View source for Kwakwakaʼwakw

{{Short description|Indigenous ethnic group of the Pacific Northwest Coast}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=April 2019}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw
| image = Crooked Beak of Heaven Mask.jpg
| image_caption = Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw mask (19th century)
| population = 3,665 (2016 census)
| total_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110522&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=122&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|title=Aboriginal Ancestry Responses (73), Single and Multiple Aboriginal Responses (4), Residence on or off reserve (3), Residence inside or outside Inuit Nunangat (7), Age (8A) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2016 Census – 25% Sample Data|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|date=25 October 2017|language=en|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref>
| popplace = Canada ([[British Columbia]])
| langs = [[English language|English]], [[Kwakʼwala]]
| rels =  Traditional Indigenous religion
| related = [[Haisla people|Haisla]], [[Heiltsuk people|Heiltsuk]], [[Wuikinuxv people|Wuikinuxv]]
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang = 
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|root=|person=|people=Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw|language=[[Kwakʼwala|Kwak̓wala]]{{indent|5}}Kwak̓wala{{indent|5}}ʼNak̓wala{{indent|5}}G̱uc̓ala{{indent|5}}T̓łat̓łasik̓wala{{indent|5}}Liqʼwala|country=Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw A̱wi'nagwis}}

The '''Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw''' ({{IPA|kwk|ˈkʷakʷəkʲəʔwakʷ|}}), also known as the '''Kwakiutl'''<ref>[http://nmai.si.edu/sites/1/files/pdf/education/Kwak_Poster_TG.pdf National Museum of the American Indian] Retrieved December 15, 2014.</ref><ref>[http://vancouver.housing.ubc.ca/totem-park-house-names/ University of British Columbia Totem Park House Names] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210051359/http://vancouver.housing.ubc.ca/totem-park-house-names/ |date=2017-12-10 }} Retrieved December 15, 2014. [http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/map.htm Ministry of Education, Government of British Columbia Website] Retrieved December 15, 2014. [https://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/pdfs/resdocs/bcfns/bcfns_pronoun.pdf Ministry of Education, Government of British Columbia Website] Retrieved December 15, 2014.</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|w|ɑː|k|j|ʊ|t|əl}}; "[[Kwakʼwala]]-speaking peoples"),<ref>[https://www.umista.ca/pages/kwakwakawakw-tribes "The Kwakʼwala Speaking Tribes", Uʼmista Cultural Centre. Retrieved November 21 2013]</ref><ref>[http://www.firstvoices.com/en/Kwakwala First Voices: Kwak̓wala Community Portal] Retrieved November 21, 2013</ref> are an [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast|indigenous group of the Pacific Northwest Coast]], in southwestern [[Canada]]. Their total population, according to a 2016 census, was 3,665 people. Most live in their traditional territories on northern [[Vancouver Island]], as well as nearby smaller islands (such as the [[Discovery Islands]]) and inland on the adjacent [[British Columbia]] mainland. Some also live outside their traditional homelands, in urban areas such as [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] and [[Vancouver]]. They are politically organized into 13 [[band government]]s.

The Kwakwaka'wakw language, now spoken by only 3.1% of the population, consists of four dialects of what is commonly referred to as [[Kwakʼwala]], known as [[Kwakʼwala|Kwak̓wala]], 'Nak̓wala, G̱uc̓ala and [[Tlatlasikwala Nation|T̓łat̓łasik̓wala]].<ref>[http://www.languagegeek.com/wakashan/kwakwakawakw_communities.html Kwakwa̱ka̱'wakw/Kʷakʷəkəw̓akʷ Communities, LanguageGeek.com] Retrieved April 6, 2013.</ref>

==Name==
[[Image:Wawadit'la(Mungo Martin House) a Kwakwaka'wakw big house.jpg|thumb|''Wawaditʼla'', also known as Mungo Martin House, a Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw "big house", with [[totem pole]]. Built by Chief [[Mungo Martin]] in 1953. Located at [[Thunderbird Park (Victoria, British Columbia)|Thunderbird Park]] in [[Victoria, British Columbia]].<ref>{{Cite web | title=Thunderbird Park – A Place of Cultural Sharing | url=http://www.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/exhibits/tbird-park/index.html | access-date=2006-06-24 | publisher=[[Royal British Columbia Museum]]}}
Mungo and David Martin, with carpenter Robert J. Wallace, built a big house based on Chief Nakap'ankam's house in Tsaxis (Fort Rupert, British Columbia). The house "bears on its house-posts the hereditary crests of Martin's family." It continues to be used for ceremonies with the permission of Chief Oast'akalagalis 'Walas 'Namugwis (Peter Knox, Martin's grandson) and Mable Knox.

