View source for Kwa languages

{{Short description|Proposed language family in Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Togo}}
{{cleanup lang|date=July 2021}}
{{distinguish|Kwaʼ language{{!}}Kwa of Cameroon|Kwah language{{!}}Kwa of Nigeria}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Kwa
| altname       = New Kwa
| region        = [[Ivory Coast]], [[Ghana]], and [[Togo]]
| familycolor   = Niger-Congo
| fam2          = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
| fam3          = [[Volta–Congo]]
| child1        = [[Potou–Tano languages|Potou–Tano]]
| child2        = [[Ga–Dangme languages|Ga–Dangme]]
| child3        = [[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Na-Togo]] (reduced)
| child4        = [[Anii language|Anii]]–[[Adele language|Adele]]
| child5        = [[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Ka-Togo]] (reduced)
| child6        = [[Kebu language|Kebu]]–[[Animere language|Animere]]
| child7        = [[Avikam language|Avikam]]–[[Alladian language|Alladian]]
| child8        = [[Attié language|Attié]]
| child9        = [[Abé language|Abé]]
| child10       = [[Adjukru language|Adjukru]]
| child11       = [[Abidji language|Abidji]]
| child12       = [[Apro language|Apro]]
| glotto        = kwav1236
| glottorefname = Kwa Volta–Congo
| map           = Niger-Congo map.png
| mapcaption    = Map showing the distribution of Niger–Congo languages. Light green is the Kwa subfamily.
| acceptance    = proposed
}}

The '''Kwa languages''', often specified as '''New Kwa''', are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of [[Ivory Coast]], across southern [[Ghana]], and in central [[Togo]]. The Kwa family belongs to the [[Niger-Congo]] phylum. The name was introduced in 1895 by [[Gottlob Krause]] and derives from the word for 'people' (''Kwa'') in many of these languages, as illustrated by [[Akan names]]. This branch consists of around 50 different languages spoken by about 25 million people. Some of the largest Kwa languages are [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Akan language|Akan]] and [[Baule language|Baule]].

==Languages==
See the box at right for a current classification.

The various clusters of languages included in Kwa are at best distantly related, and it has not been demonstrated that they are closer to each other than to neighboring Niger–Congo languages.<ref>{{ELL2|MEK Dakubu|Kwa Languages}}:<br>"except at the lower levels of classification such as the Tano, Potou–Tano, and Ewe-Fon (Gbe) groups, genetic relationships among these languages are quite distant. It has never been adequately demonstrated using the comparative method that Akan, Ga, Ewe, and the Togo Mountain languages are more closely related to one another than to any other languages."</ref>

Stewart<ref>1989, slightly revised in Blench & Williamson 2000:29</ref> distinguished the following major branches, which historical-comparative analysis supports as valid groups:
*[[Potou–Tano languages|Potou–Tano]] (including [[Akan languages|Akan]])
*[[Ga–Dangme languages|Ga–Dangme]]
*[[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Na-Togo]]
*[formerly] [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] (inclusion doubtful, as they show more features of Kwa the closer one moves to Akan)
The '''[[Lagoon languages]]''' of southern Ivory Coast are not particularly close to any of these, nor to each other, so they are left ungrouped: 
*[[Avikam language|Avikam]]–[[Alladian language|Alladian]]
*[[Attié language|Attié]]
*[[Abé language|Abé]]
*[[Adjukru language|Adjukru]]
*[[Abidji language|Abidji]]
*[[Ega language|Ega]]
An [[Esuma language]], extinct ca. 1800, remains unclassified.

Since Stewart, Ega has been tentatively removed, the Gbe languages reassigned to [[Volta–Niger languages|Volta–Niger]], and [[Apro language|Apro]] added. Some of the Na-Togo and Ka-Togo languages have been placed into separate branches of Kwa.<ref>Williamson & Blench 2000:29</ref> See the infobox at right for the resulting branches.

[[Ethnologue]] divides the Kwa languages into two broad geographical groupings: '''Nyo''' and '''Left bank''', but this is not a genealogical classification. The Nyo group collapses Stewart's Potou–Tano and Ga–Dangme branches and also includes the ungrouped languages of southern Ivory Coast, while the Ka/Na-Togo and Gbe languages are called ''Left bank'' because they are spoken to the east of the [[Volta River]].

==History of the proposal==
The word 'Kwa' was used by [[Gottlob Krause]] in 1885 for the Akan (or perhaps [[Tano languages|Tano]]), Gã, and Gbe languages, which have ''kwa'' or ''kua'' as their word for 'human being'. Since then the proposal has been dramatically expanded, only to revert to something approaching its initial conception.

