standardized ''Kunrei-shiki'' under '''ISO 3602'''.

''Kunrei-shiki'' is based on the older ''[[Nihon-shiki]]'' romanization, which was modified for modern standard Japanese. For example, the word かなづかい, romanized ''kanadukai'' in ''Nihon-shiki'', is pronounced ''kanazukai'' in modern standard Japanese and is romanized as such in ''Kunrei-shiki''. The system competes with the older [[Hepburn romanization]] system, which was promoted by the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers|SCAP]] during the Allied [[occupation of Japan]] after World War II.

== History ==
In 1930, the [[Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture|Ministry of Education]] appointed a board of inquiry to determine the proper romanization system of the Japanese language. This resulted in a cabinet order (訓令 ''kunrei'') issued on 21 September 1937<ref name=Horvatp166>{{cite book|last=Horvat|first=Andrew|title=Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8UPAAAAYAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Stone Bridge Press|isbn=978-1-880656-42-6|page=166|quote=The ''zi'' ending of ''roomazi'' comes from the Kunreeshiki system promulgated in the 1930s through a cabinet order, or ''kunree''.}}</ref> that a modified form of the ''Nihon-shiki'' system would be officially adopted as Kunrei-shiki.<ref name=Kent155>{{cite book|last1=Kent|first1=Allen|last2=Lancour|first2=Harold|last3=Daily|first3=Jay E.|title=Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 21 - Oregon State System of Higher Education to Pennsylvania State University Libraries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA155|year=1977|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8247-2021-6|page=155}}</ref> The form at the time differs slightly from the modern form.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hadamitzky|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Spahn|first2=Mark|title=漢字・かな|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCGylyOazSYC&pg=PA12|year=1996|publisher=C.E. Tuttle|isbn=978-0-8048-2077-6|page=12}}</ref> Originally, the system was called the ''Kokutei'' (国定, government-authorized) system.<ref name=Kent155 />

The Japanese government gradually introduced ''Kunrei-shiki''; which appeared in secondary education, on railway station signboards, on nautical charts, and on the 1:1,000,000 scale [[International Map of the World]];<ref name=UNRomanizationp3>"[http://unstats.un.org/unsd//geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/3rd-uncsgn-docs/3uncgsn_econf69_L61_e.pdf Romanization in Japan]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053511/http://unstats.un.org/unsd//geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/3rd-uncsgn-docs/3uncgsn_econf69_L61_e.pdf Archive]) (Paper presented by Japan) [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]]. 8 July 1977. p. 3. English only. Retrieved on 15 May 2013.</ref> as well as literature and educational material for tourists.<ref name=Horvat>Horvat, Andrew. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080116182939/http://www.cic.sfu.ca/tqj/GettingRight/romajiconundrum.html The Romaji (Roomaji) Conundrum]." ([http://web.archive.org/web/20080116182939/http://www.cic.sfu.ca/tqj/GettingRight/romajiconundrum.html Archive])&nbsp;– Excerpt from Horvat's book: ''Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker''. Hosted at the David See-Chai Lam Centre for International Communication of [[Simon Fraser University]]. Retrieved on 13 May 2013.</ref> Nevertheless, unofficial use of ''Nihon-shiki'' and modified Hepburn continued concurrently because of support from individuals.<ref name=UNRomanizationp3 />

After Japan's defeat in the [[Pacific War]] in 1945, General [[Douglas MacArthur]], the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]] (SCAP), issued a directive, dated 3 September 1945, that stated that Modified Hepburn was the method to transcribe Japanese names. Some editorials printed in Japanese newspapers advocated for using only Hepburn.<ref name=Unger78>{{cite book|last=Unger|first=James Marshall|author-link=J. Marshall Unger|title=Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScHa7N2_0HkC&pg=PA78|year=1996|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535638-0|page=78}}</ref> ''Kunrei-shiki'' had developed associations with Japanese militarism, and the U.S occupation was reluctant to promote it.<ref name=Horvat /> Supporters of Hepburn denounced pro-''Kunrei-shiki'' and pro-''Nihon-shiki'' advocates to the SCAP offices<ref name=Unger54 /> by accusing them of being inactive militarists<ref name=Unger78 /> and of collaborating with militarists. Unger said that the nature of ''Kunrei-shiki'' led to "pent-up anger" by Hepburn supporters.<ref name=Unger54 /> During the postwar period, several educators and scholars tried to introduce romanized letters as a teaching device and a possible later replacement for [[kanji]]. On 9 December 1954, the Japanese government re-confirmed ''Kunrei-shiki'' as its official system<ref name=Kent155 /> but with slight modifications.<ref name=Gottlieb78>Gottlieb, p. 78.</ref> [[Eleanor Jorden]], an American linguist, made textbooks with a [[JSL romanization|modified version of ''Kunrei-shiki'']], which were used in the 1960s in courses given to U.S diplomats. The use of her books did not change the U.S government's hesitation to use ''Kunrei-shiki''.<ref name=Horvat />