Pole carved by [[Mungo Martin]], David Martin and Mildred Hunt. "Rather than display his own crests on the pole, which was customary, Martin chose to include crests representing the Aʼwaʼetlala, Kwaguʼl, ʼNkʼwaxdaʼxw and ʼNamgis Nations. In this way, the pole represents and honours all the Kwakwakaʼwakw people."
</ref>]]

The name ''Kwakiutl'' derives from ''[[Kwaguʼł]]''—the name of a single community of Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw located at [[Fort Rupert]]. The anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] had done most of his anthropological work in this area and popularized the term for both this nation and the collective as a whole. The term became misapplied to mean all the nations who spoke Kwakʼwala, as well as three other Indigenous peoples whose language is a part of the [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]] linguistic group, but whose language is not Kwakʼwala. These peoples, incorrectly known as the Northern Kwakiutl, were the [[Haisla people|Haisla]], [[Wuikinuxv]], and [[Heiltsuk]].

Many people whom others call Kwakiutl consider that name a misnomer.
They prefer the name ''Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw'', which means "[[Kwakʼwala]]-speaking-peoples".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kwakiutl {{!}} people {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kwakiutl |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
One exception is the [[Laich-kwil-tach]] at [[Campbell River, British Columbia|Campbell River]]: they are known as the Southern Kwakiutl, and their council is the [[Kwakiutl District Council]].

==History==
[[File:Grave Marker in the Form of a Copper, late 19th century, 08.491.8895.jpg|thumbnail|upright|''Grave Marker'', Gwaʼsa̱la Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw (Native American), late 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]].]]
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw [[oral tradition|oral history]] says their ancestors (''ʼnaʼmima'') came in the forms of animals via the land, sea and from underground. When one of these ancestral creatures arrived at a given spot, it shed its animal appearance and became human. Animals that figure in these [[origin myth]]s include the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]] and his brother, [[Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology|Kolas]], the [[Gull|seagull]], [[orca]], [[grizzly bear]], or chief ghost. Some ancestors have human origins and are said to come from distant places.<ref>Boas, (1925) vol. 3, pp 229–30.</ref>

Historically, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw economy was based primarily on fishing, with the men also engaging in some hunting, and the women gathering wild fruits and berries. Ornate weaving and woodwork were important crafts, and wealth, defined by [[Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas|slaves]] and material goods, was prominently displayed and traded at [[potlatch]] ceremonies. These customs were the subject of extensive study by the [[anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Franz Boas]]. In contrast to most non-native societies, wealth and status were not determined by how much you had, but by how much you had to give away. This act of giving away your wealth was one of the main acts in a potlatch.

The first documented contact with Europeans was with Captain [[George Vancouver]] in 1792. Disease, which developed as a result of direct contact with European settlers along the West Coast of Canada, drastically reduced the Indigenous Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw population during the late 19th-early 20th century. Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw population dropped by 75% between 1830 and 1880.<ref>Duff Wilson, ''The Indian History of British Columbia'', 38–40; Sessional Papers, 1873–1880.</ref> The [[1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic]] alone killed over half of the people.

Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw dancers from Vancouver Island performed at the [[World's Columbian Exposition|1893 World's Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago.<ref>Raibmon, Paige. "[http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/Worlds-Fairs/WF_selected.cfm?categories=World%27s%20Columbian%20Exhibition%2C%20Chicago%201893 Theatres of Contact: The Kwakwak'wakw Meet Colonialism in British Columbia and the Chicago World's Fair]". ''Canadian Historical Review'' 81: 2(June 2000):157–191.</ref>