In 1952 [[Diedrich Hermann Westermann|Westermann]] and Bryan expanded Kwa to the various Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast and to what are now called the [[Volta–Niger languages]] of southern Nigeria. [[Joseph Greenberg|Greenberg]] (1963) added the [[Kru languages]] of Liberia, the [[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages]] which Westermann and Bryan had specifically excluded, and [[Ijoid languages|Ijaw]] of the Niger delta; West Kwa included the languages from Liberia to Dahomey (Republic of Benin), and East Kwa the languages of Nigeria. Bennett & Sterk (1977) proposed that the [[Defoid languages|Yoruboid]] and [[Igboid languages]] belonged in [[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]] rather than in Kwa. Stewart (1989) removed Kru, Ijaw, and Volta–Niger (East Kwa), but kept the Ghana–Togo Mountain and Lagoon languages, as well as adding a few obscure, newly described languages. Stewart's classification is the basis of more recent conceptions. To disambiguate this from Greenberg's influential classification, the reduced family is sometimes called "New Kwa".

==Comparative vocabulary==
Sample basic vocabulary of Kwa and related languages from Dumestre (1971) and other sources:<ref name="Dumestre1971">Dumestre, Gérard. 1971. Atlas linguistique de Côte-d'Ivoire: les langues de la région lagunaire. Abidjan: Institut de Linguistique Appliquée (ILA).</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="font-size: 85%"
! Classification !! Language !! eye !! ear !! tooth !! tongue !! mouth !! blood !! bone !! tree !! water
|-
| [[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Ghana-Togo]] || Proto-[[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Central Togo]]<ref>Heine, Bernd. 1968. ''Die Verbreitung und Gliedering der Togorestsprachen'' (Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik vol. 1). Köln: Druckerei Wienand.</ref> || *ki-nu-bí /bi- || *ku-túe /a- || *li-nía /a-; *li-lúma /a- || *ki-níé-bí /bi- || *ka-niána /ku-; *o- núí /i- ||  || *li-kúpá /a- || *ku-wyéu /a- || *n-tû
|-
| [[Ga–Dangme languages|Ga–Dangme]] || [[Ga language|Ga]]<ref name="GaDict">Kropp Dakubu, Mary Esther. 1999. ''Ga-English dictionary''. Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana.</ref> || hiŋmɛi || toi¹ || nyanyɔŋ || lilɛi² || daa⁴ || la⁵ || wu⁴ || tso³ || nu⁵
|-
| Ga–Dangme || [[Ga language|Ga]]<ref name="GaAdangme">Kropp, Mary Esther. 1966. ''Ga, Adangme and Ewe (Lomé) with English Gloss''. (Comparative African Wordlists, 2.) Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana.</ref> || hi-ŋmɛi || toí || ɲaɲɔɔ || líʔlɛ́í || dáʔá || lá || wú || tʃo || nu
|-
| Ga–Dangme || [[Dangme language|Dangme]]<ref name="GaAdangme"/> || hí-ŋmɛ́ || túê || lúŋù || lílɛ́ || ɲâà || mùɔ̀ || wû || tʃô || ɲù
|-
| [[Potou–Tano languages|Potou-Tano]] || Proto-[[Potou–Tano languages|Potou–Tano]]<ref name="Stewart04">Stewart, John M. 2004. ''The Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu reconstructions updated''. Manuscript.</ref> || *-ɲĩ || *-tʊ̃ ||  ||  || *-nʊ̃ ||  ||  ||  || *-ju
|-
| Potou-Tano || Proto-[[Akanic languages|Akanic]]<ref name="Stewart04"/> || *-ɲĩ || *-sʊ̃ ||  ||  || *-nʊ̃ ||  ||  ||  || *-cu
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Akan language|Akan]]<ref name="Stewart04"/> || ɜ-nĩ || a-sʊ̃ ||  ||  || a-nʊ̃ ||  ||  ||  || n-su
|-
| Potou-Tano || Proto-[[Guang languages|Guang]]<ref>Snider, Keith L. 1990. The consonants of proto-Guang. ''Journal of West African languages'' 20(1), 3-26.</ref> ||  || *kω-sω ||  ||  || *kɔ-nɔ̃ || *ŋ-kalωŋ ||  || *o-yi || *ɲ-ču
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Baoulé language|Baoulé]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || ɲima || su || ɟe || taama, tãflã || nwã || moɟa || oɥje || wake || n̥zɥe