As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute (now the [[Geospatial Information Authority of Japan]]), ''Kunrei-shiki'' was used for topographical maps, and Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps and aeronautical charts.<ref name=GSIp22>{{cite book|author=Geographical Survey Institute|author-link=Geospatial Information Authority of Japan|title=Bulletin of the Geographical Survey Institute|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilXjAAAAMAAJ|year=1974|page=22|quote=As reported at the Second Conference, the writing of geographical names in Roman letters in Japan comes in two types&nbsp;— Kunrei Siki (system adopted under a Cabinet ordinance) and Syûsei Hebon Siki (Modified Hepburn System). Kunrei Siki is used for topographical maps, whereas Syûsei Hebon Siki is in use for aeronautical charts and geological maps.}}</ref>

As of 1978, the [[National Diet Library]] used ''Kunrei-shiki''. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], the [[Ministry of International Trade and Industry]], and many other official organizations instead used Hepburn, as did ''[[The Japan Times]]'', the [[JTB Corporation]], and many other private organisations.<ref name=Kent155 />

Despite the official status of ''Kunrei-shiki'' and its use in Japanese elementary schools, Hepburn romanization remained the primary romanization system used in Japanese government and by other groups in Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2024/03/250d39967042-japan-to-revise-official-romanization-rules-for-1st-time-in-70-yrs.html|title=Japan to revise official romanization rules for 1st time in 70 yrs|agency=[[Kyodo News]]|date=2024-03-24|access-date=2024-08-26}}</ref>

== Legal status ==
The system was originally promulgated as Japanese Cabinet Order No. 3 as of 21 September 1937. Since it had been overturned by the SCAP during the occupation of Japan, the Japanese government repealed it and decreed again, as Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 as of 29 December 1954. It mandated the use of ''Kunrei-shiki'' in "the written expression of Japanese generally". Specific alternative spellings could be used in international relations and to follow established precedent. See [[#Permitted exceptions|Permitted Exceptions]] for details.[http://xembho.s59.xrea.com/siryoo/naikaku_kokuzi.html]

''Kunrei-shiki'' has been recognised, along with ''Nihon-shiki'', in ''ISO 3602:1989. Documentation—Romanisation of Japanese (kana script)'' by the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]. It was also recommended by the [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] after it withdrew its own standard, ''ANSI Z39.11-1972 American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (Modified [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn]])'', in 1994.

In January 2024, the [[Cultural Affairs Agency]] proposed revising the 1954 Cabinet Order to make Hepburn the standard romanization system of Japan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 31, 2024 |title=Hepburn-Style Romaji Likely to Become Standardized |url=https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/general-news/20240131-165580/ |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203121837/https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/general-news/20240131-165580/ |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |access-date=February 3, 2024 |website=The Japan News |publisher=[[Yomiuri Shimbun]] }}</ref> A draft of changes was published in June 2025.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20250620_19/|title=Japan govt. panel drafts first change to 'romaji' rules in about 70 years|author=NHK|date=June 20, 2025|location=Tokyo|publisher=NHK|website=NHK World Japan|access-date=June 21, 2025}}</ref>

== Usage ==
{| border="0" cellspacing="2px" cellpadding="3px"  style="float:right; margin-left:0.5em;"
|- style="background:#becfeb;"
|+ '''Example: tat-u'''
|- style="background:#cfebbe;"
! Conjugation !! Kunrei !! Hepburn
|- style="background:#e7f5de;"
| Mizen 1 || tat-a- || tat-a-
|- style="background:#e7f5de;"
| Mizen 2 || tat-o- || tat-o-
|- style="background:#e7f5de;"
| Ren'yô || tat-i || tach-i
|- style="background:#e7f5de;"
| Syûsi/Rentai || tat-u || tats-u
|- style="background:#e7f5de;"
| Katei || tat-e- || tat-e-
|- style="background:#e7f5de;"
| Meirei || tat-e || tat-e
|}