An account of experiences of two founders of early [[Canadian Indian residential school system|residential schools for Aboriginal children]] was published in 2006 by the [[University of British Columbia Press]]. ''Good Intentions Gone Awry – Emma Crosby and the Methodist Mission On the Northwest Coast''<ref>{{cite book|last=Hare|first=Jan|title=Good intentions gone awry Emma Crosby and the Methodist mission on the Northwest Coast|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver, BC |isbn=978-0-7748-1270-2 |author2=Barman, Jean }}</ref> by [[Jan Hare]] and Jean Barman contains the letters and account of the life of the wife of [[Thomas Crosby (missionary)|Thomas Crosby]], the first missionary in [[Lax Kwʼalaams]] (Port Simpson). This covers the period from 1870 to the turn of the 20th century.

A second book was published in 2005 by the [[University of Calgary Press]], ''The Letters of Margaret Butcher – Missionary Imperialism on the North Pacific Coast'',<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Kelm |editor-first=Mary-Ellen |title=The letters of Margaret Butcher: missionary-imperialism on the north Pacific Coast |year=2005 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |isbn=978-1-55238-166-3}}</ref> edited by Mary-Ellen Kelm. It picks up the story from 1916 to 1919 in [[Kitamaat Village]] and details of Butcher's experiences among the Haisla people.

A review article entitled ''Mothers of a Native Hell'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thetyee.ca/Books/2007/08/08/Mothers/|access-date=27 May 2012|title=Mothers of a Native Hell|date=8 August 2007}}</ref> about these two books, was published in the British Columbia online news magazine ''[[The Tyee]]'' in 2007.

Restoring their ties to their land, culture and rights, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw have undertaken much in bringing back their customs, beliefs and language. Potlatches occur more frequently as families reconnect to their birthright, and the community uses language programs, classes and social events to [[language revitalization|restore the language]]. Artists in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as [[Mungo Martin]], [[Ellen Neel]] and [[Willie Seaweed]], have taken efforts to revive [[Kwakwakaʼwakw art]] and culture.

==Divisions==
Each Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw nation has its own [[clan]]s, chiefs, history, culture and peoples, but remain collectively similar to the rest of the Kwak̓wala-Speaking nations.