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Ebrié language|Ebrié]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || m̥mɛ-ɓi || n̥ɟɛ || n̥nɔ || allɛ || m̥mɛ || n̥ka || n̥eʔwe || aja || n̥du
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Krobu language|Krobou]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || ɲɛ-bi || su || n̥ɲɛ || dandre || n̥nɔ̃ || n̥krã || m̥rɔ || ɲamɛ || n̥zɔ
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Abure language|Aboure]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || ɛɲɛ || ɔwɔ || n̥ɲɛ || nãnɛ || ɔblɔ || n̥nla || eboɛ̃ || elibe || n̥tʃwɛ
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Eotile language|Eotile]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || ɛjima || ɔho || anna || annɛ || ãto || n̥na || n̥tɔwu || edwɔ || n̥su
|-
| Potou-Tano || [[Mbato language|Mbatto]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || õɲɛ̃muo || õdʒo || ɔ̃nɔ̃gõ || olɛ || ẽmẽ || õglɔ̃ || õtʃɥi || ojoku || õdu
|-
| Lagoon || [[Adjukru language|Adioukrou]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || ɲama || lɔru || nɛn || anm || nɛɲ || mebl || luw || l-ikŋ || midʒ
|-
| Lagoon || [[Abé language|Abbey]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || aɛ̃mɔ̃ || rɔkɔ || eji || lɛtɛ || ejimbu || m̥pje || sfje || ti || midʒi
|-
| Lagoon || [[Attié language|Attie]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || himbɛ || te || hɛ̃ || nũ || mɛ || vø̃ || fe || dzakwɛ || sø
|-
| Lagoon || [[Alladian language|Alladian]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || ɛrɛ || nuku || n̥ɲi || ɛwɛ̃ || ɛmwã || n̥krɛ || n̥wi || ɛtɛ || n̥ʃi
|-
| Lagoon || [[Avikam language|Avikam]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || eŋwaɓa || ɛzjɛɓa || ɛɲrã || azraɓa || enɔ̃ || ɛvɛ̃ || ɛwu || eziba || ɛsɔ̃
|-
| Lagoon || [[Abidji language|Abidji]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || nɔnɔwɛ || rɛte || ɛɲi || ine || nimiti || m̥bwo || luvu || tʰi || mindi
|-
| [[Kru languages|Kru]] || [[Aizi language|Aizi]]<ref name="Dumestre1971"/> || zro || lokɔ || ɲɪ || mrɔ || mu || ɲre || kra || ke || nrɪ̃
|-
| [[Ega language|Ega]] || [[Ega language|Ega]]<ref>Blench, Roger. 2004. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/Kwa/Ega%20data.pdf The Ega Language of Côte d'Ivoire: Etymologies and Implications for Classification].</ref> || efí /e || elowá /a- || ɛnʊmà /a- || eno /i- || ɔ̀mà || àsɔ̀ || ìkù || ote /a- || aɗú
|-
| [[Mbre language|Pere]] || [[Mbre language|Pere]]<ref>Heath, Jeffrey. 2019. ''Pere lexicon [Data set]''. Zenodo. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.3354193}}</ref> || jísì-kéé || nɛ́ɛ́(ⁿ) || ɲòŋòmù || jèŋgé || yúgú || ɲààmú || kóó || gbèè-tííⁿ || túmú
|-
| [[Mpra language|Mpra]] || [[Mpra language|Mpra]]<ref>Blench, Roger. 2007. ''[http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Mpra%20%20Blench%202007.pdf Recovering data on Mpra &#91;=Mpre&#93; a possible language isolate in North-Central Ghana]''.</ref> || anisi ||  || ate || nchuma || nchumu ||  ||  || eyia || nkaw; nkwõ
|-
| [[Dompo language|Dompo]] || [[Dompo language|Dompo]]<ref>Blench, Roger. 2015. ''[http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/Kwa/Dompo%20Wordlist.pdf The Dompo language of Central Ghana and its affinities]''.</ref> || nyisi || sepe || nyì || dandulo || kanu || nkla || wuu || yi || nsu
|-
| [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] || Proto-[[Gbe languages|Gbe]]<ref>Capo, Hounkpati B.C. 1991. ''A Comparative Phonology of Gbe''. Publications in African Languages and Linguistics, 14. Berlin/New York: Foris Publications & Garome, Bénin: Labo Gbe (Int).</ref> ||  || *-tó || *aɖú || *-ɖɛ́ || *-ɖũ; *-ɖũkpá || *-ʁʷũ || *-χʷú || *-tĩ́ || *-tsĩ
|}