Despite its official recognition, the Japanese commonly choose between ''Nihon-shiki'', ''Kunrei-shiki'' and [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn]] systems for any given situation. However, the Japanese government generally uses Hepburn, especially for passports,<ref name="kictec.co.jp">{{cite web |url=http://www.kictec.co.jp/inpaku/iken%20keikai/syasin/hebon/romaji.htm |script-title=ja:道路標識のヘボン式ローマ字綴り一覧表|website=www.kictec.co.jp |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021123161400/http://www.kictec.co.jp/inpaku/iken%20keikai/syasin/hebon/romaji.htm |archive-date=2002-11-23|title= }}</ref> road signage,<ref name="kictec.co.jp" /> and train signage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tabi-mo.travel.coocan.jp/font_kitei2.htm#10 |title=鉄道掲示基準規程 |publisher=Tabi-mo.travel.coocan.jp |date= |accessdate=2022-09-07 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Most Western publications, as well, and all English-language newspapers use some form of Hepburn.<ref>Powers, John. "Japanese Names", ''[https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/10.3828/indexer.2008.29 The Indexer]'' Vol. 26 No. 2 June 2008. [[doi:10.3828/indexer.2008.29]]. "It [Hepburn] can be considered the norm as, in slightly modified form, it is followed by the great majority of Western publications and by all English-language newspapers."</ref>

J. Marshall Unger, the author of ''Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines'', said that the Hepburn supporters "understandably" believed that the ''Kunrei-shiki'' "compromise" was not fair because of the presence of the "un-English-looking spellings" that the Modified Hepburn supporters had opposed.<ref name=Unger54>{{cite book|last=Unger|first=James Marshall|author-link=James Marshall Unger|title=Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScHa7N2_0HkC&pg=PA54|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535638-0|page=54}}</ref> Andrew Horvat, the author of ''Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker'', argued that "by forcing non-native speakers of Japanese with no intentions of learning the language to abide by a system intended for those who have some command of Japanese, the government gave the impression of intolerant language management that would have dire consequences later on."<ref name=Horvat /> Because ''Kunrei-shiki'' is based on [[Japanese phonology]] rather than the actual phonetic realization, it can cause non-native speakers to pronounce words incorrectly. John Hinds, the author of ''Japanese: Descriptive Grammar'', describes that as "a major disadvantage."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinds |first1=John |title=Japanese: Descriptive Grammar |date=1986 |publisher=[[Croom Helm]] |isbn=0-7099-3733-4 |lccn=86006372 |quote=The major disadvantage of this system (Kunrei-shiki) is that there is a tendency for nonnative speakers of Japanese to pronounce certain forms incorrectly.}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2014}}

Additional complications appear with newer kana combinations such as '''ティ'''ーム (チーム) ''team''. In Hepburn, they would be distinguished as different sounds and represented as '''''tī'''mu'' and ''chīmu'' respectively. That gives better indications of the English pronunciations. For some Japanese-speakers, however, the sounds '''ティ''' "ti" and チ "chi" are the same phoneme; both are represented in ''Kunrei-shiki'' as ''tîmu''. Such complications may be confusing to those who do not know Japanese phonology well. Use of an apostrophe (t'îmu), sometimes seen in {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Wāpuro rōmaji]]}}, may be a possible solution.

Today, the main users of ''Kunrei-shiki'' are native speakers of Japanese, especially within Japan, and [[linguistics|linguists]] studying Japanese. The main advantage of ''Kunrei-shiki'' is that it is better able to illustrate [[Japanese grammar]], as Hepburn gives the impression of certain conjugations being irregular (see table, right).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinds |first1=John |title=Japanese: Descriptive Grammar |date=1986 |publisher=[[Croom Helm]] |isbn=0-7099-3733-4 |lccn=86006372 |quote=The major advantage of kunrei-shiki is that inflectional endings are seen to be more regular.}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2014}} The most serious problem of Hepburn in this context is that it may change the [[stem (linguistics)|stem]] of a [[verb]], which is not reflected in the underlying [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the language. One notable introductory textbook for English-speakers, [[Eleanor Jorden]]'s ''[[Japanese: The Spoken Language]]'', uses her [[JSL romanization]], a system strongly influenced by ''Kunrei-shiki'' in its adherence to Japanese phonology, but it is adapted to teaching proper pronunciation of Japanese phonemes.