{| class="wikitable"
! Nation name
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! Translation
! Community
! [[Anglicisation|Anglicized]], archaic variants or adaptations
|-
| ''[[Kwaguʼł]]''
|
| ''Smoke-Of-The-World''
| Tsax̱is / [[Fort Rupert]]
| Kwagyewlth, Kwakiutl
|-
| ''[[Mamalilikala|Mamaliliḵa̱la]]''
|
| ''The-People-Of-Malilikala''
| ʼMimkumlis / [[Village Island]]
|
|-
| ''[[ʼNamgis|ʼNa̱mg̱is]]''
|
| ''Those-Who-Are-One-When-They-Come-Together''
| Xwa̱lkw / [[Nimpkish River]] and Yalis / [[Alert Bay]],
| Nimpkish-Cheslakees
|-
| ''Ławitsis''
|
| ''Angry-ones''
| Ḵalug̱wis / [[Turnour Island]]<ref name="firstvoices.com">{{Cite web
| title = FirstVoices: Kwak̓wala. Nature / Environment – place names: words
| access-date = 2012-07-08
| url = http://www.firstvoices.com/en/Kwakwala/word-category/1f2fd0f8542dbe9f/--Nature--Environment---place-names
}}</ref>
| Tlowitsis
|-
| ''[[A'wa'etlala First Nation|A̱ʼwa̱ʼetła̱la]]''
|
| ''Those-Up-The-Inlet''
| Dzawadi / [[Knight Inlet]]
|
|-
| ''[[Daʼnaxdaʼxw Nation|Da̱ʼnaxdaʼx̱w]]''
|
| ''The-Sandstone-Ones''
| Tʼsadzisnukwa̱meʼ| [[New Vancouver]], [[Harbledown Island]]
| Tanakteuk
|-
| ''[[Ma'amtagila First Nation|Maʼa̱mtagila]]''
|
|
| Itsika̱n
| Etsekin, ''Iʼtsika̱n''<ref name="firstvoices.com"/>
|-
| ''[[Tsawataineuk First Nation|Dzawa̱da̱ʼenux̱w]]''
|
|''People-Of-The-Eulachon-Country''
| Gwaʼyi / [[Kingcome Inlet]]
| Tsawataineuk
|-
| ''Ḵwiḵwa̱sut̓inux̱w''
|
| ''People-Of-The-Other-Side''
| G̱waʼyasda̱ms / [[Gilford Island]]
| Kwicksutaineuk
|-
| ''Gwawa̱ʼenux̱w''
|
|
| Heg̱a̱mʼs / [[Hopetown, British Columbia|Hopetown]] ([[Watson Island (British Columbia)|Watson Island]])
| Gwawaenuk
|-
| ''[[Gwaʼsala-ʼNakwaxdaʼxw Nations|ʼNak̕waxdaʼx̱w]]''
|
|
| Baʼaʼs / [[Blunden Harbour]], [[Seymour Inlet]], & [[Deserters Group]]
| Nakoaktok, Nakwoktak
|-
| ''[[Gwaʼsala-ʼNakwaxdaʼxw Nations|Gwaʼsa̱la]]''
|
|''North People''<ref>The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians, Boas, Franz, 1897</ref>
| T̓a̱kus / [[Smith Inlet (British Columbia)|Smith Inlet]], Burnett Bay
| Gwasilla, Quawshelah
|-
| ''G̱usgimukw''
|
|People of Guseʼ
| X̱wa̱tis | [[Quatsino]]
| Koskimo
|-
| ''Gwat̕sinux̱w''
|
| ''Head-Of-Inlet-People''
| [[Winter Harbour]]
| Oyag̱a̱mʼla / Quatsino
|-
| ''[[Tlatlasikwala Nation|T̓łat̕ła̱siḵwa̱la]]''
|
| ''Those-Of-The-Ocean-Side''
| X̱wa̱mdasbeʼ / [[Hope Island (British Columbia)|Hope Island]]
|
|-
| ''Wiwēqay̓i''
|
|
| Ceqʷəl̓utən / [[Quadra Island|Cape Mudge]]
| Weiwaikai, Yuculta, Euclataws, Laich-kwil-tach, Lekwiltok, Likʷʼala
|-
| ''Wiwēkam''
|
|
| ƛam̓atax̌ʷ / [[Campbell River, British Columbia|Campbell River]]
| Weiwaikum
|}

==Society ==
[[Image:Kwakwakawakwgirl.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dzawada̱'enux̱w First Nation|Dzawa̱da̱ʼenux̱w]]<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/261720288_fig5_Figure-2-Photo2-Margaret-Wilson-Frank-daughter-of-Emily-Hunt-and-David-Wilson Figure 2: Photo 2. Margaret Wilson Frank, daughter of Emily Hunt and David Wilson, granddaughter of Lucy Homikanis and George Hunt. Identified by Edward S. Curtis as "Tsawatenok girl, Kwakiutl Indian." 1914. (Also on the cover of this issue.) Photo by Edward S. Curtis, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Edward S. Curtis Collection, no. 3567. – Scientific Figure on ResearchGate]</ref> girl, Margaret Frank (née Wilson)<ref>[http://www.curtisfilm.rutgers.edu/film/making-of-head-hunters-mainmenu-34 The Kwakwakaʼwakw, Curtis, and the Making of ''In the Land of the Head Hunters'']</ref> wearing abalone shell earrings, a sign of nobility and worn only by members of this class.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/6844126/My_Sisters_Will_Not_Speak_Boas_Hunt_and_the_Ethnographic_Silencing_of_First_Nations_Women Bruchac, Margaret M. – My Sisters Will Not Speak: Boas, Hunt, and the Ethnographic Silencing of First Nations Women.]</ref>]]

===Kinship===
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw kinship is based on a bilinear structure, with loose characteristics of a patrilineal culture. It has large extended families and interconnected community life. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw are made up of numerous communities or bands. Within those communities they are organized into extended family units or ''naʼmima,'' which means 'of one kind'. Each ''naʼmima'' had positions that carried particular responsibilities and privileges. Each community had around four ''naʼmima'', although some had more, some had less. <!--A few of these paragraphs wander back and fourth between present and past tense. The article should clarify what is current and what is historical.-->

Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw follow their genealogy back to their ancestral roots. A head chief who, through [[primogeniture]], could trace his origins to that ''naʼmima'''s ancestors delineated the roles throughout the rest of his family. Every [[clan]] had several sub-chiefs, who gained their titles and position through their own family's primogeniture. These chiefs organized their people to harvest the communal lands that belonged to their family.

Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw society was organized into four classes: the nobility, attained through birthright and connection in lineage to ancestors, the aristocracy who attained status through connection to wealth, resources or spiritual powers displayed or distributed in the potlatch, commoners, and slaves. On the nobility class, "the noble was recognized as the literal conduit between the social and spiritual domains, birthright alone was not enough to secure rank: only individuals displaying the correct moral behavior [sic] throughout their life course could maintain ranking status."<ref>Joseph Masco, "It is a Strict Law that Bids Us Dance": ''Cosmologies, Colonialism, Death, and Ritual Authority in the Kwakwakaʼwakw Potlatch, 1849 to 1922,'' 48.</ref>

===Property===
As in other Northwest Coast peoples, the concept of property was well developed and important to daily life. Territorial property such as hunting or fishing grounds was inherited, and from these properties material wealth was collected and stored.<ref>Hawthorn, A. (1988) pp. 31</ref>

===Economy===
A trade and barter [[subsistence economy]] formed the early stages of the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw economy. Trade was carried out between internal Kwakwakaʼwakw nations, as well as surrounding Indigenous nations such as the [[Tsimshian]], [[Tlingit]], the [[Nuu-chah-nulth]] and [[Coast Salish]] peoples.

[[Image:Kwakwaka'wakw man and copper shield, by Edward Curtis.jpg|thumb|upright|Man with [[copper (potlatch)|copper piece]], hammered in the characteristic "T" shape. Photo taken by [[Edward S. Curtis]].]]

Over time, the [[potlatch]] tradition created a demand for stored surpluses, as such a display of wealth had social implications. By the time of European colonialism, it was noted that wool blankets had become a form of common [[currency]]. In the potlatch tradition, hosts of the potlatch were expected to provide enough gifts for all the guests invited.<ref>Hawthorn, A. (1988) pp. 33</ref> This practice created a system of [[loan]] and [[interest]], using wool blankets as currency.<ref name="Hawthorn 35">Hawthorn, A. (1988) pp. 35</ref>

As with other Pacific Northwest nations, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw highly valued copper in their economy and used it for ornament and precious goods.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/> Scholars have proposed that prior to trade with Europeans, the people acquired copper from natural copper veins along riverbeds, but this has not been proven. Contact with European settlers, particularly through the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], brought an influx of copper to their territories. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw nations also were aware of [[silver]] and [[gold]], and crafted intricate bracelets and jewellery from hammered coins traded from European settlers.<ref name="Hawthorn 173">Hawthorn, A. (1988) pp. 173</ref> Copper was given a special value amongst the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw, most likely for its ceremonial purposes. This copper was beaten into sheets or plates, and then painted with mythological figures.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/> The sheets were used for decorating wooden carvings or kept for the sake of prestige.

Individual pieces of copper were sometimes given names based on their value.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/> The value of any given piece was defined by the number of wool blankets last traded for them. In this system, it was considered prestigious for a buyer to purchase the same piece of copper at a higher price than it was previously sold, in their version of an art market.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/> During potlatch, copper pieces would be brought out, and bids were placed on them by rival chiefs. The highest bidder would have the honour of buying said copper piece.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/> If a host still held a surplus of copper after throwing an expensive potlatch, he was considered a wealthy and important man.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/> Highly ranked members of the communities often have the Kwakʼwala word for "copper" as part of their names.<ref name="Hawthorn 35"/>