===Numerals===
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:<ref name="ChanNumeralsNC">{{Cite web|url=https://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/channumerals/Niger-Congo.htm|title=The Niger-Congo Language Phylum|last=Chan|first=Eugene|publisher=Numeral Systems of the World's Languages|date=2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="font-size: 85%"
! Classification !! Language !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|-
| Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo || [[ISO 639:avn|Avatime]] || ólè || ɔ́βà || ɔ́tà || óné || ót͡ʃù || óɡlò || ɡlóelè || ɡɔ́tɔ́βà || ɡɔ́tólé || líɔfɔ
|-
| Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo || [[ISO 639:nyb|Nyangbo]] (1) || olí || ɛbʰa || ɛtá || ɛlɛ́ || ití || holo || ɡene || ansɛ || ʒita || kɛfɔ
|-
| Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo || [[ISO 639:nyb|Nyangbo]] (2) || olié || ɛbʰa || ɛtaé || ɛlɛ || etié || holō || ɡěneé || ansɛ || ʒitaé || kɛfɔ
|-
| Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo || [[ISO 639:tcd|Tafi]] (1) || olí || ɛbʰa || ɛtá || ẽlɛ || ití || holō || ɡéné || asuɛ̄ || ʒitá || kɛfɔ̄
|-
| Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo || [[ISO 639:tcd|Tafi]] (2) || olí || ɪbʰa || ɪtá || ĩlĩ́ || ití || holō || ɡéné || asʊī || ʒitá || kífɔ̄
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe || [[ISO 639:ewe|Éwé]] || èɖé || èvè || ètɔ̃ || ènè || àtɔ̃ || àdẽ́ || adrẽ́ || èɲí || aʃíeké || èwó
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe || [[ISO 639:kqk|Kotafon-Gbe]] || ɖok͡po || àwè || àtɔ̃̂ || ènɛ̀ || àtɔ̃́ || aɲizɛ̃ || tsĩ́ã̀wè (litː ''hand+ 2'') || tsĩ́ã̀tɔ̃̂   (litː ''hand+ 3'') || tsĩ́ɛ̀nɛ̀  (litː ''hand+ 4'') || emewó
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe || [[ISO 639:sxw|Saxwe-Gbe]] || ɑ̀ɖé / ɖók͡pó || òwê || ɑ̀tɔ̃̂ || ɛ̀nɛ̃̂ || ɑ̀tṹ || ɑ̀dɛ̃́ || ɑ̀tʃówê (5 + 2) || ɑ̀tɾótɔ̃̂ (5 + 3) || ɑ̀tʃɛ̃́nɛ̃̂  (5 + 5) || òwō
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe || [[ISO 639:wci|Waci-Gbe (Gen-Gbe)]] || ɖeka || (e)ve || (e)tɔn || (e)ne || (a)tɔ́n || (a)dén || (á)dlén || (e)nyí || (e)asiɖeka (10 -1) ? || (e)wo
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe || [[ISO 639:xwl|Western Xwla-Gbe]] || lók͡pó || ɔ̀wè || ɔ̀tɔ̃̀ || ɛ̀nɛ̀ || àtɔ̃́ || àtroók͡pó  (5 + 1) || àcówè || àtsítɔ̃̀ || àtsíɛ̀ || ɔ̀síɔsí  (litː ''hand hand'')
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe || [[ISO 639:xwe|Xwla-Gbe]] || òɖě(lók͡pō) || ōwè || ōtɔ̃̀ || ēnɛ̀ || àtɔ̃̄ɔ̃̄ || ātrók͡pō || ācíòwè || àtĩ́tɔ̃̀ || àcíɛ̀nɛ̀ || ōwóé
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe, Aja || [[ISO 639:ajg|Aja-Gbe (Aja)]] || eɖé / ɖeka || èvè / amɛ̃ve || etɔ̃̂ / amɛ̃tɔ̃ || enɛ̀ / amɛ̃nɛ̃ || atɔ̃ / amãtɔ̃ || adɛ̃ / amãdɛ̃ || adɾɛ / amãdɾɛ || eɲĩ / amɛ̃ɲĩ || ɲíɖe / aʃiɖekɛ / amãʃíɖekɛ (10 -1) || ewó
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe, Aja || [[ISO 639:guw|Gun-Gbe]] || òɖè / ɖòk͡pó || àwe || àtɔn || ɛnɛ̀n || àtɔ́n || t͡ʃíɖòk͡pó (?+1) || t͡ʃiánwè (?+2) || t͡ʃíantɔ̀n  (?+3) || t͡ʃíɛ́nnɛ̀n (?+4) || àwò