{{clear}}

=== ''Kunrei-shiki'' spellings of kana ===
{| border="0" cellspacing="2px" cellpadding="2px" style="width:100%;"
|-
! colspan="5"  style="vertical-align:top; background:#becfeb; text-align:center;"| [[gojūon]]
! colspan="3"  style="vertical-align:top; background:#d4d4d4; text-align:center;"| [[yōon]]
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#becfeb; text-align:center;"
!あ ア ''a''!!い イ ''i''!!う ウ ''u''!!え エ ''e''!!お オ ''o''
! style="background:#d4d4d4;"|(''ya'')!! style="background:#d4d4d4;"|(''yu'')!! style="background:#d4d4d4;"|(''yo'')
|-
|colspan="8"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|か カ ''ka''||き キ ''ki''||く ク ''ku''||け ケ ''ke''||こ コ ''ko''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|きゃ キャ ''kya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|きゅ キュ ''kyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|きょ キョ ''kyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|さ サ ''sa''||し シ ''si''||す ス ''su''||せ セ ''se''||そ ソ ''so''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|しゃ シャ ''sya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|しゅ シュ ''syu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|しょ ショ ''syo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|た タ ''ta''||ち チ ''ti''||つ ツ ''tu''||て テ ''te''||と ト ''to''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ちゃ チャ ''tya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ちゅ チュ ''tyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ちょ チョ ''tyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|な ナ ''na''||に ニ ''ni''||ぬ ヌ ''nu''||ね ネ ''ne''||の ノ ''no''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|にゃ ニャ ''nya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|にゅ ニュ ''nyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|にょ ニョ ''nyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|は ハ ''ha''||ひ ヒ ''hi''||ふ フ ''hu''||へ ヘ ''he''||ほ ホ ''ho''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ひゃ ヒャ ''hya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ひゅ ヒュ ''hyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ひょ ヒョ ''hyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ま マ ''ma''||み ミ ''mi''||む ム ''mu''||め メ ''me''||も モ ''mo''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|みゃ ミャ ''mya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|みゅ ミュ ''myu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|みょ ミョ ''myo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|や ヤ ''ya''|| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ''(i)'' ||ゆ ユ ''yu''|| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ''(e)'' ||よ ヨ ''yo''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="3"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ら ラ ''ra''||り リ ''ri''||る ル ''ru''||れ レ ''re''||ろ ロ ''ro''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|りゃ リャ ''rya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|りゅ リュ ''ryu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|りょ リョ ''ryo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|わ ワ ''wa''||<span style="color:red;">ゐ ヰ ''i''</span>|| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ''(u)'' ||<span style="color:red;">ゑ ヱ ''e''</span>||を ヲ ''o''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="3"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="4"| || ん ン ''n'' || style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="3"|
|-
!colspan="8" | voiced sounds ([[dakuten]])
|-
|colspan="8"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|が ガ ''ga''||ぎ ギ ''gi''||ぐ グ ''gu''||げ ゲ ''ge''||ご ゴ ''go''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぎゃ ギャ ''gya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぎゅ ギュ ''gyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぎょ ギョ ''gyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ざ ザ ''za''||じ ジ ''zi''||ず ズ ''zu''||ぜ ゼ ''ze''||ぞ ゾ ''zo''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|じゃ ジャ ''zya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|じゅ ジュ ''zyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|じょ ジョ ''zyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|だ ダ ''da''||ぢ ヂ ''zi''||づ ヅ ''zu''||で デ ''de''||ど ド ''do''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぢゃ ヂャ ''zya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぢゅ ヂュ ''zyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぢょ ヂョ ''zyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ば バ ''ba''||び ビ ''bi''||ぶ ブ ''bu''||べ ベ ''be''||ぼ ボ ''bo''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|びゃ ビャ ''bya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|びゅ ビュ ''byu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|びょ ビョ ''byo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ぱ パ ''pa''||ぴ ピ ''pi''||ぷ プ ''pu''||ぺ ペ ''pe''||ぽ ポ ''po''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぴゃ ピャ ''pya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぴゅ ピュ ''pyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぴょ ピョ ''pyo''
|}

===Notes===
*In the table above, characters in <span style="color:red;">red</span> are obsolete in modern Japanese.
*Much like [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn]] and unlike ''[[Nihon-shiki]]'':
**When ''he'' (へ) is used as a particle, it is written as ''e'', not ''he''.
**When ''ha'' (は) is used as a particle, it is written as ''wa'', not ''ha''.
**''wo'' (を/ヲ) is used only as a particle, written ''o''.
**Vowels that are separated by a morpheme boundary are not considered to be a long vowel. For example, おもう (思う) is written ''omou'', not *''omô'', or *''omō'' for Hepburn.
*Syllabic ''n'' (ん) is written as ''n{{'}}'' before vowels and ''y'' but as ''n'' before consonants and at the end of a word.
*Much like ''Nihon-shiki'':
**Long vowels are indicated by a circumflex accent, for example: long ''o'' is written ''ô''. Similarly, Hepburn uses a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]: ''ō''.
**[[Geminate]] consonants are always marked by doubling the consonant following the [[sokuon]] (っ).
*The first letter in a sentence and all proper nouns are capitalized.
*ISO 3602 has the strict form; see ''[[Nihon-shiki]]''.