Copper's importance as an indicator of status also led to its use in a Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw [[Public humiliation|shaming ritual]]. The copper cutting ceremony involved breaking copper plaques. The act represents a challenge; if the target cannot break a plaque of equal or greater value, he or she is shamed. The ceremony, which had not been performed since the 1950s, was revived by chief [[Beau Dick]] in 2013, as part of the [[Idle No More]] movement. He performed a copper cutting ritual on the lawn of the [[British Columbia Parliament Buildings|British Columbia Legislature]] on February 10, 2013, to ritually shame the [[Stephen Harper]] government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/first-nations-chief-to-perform-rare-shaming-rite-on-legislature-lawn-today-1.70849|title=First Nations chief to perform rare shaming rite on legislature lawn today|date=9 February 2013|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=[[Victoria Times Colonist]]|author=Judith Lavoie}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[Image:Edward Curtis Image 002.jpg|thumb|upright|Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw canoe welcoming with masks and traditional dug out cedar canoes. On bow is dancer in Bear regalia.]]
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw are a highly stratified bilineal culture of the Pacific Northwest. They are many separate nations, each with its own history, culture and governance. The Nations commonly each had a head chief, who acted as the leader of the nation, with numerous hereditary clan or family chiefs below him. In some of the nations, there also existed ''Eagle Chiefs'', but this was a separate society within the main society and applied to the potlatching only.

The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw are one of the few bilineal cultures. Traditionally the rights of the family would be passed down through the paternal side, but in rare occasions, the rights could pass on the maternal side of their family also. Within the pre-colonization times, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw were organized into three classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw shared many cultural and political alliances with numerous neighbours in the area, including the [[Nuu-chah-nulth]], [[Heiltsuk]], [[Wuikinuxv]] and some [[Coast Salish]].

===Language===
The [[Kwakʼwala]] language is a part of the [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan language]] group. Word lists and some documentation of Kwakʼwala were created from the early period of contact with Europeans in the 18th century, but a systematic attempt to record the language did not occur before the work of [[Franz Boas]] in the late 19th and early 20th century. The use of Kwakʼwala declined significantly in the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly due to the [[Cultural assimilation|assimilationist]] policies of the Canadian government. Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw children were forced to attend [[Canadian Indian residential school system|residential schools]], which enforced English use and discouraged other languages. Although Kwakʼwala and Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw culture have been well-studied by linguists and anthropologists, these efforts did not reverse the trends leading to [[language death|language loss]]. According to Guy Buchholtzer, "The anthropological discourse had too often become a long monologue, in which the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw had nothing to say."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sfu.ca/sfunews/sfu_news/archives/sfunews07070512.shtml |title=SFU News Online – Native language centre planned – July 7, 2005<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=September 2, 2017 |archive-date=February 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202015913/https://www.sfu.ca/sfunews/sfu_news/archives/sfunews07070512.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

As a result of these pressures, there are relatively few Kwakʼwala speakers today. Most remaining speakers are past the age of child-rearing, which is considered a crucial stage for language transmission. As with many other Indigenous languages, there are significant barriers to [[language revitalization]].<ref>[http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/stabilize/conclusion.htm Stabilizing Indigenous Languages: Conclusion]</ref> Another barrier separating new learners from the native speaker is the presence of four separate orthographies; the young are taught Uʼmista or NAPA, while the older generations generally use Boaz, developed by the American anthropologist Franz Boas.

A number of revitalization efforts are underway. A 2005 proposal to build a Kwakwakaʼwakw First Nations Centre for Language Culture has gained wide support.<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/sfunews/sfu_news/archives/sfunews07070512.shtml "Native language centre planned" – July 7, 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202015913/https://www.sfu.ca/sfunews/sfu_news/archives/sfunews07070512.shtml |date=February 2, 2008 }}, SFU News Online</ref> A review of revitalization efforts in the 1990s showed that the potential to fully revitalize Kwakʼwala still remained, but serious hurdles also existed.<ref>{{Cite book | chapter= Chapter 4: Reversing Language Shift: Can Kwak'wala Be Revived? | author-last= Anonby| author-first= Stan J.  | pages= 33–52 | title=Revitalizing Indigenous Languages| url= http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/RIL_Contents.html | chapter-url= http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/%7Ejar/RIL_4.html|editor1-first= Jon |editor1-last= Reyhner |editor2-first= Gina |editor2-last= Cantoni |editor3-first= Robert N. |editor3-last= St. Clair |editor4-first= Evangeline Parsons |editor4-last= Yazzie  |publisher= Northern Arizona University| place= Flagstaff, AZ, USA | date=1999 | isbn= 0-9670554-0-7 | lccn= 99-70356 }}</ref>