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe, Fon || [[ISO 639:fon|Fon-Gbe (Fon)]] || ɖě || we || atɔn || ɛnɛ || atɔ́ɔ́n || ayizɛ́n || tɛ́nwe (5 + 2) || tántɔn (5 + 3) || tɛ́nnɛ  (5 + 5) || wǒ
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe, Fon || [[ISO 639:mxl|Maxi-Gbe]] || ɖèé || òwè || ɔ̀tɔ̃̀ || ɛ̀nɛ̀ || àtɔ̃́ || ayizɛ̃ || tɛ́ɛwè (5 + 2) || tã́tɔ̃̀   (5 + 3) || tɛ̃ɛ̃nɛ̀  (5 + 5) || òwó
|-
| Left Bank, Gbe, Mina || [[ISO 639:gej|Gen-Gbe (Gen)]] || èɖě || èvè || ētɔ̃̀ || ēnɛ̀ || àtɔ̃́ɔ̃ || ādɛ̃́ || ǎdrɛ̃́ || ēɲí || ēɲíɖé (10 -1) || ēwó
|-
| Left Bank, Kebu-Animere || [[ISO 639:keu|Akebu]] (1) || ʈɛ́ì || jí || tā || nìə̀ə̀ || tʊ̄ʊ̀ || kʊ̀rã̀ŋ || pīrìmātā || nɛ̀ĩ̀ŋ || fã̀ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋ || tə̀
|-
| Left Bank, Kebu-Animere || [[ISO 639:keu|Akebu]] (2) || dɛi || yi || taː || niə || tuw || turaŋ || primata || nɛŋ || fant͡ʃet͡ʃeŋ (10 - 1) ? || tə
|-
| Left Bank, Kebu-Animere || [[ISO 639:anf|Animere]] || bɛɹi || din || tʰa || aɳe || atʰuŋ || akʰuɹuŋ || ɳotʰa || ɳoɳa || fʊɳe || tʰi
|-
| Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili || [[ISO 639:ahl|Igo (Ahlon)]] || ili || ìwà || ìtã || àlã̀ || ùtɔ || uɡo || ùzòni || ùmàlà || úkàli || ɔ̀wú
|-
| Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili || [[ISO 639:kpo|Ikposo-uwi]] || ɛ̀dɪ || ɛ̀fʷà || ɛ̀la || ɛ̀na || ɛ̀tʊ || ɛ̀wlʊ || ɛ̀wlʊdɪ (6 + 1) ? || ɛ̀lɛ || ɛ̀lɛdɪ   (8 + 1) ? || ìd͡ʒo
|-
| Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili || [[ISO 639:bov|Tuwuri (Bowiri)]] || kédì || kɛ́ɛ́yá || kààlɛ̀ || kɛ́ɛ́ná || kùùló || kévũ̀ || kɛ́kɔ̀nɔ̀ || kɛ̀ɛ̀lɛ̃̀ || kàvèdí (10 - 1) ? || kùwà
|-
| Nyo, Agneby || [[ISO 639:aba|Abé (Abbey)]] || ŋ̀k͡pɔ̄ || āɲʊ̃́ || āɾí || àlɛ́ || ōní || lɔ̀hɔ̃̀ || lɔ̀hʍ̃ã̄ɾí || èpʲè || ɲāàkó || ǹnɛ̀
|-
| Nyo, Agneby || [[ISO 639:abi|Abidji]] || ń̩nɔ̀ || áānʊ̄ || ɛ̃́ɛ̃̄tɪ̄ || ã́ã̄lā || éēnē || náhʊ̃̀ã̀ || nɔ̃́ᵐbʊ̀ || nówò || nɛ̃́ᵐbrɛ̀ || ń̩díɔ̀
|-
| Nyo, Agneby || [[ISO 639:adj|Adioukrou]] || ɲâm || ɲóɲ || ɲâhǹ || jâr || jên || nɔ̂hǹ || lɔ́bŋ̀ || níwǹ || líbárm̀ || lɛ̂w
|-
| Nyo, Attie || [[ISO 639:ati|Attié]] || èk || kɛ́mwʌ̃́ || kɛ́hã́ || kɛ́dʒí || kɛ̋bʌ̃́  || kɛ̋mũ̄  || n̩ső || mɔ̃̀kɥɛ́ || ŋ̩ɡʷã || kɛ̃̋ŋ
|-
| Nyo, Attie || [[ISO 639:ati|Ga]] || ékòmé || éɲɔ̀ || étɛ̃ || éɟwɛ̀ || énùmɔ̃ || ék͡pàa || k͡pàwo  (6 + 1) ? || k͡pàaɲɔ̃  (6 + 2) ? || nɛ̀ɛhṹ || ɲɔ̀ŋmá
|-
| Nyo, Ga-Dangme || [[ISO 639:ada|Dangme]] || kákē || éɲɔ̃̀ || étɛ̃̄ || éywɛ̀ / éwìɛ̀ || énũ̄ɔ̃̄ || ék͡pà || k͡pààɡō  (6 + 1) ? || k͡pàaɲɔ̃̄  (6 + 2) ? || nɛ̃̀ɛ̃́ || ɲɔ̃̀ŋ͡mã́  (plural formː ɲĩ̀ŋ͡mĩ́)
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-Adele || [[ISO 639:ade|Adele]] || ɛ̀kí || ɛ̀nyɔ̀ɔ̀n || àsì || ɛ̀nàà || tòn || kòòròn || kɔ̀rɔ̀nkí (6 + 1) ? || nìyɛ̀ || yɛ̀kí (10 - 1) ? || fò