=== Permitted exceptions ===
The Cabinet Order makes an exception to the above chart:
* In international relations and situations for which prior precedent would make a sudden reform difficult, the spelling given by Chart 2 may also be used:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| しゃ sha
| し shi
| しゅ shu
| しょ sho
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| つ tsu
| &nbsp;
|-
| ちゃ cha
| ち chi
| ちゅ chu
| ちょ cho
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ふ fu
| &nbsp;
|-
| じゃ ja
| じ ji
| じゅ ju
| じょ jo
|-
| &nbsp;
| ぢ di
| づ du
| &nbsp;
|-
| ぢゃ dya
| &nbsp;
| ぢゅ dyu
| ぢょ dyo
|-
| くゎ kwa
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| ぐゎ gwa
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| を wo
|}

The exceptional clause is not to be confused with other systems of romanization (such as [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn]]) and does not specifically relax other requirements, such as marking long vowels.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Japan|Language}}
* [[List of ISO transliterations]]
{{-}}

== Sources ==
* [[Geographical Survey Institute]] (Kokudo Chiriin). ''Bulletin of the [[Geographical Survey Institute]], Volumes 20-23''. 1974.
* Gottlieb, Nanette. "[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=6712728 The Rōmaji movement in Japan]." ''[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]'' (Third Series). January 2010. Volume 20, Issue 1. p. 75-88. Published online on November 30, 2009. Available at [[Cambridge Journals]]. DOI doi:10.1017/S1356186309990320.
* Hadamitzky, Wolfgang. ''Kanji & Kana Revised Edition'' (漢字・かな). [[Tuttle Publishing]], 1997. {{ISBN|0-8048-2077-5}}, 9780804820776.
* Horvat, Andrew. ''Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker''. [[Stone Bridge Press]], 2000. {{ISBN|1-880656-42-6}}, 9781880656426.
* Hinds, John. ''Japanese: Descriptive Grammar''. [[Taylor & Francis Group]], 1986. {{ISBN|0-415-01033-0}}, 9780415010337.
* Kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily (Executive Editors). ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Volume 21''. [[CRC Press]], April 1, 1978. {{ISBN|0-8247-2021-0}}, 9780824720216.
* Unger, J. Marshall. ''Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan : Reading between the Lines: Reading between the Lines''. [[Oxford University Press]]. July 8, 1996. {{ISBN|0-19-535638-1}}, 9780195356380.
* {{cite web|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19541209001/k19541209001.html|script-title=ja:ローマ字のつづり方|language=ja|work=文部科学省|publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]]|access-date=2013-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529171936/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19541209001/k19541209001.html|archive-date=2013-05-29|url-status=dead}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite news|url=https://mainichi.jp:443/english/articles/20170402/p2a/00m/0na/003000c|title='Ti' or 'chi'? Educators call to unify romanization styles in Japan|newspaper=[[The Mainichi]]|place=Tokyo|date=2017-04-02}} - [https://archive.today/20170322110926/http://mainichi.jp/articles/20170321/dde/041/100/022000c Japanese version]<!--Also https://archive.today/20170322110926/http://mainichi.jp/articles/20170321/dde/041/100/022000c --> on [[Archive.today]]<!--Japanese version linked from https://archive.today/20171222124939/https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20170402/p2a/00m/0na/003000c a.k.a. https://archive.today/20171222124939/https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20170402/p2a/00m/0na/003000c -->

== External links ==
* Horvat, Andrew. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080116182939/http://www.cic.sfu.ca/tqj/GettingRight/romajiconundrum.html The Romaji (Roomaji) Conundrum]." ([http://web.archive.org/web/20080116182939/http://www.cic.sfu.ca/tqj/GettingRight/romajiconundrum.html Archive])&nbsp;– Excerpt from Horvat's book: ''Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker''. Hosted at the David See-Chai Lam Centre for International Communication of [[Simon Fraser University]].

{{Japanese romanization}}
{{Japanese language}}
{{ISO standards}}

[[Category:Romanization of Japanese]]
[[Category:ISO 3602]]
[[Category:Japanese writing system]]