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-Adele || [[ISO 639:blo|Anii]] || dɨ̄ŋ, ɡādɨ̄ŋ,  ɡīdɨ̄ŋ,  ɡūdɨ̄ŋ || īɲīʊ̄, bʊ̄ɲīʊ̄, bāɲīʊ̄, || īrīū, īrīū, īrīū || īnāŋ, īnāŋ, īnāŋ || īnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋ || īkōlōŋ,  īkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋ || kūlūmī || ɡánááná || tʃīīnī || tɘ̄b
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-Akpafu || [[ISO 639:lef|Lelemi]] || ùnwì || íɲɔ́ || ɛ̀tɛ̀ || ínɛ́ || ɛ̀lɔ́ || ɛ̀kú || máátɛ̀  (4 + 3) ? || máánɛ́ (4 + 4) ? || lɛ́yàlìnwì (10 - 1) ? || lèèvù
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-Akpafu || [[ISO 639:akp|Siwu (Akpafu)]] || ɔ̀wɛ̃̂ || íɲɔ̂ || ìtɛ́ || ínâ || írù || íkùɔ̀ || ìkɔ́dzɛ̂  (4 + 3) ? || fàráfánà (4 + 4) ? || káiwɛ̃̂  (10 - 1) ? || ìwéó
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi || [[ISO 639:lip|Sekpele]] (1) || nʊ̀ɛ́ (lɛ̀wɛ́) || núə̀ || ǹtsyə́ || ńnà || ǹnɔ́ || ǹkùá || kùánsè || yèní || nàsé || lèfòsì
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi || [[ISO 639:lip|Sekpele]] (2) || nùɛ́ || núə̀ || ǹtsyə́ || ǹná || ǹnɔ́ || ǹkúa || kúansè || yèní || nàsé || lèfósì
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi || [[ISO 639:snw|Selee (Santrokofi)]] || ònwíì || ɔ̀ɲɔ́ || òtìɛ́ || ɔ́nà || ɔ̀nɔ́ɔ̀ || òkúɔ́ || kùɛ́nsĩ́ || ɔ̀nɛ́ || nàásĩ́ || lèfósì
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Logba || [[ISO 639:lgq|Logba]] (1) || ik͡pɛ || inyɔ || ita || ina || inú || iɡló || ɡlaŋk͡pe || mlaminá || ɡɔkwaɖu || uɖú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Logba || [[ISO 639:lgq|Logba]] (2) || ik͡pɛ || iɲɔ || ita || ina || inú || iɡló || ɡlaŋk͡pe || mlaminá || ɡɔkwaɖu || uɖú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan || [[ISO 639:abr|Bono Twi]] || baakó̃ || mienu || miensá || nain || num || nsiã || nsɔ || ŋɔt͡ʃwie || ŋkrɔŋ || du
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan || [[ISO 639:aka|Akan (Akuapem Twi)]] (1) || baakó~ || ə̀bìéń || ə̀bìèsá~ || ànáń || ə̀núḿ || ə̀sìá~ || ə̀sɔ́ń || àwòtɕɥé /tw/ || àkróń || dú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan || [[ISO 639:aka|Akan]] (2) || baakó̃ || mmienú || mmeɛnsã́ || (ɛ)náń || (e)núḿ || (e)nsĩã́ || (ɛ)nsóń || nwɔtwé || (ɛ)nkróń || (e)dú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern || [[ISO 639:cko|Anufo]] || kũ || ɲ̀ɲɔ̀ || ǹzã̀ || ǹná || ǹnú || ǹʒɛ̃́ || ǹzô || mɔ̀cᵘɛ́ || ŋ̀ɡɔ̀ná || búɾú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern || [[ISO 639:any|Anyin]] || ɛ̀kʊ̃ (in counting)/ kʊ̃ (after a noun) || ɲɲṹã || nsɑ̃ || nnɑ̃́ || nnṹ || nsĩ́ã́ || nsʊ̂ || mɔcuɛ́ || ŋɡʊ̃ɑ̃lɑ̃́ || búlú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern || [[ISO 639:bci|Baule (Baoulé)]] || kùn || ǹɲɔ̀n || ǹsàn || ǹnán || ǹnún || ǹsiɛ́n || ǹsô || ǹmɔ̀cuɛ́ || ǹɡwlàn || blú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern || [[ISO 639:sfw|Sehwi]] || kʊ̃̀ || ɲɔ̀ || ǹzã̀ || ǹná || ǹnú || ǹziã́ || ǹzɔ́ː || mɔ̀tʃwɛ́ || ǹɡɔ̃̀lã̀ || bʊ́lʊ́
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southern || [[ISO 639:aha|Ahanta]] || ɔ̀kʊ́n || àɥɪ̀n || àsàn || ànlà || ə̀nlù || ə̀ʃiə̀ || ə̀súŋwà || àwɔ̀twɛ̀ || àhɔ́nlà || bùnlù
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southern || [[ISO 639:nzi|Nzema]] || ɛ̀kʊ̃ (in counting)/ kʊ̃ (after a noun) || ɲ́ɲʊ̃ (tone reversals after nouns) || ńsɑ̃ || ńnɑ̃ || ńnṹ || ńsĩ́ã || ńsṹũ || mɔ́cʊɛ || ŋɡʊ̃lɑ̃́ || bulú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southern || [[ISO 639:jwi|Jwira-Pepesa]] || ko || ńwia || ńsa || ńna || ńnu || ńsiã || ńsuw || mɔ́twɛ || nɡhoalá || eburú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:ncu|Chumburung]] || kɔ́ || ɪ̀ɲɔ́ || ɪ̀sá || ɪ̀ná || ɪ̀núː || ìsíyé || ìsúnóː || ìbùrùwá || ɪ̀kpánɔ́ː || kúdú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:nnu|Dwang (Bekye)]] || kɔ́ɔ́ || aɲó || asá || aná || anú || asíé || asʊ́nɔ || at͡ʃwé || ak͡pɔ́nɔ || ídú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:fod|Foodo]] || ǹkɔ́ /ɔkʊlam || ǹɲʸɔ́ || ǹsá || ǹnáàŋ || ǹnṹũ̀ / ǹnúŋ || ǹséè || ǹsínō || dùkwéè / dùkoi || ǹk͡pánɔ̀ || dúdu
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:ayg|Ginyanga]] || okou || iɡno || issa || ina || inoun || issi || sono || ɡuikoe || sonʔou || ɡuidou
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:gjn|Gonja]] || à-kô || à-ɲɔ́ || à-sá || à-ná || à-nú || à-ʃé || à-ʃúnù || à-bùrùwá || à-k͡pánà || kùdú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:kph|Kplang (Prang)]] || kɔ̃ / ɛkʊ́nkɔ́ || áɲɔ || asa || aná || ɛnʊ́ || esé || ɛsʊ́nʊ́ || ɛkwé || apʊ́nɔ́ || ídú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:kye|Krache (Kaakyi)]] || kɔ́ɔ́ || aɲɔ́ || asá || aná || ɛnʊ̂ || ɛsíɛ́ || asʊ́nɔ́ || kukwé || ak͡pʊ́nɔ́ || kúdú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:naw|Nawuri]] || kʊ́ːʔ || aɲɔ́ || asá || aná || anû || asíjé || asúnɔ̂ || abᵘɾuwá || akpʌ́nɔ̂ || ɡúdú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang || [[ISO 639:nko|Nkonya]] || ɛ̀-kʊ̃̀ (ɔ̀-kʊ̀ Northern Dialect) / ɪ̀-kʊ̀lɛ̀ || à-ɲɔ̀ || à-sà || à-nà || à-nù || à-sìè || à-sìènɔ́ || ɪ̀-kʷè || ɪ̀-kʷèbá || ɪ̀-dú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang || [[ISO 639:afu|Awutu (Awutu-Efutu)]] || kòmé || ìɲɔ́ || èsã́ || ènaː́  ̀ || ènú || ìsɛ̃́ː  ̀ || ìsɔ̃́ || itʃwé || ɛ̀pán || ìdù
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang || [[ISO 639:cpn|Cherepon]] || àkʊ́ || ìɲɔ́ || ìsã́ || ìnɛ̂ || ìnî || ìsíɛ̃̀ || ìsúnɔ̋ || ìtwî || ìk͡púnɔ̋ || ìdû
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang || [[ISO 639:gwx|Gua]] || ákò || nyɔ́ || sã́ || nɛ̃̀ || nĩ́ || sĩ̀ɛ̀ || sùnɔ̃́ || twí || k͡plɔ̃́ || ìdú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang || [[ISO 639:lar|Larteh]] (1) || kɔ́ || ɲyɔ́ || sá || nɛ́ || nú || síɛ̀ || súnɔ́ || tɕɥí || k͡pʋ́nɔ́ || dú
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang || [[ISO 639:lar|Larteh]] (2) || kõ || ɲɔ̃ || sã || nɛ̃ || nũ || sĩɛ̃ || sũnɔ̃ || cui || k͡plɔ̃ || du
|-
| Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Western || [[ISO 639:abu|Abouré (Abure)]] || okuè || aɲù || nɳà || nnàn || nnú || ncɪɛ̀ || ncʋ̀n || mɔ̀kʋ̀ɛ́ || puálɛ́hʋ̀n || óblún
|}

== Proto Language ==

=== Phonolgy ===

==== Consonants ====
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
![[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Labialization|Labiovelar]]
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|*m
|*n
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]
!Voicless
|*p
|*t
|*tⁱ
|*c
|
|*kʷ
|-
!Voiced
|*b
|
|
|
|*g
|*gʷ
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Implosive consonant|Implosive]]
!Voicless
|
|
|
|
|*ƙ
|
|-
!Voiced
|*ɓ
|*ɗ
|
|
|
|*ɠʷ
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
|*ɸ
|*s
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant|Aproximant]]
|
|*l̃
|
|
|*ɰ
|
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɗ only occurs before oral vowels while l̃ only occurs before nasal vowels<ref name=KroppDakubu>{{cite web|last1=Kropp Dakubu|first1=Mary Esther|author-link1=Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|date=September 2012|title=Towards a phonology of Proto-Kwa: onwards from Stewart's 'Potou-Akanic-Bantu'|url=https://llacan.cnrs.fr/fichiers/nigercongo/fichiers/Kropp_Dakubu-Proto-Kwa.pdf|department=Institute of African Studies|website=[[:fr:Langage, langues et cultures d'Afrique|Langage, Langues et Cultures d'Afrique Noire (LLACAN)]] [Languages and Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa]|language=en|publication-place=[[Accra]]|publisher=[[University of Ghana]]|access-date=2025-11-02}}</ref>

<nowiki>*</nowiki>c is an affricate<ref name=KroppDakubu/>

==== Vowels ====
Proto Kwa had the vowels a, i, ɩ, u, ʊ, ã, ĩ, ɩ̃, ũ, ʊ̃<ref name=KroppDakubu/>

Cross high vowel harmony may of existed<ref name=KroppDakubu/>
==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Potou-Akanic reconstructions|Proto-Potou-Akanic reconstructions]] (Wiktionary)
*[[Gbe languages]]
*[[Kru languages]]
*[[Gur languages]]

==References==

===Footnotes===
{{reflist}}

===Notations===
*Bennett, Patrick R. & Sterk, Jan P. (1977) 'South Central Niger–Congo: A reclassification'. ''Studies in African Linguistics'', 8, 241&ndash;273.
*[[Ursula Hintze|Hintze, Ursula]] (1959) ''Bibliographie der Kwa-Sprachen und der Sprachen der Togo-Restvölker (mit 11 zweifarbigen Sprachenkarten)''. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
*Stewart, John M. (1989) 'Kwa'. In: Bendor-Samuel & Hartell (eds.) ''The Niger–Congo languages''. Lanham, MD: The University Press of America.
*Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (1952) ''Languages of West Africa'' (Handbook of African Languages Part II). London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.
*Williamson, Kay & Blench, Roger (2000) 'Niger–Congo', in Heine, Bernd and Nurse, Derek (eds) ''African Languages - An Introduction.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University press, pp.&nbsp;11–42.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120302065035/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Kwa.aspx Journal of West African Languages: Kwa languages]

{{Kwa languages}}
{{Niger-Congo branches}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kwa languages|*]]
[[Category:Volta–Congo languages]]