===Arts===
[[File:Kwakwaka'wakw transformation mask.jpg|thumb|"Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw [[transformation mask]]".]]In the old times, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw believed that art symbolized a common underlying element shared by all species.<ref>Jonaitis, A. (1991) pp 67.</ref>

[[Kwakwakaʼwakw art]]s consist of a diverse range of crafts, including totems, masks, textiles, jewellery and carved objects, ranging in size from [[transformation mask]]s to {{convert|40|ft|abbr=on}} tall [[totem pole]]s. [[Cedrus|Cedar]] wood was the preferred medium for sculpting and carving projects as it was readily available in the native Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw regions. Totems were carved with bold cuts, a relative degree of realism, and an emphatic use of paints. Masks make up a large portion of Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw art, as masks are important in the portrayal of the characters central to Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw dance ceremonies.
Woven textiles included the [[Chilkat weaving|''Chilkat'' blanket]], dance aprons and button cloaks, each patterned with Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw designs. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw used a variety of objects for jewellery, including ivory, bone, [[abalone]] shell, copper, silver and more. Adornments were frequently found on the clothes of important persons.

===Music===
[[Kwakwakaʼwakw music]] is the ancient art of the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw peoples. The music is an ancient art form, stretching back thousands of years. The music is used primarily for ceremony and ritual, and is based on percussive instrumentation, especially [[Slit drum|log]], box, and hide drums, as well as rattles and whistles. The four-day ''Klasila'' festival is an important cultural display of song and dance and masks; it occurs just before the advent of the ''tsetseka'', or winter.

===Ceremonies and events===

====Potlatch====
[[Image:Edward S. Curtis, Kwakwaka'wakw potlatch, British Columbia.jpg|thumb|Showing of masks at Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw potlatch.|alt=]]
[[File:Speaker Figure, 19th century, 05.588.7418.jpg|thumbnail|upright|Speaker Figure, 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]], the figure represents a speaker at a potlatch. An orator standing behind the figure would have spoken through its mouth, announcing the names of arriving guests.|alt=]]
The [[potlatch]] culture of the Northwest is well known and widely studied. It is still practised among the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw, as is the lavish artwork for which they and their neighbours are so renowned. The phenomenon of the potlatch, and the vibrant societies and cultures associated with it, can be found in ''Chiefly Feasts: The Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch'', which details the incredible artwork and legendary material that go with the other aspects of the potlatch, and gives a glimpse into the high politics and great wealth and power of the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw chiefs.

When the Canadian government was focused on assimilation of First Nations, it made the potlatch a target of activities to be suppressed. Missionary William Duncan wrote in 1875 that the potlatch was "by far the most formidable of all obstacles in the way of Indians becoming Christians, or even civilized".<ref>Robin Fisher, ''Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890'', Vancouver, University of British Columbia Press, 1977, 207.</ref>

In 1885, the [[Indian Act]] was revised to include clauses [[Potlatch ban|banning the potlatch]] and making it illegal to practise. The official legislation read,

{{Blockquote|Every Indian or other person who engages in or assists in celebrating the Indian festival known as the "Potlatch" or the Indian dance known as the "Tamanawas" is guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not more than six nor less than two months in a jail or other place of confinement; and, any Indian or other person who encourages, either directly or indirectly an Indian or Indians to get up such a festival or dance, or to celebrate the same, or who shall assist in the celebration of same is guilty of a like offence, and shall be liable to the same punishment.}}

Oʼwax̱a̱laga̱lis, Chief of the [[Kwaguʼł]] "Fort Rupert Tribes", said to anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] on October 7, 1886, when he arrived to study their culture:

{{Blockquote|We want to know whether you have come to stop our dances and feasts, as the missionaries and agents who live among our neighbors {{sic}} try to do. We do not want to have anyone here who will interfere with our customs. We were told that a man-of-war would come if we should continue to do as our grandfathers and great-grandfathers have done. But we do not mind such words. Is this the white man's land? We are told it is the Queen's land, but no! It is mine.

Where was the Queen when our God gave this land to my grandfather and told him, "This will be thine"? My father owned the land and was a mighty Chief; now it is mine. And when your man-of-war comes, let him destroy our houses. Do you see yon trees? Do you see yon woods? We shall cut them down and build new houses and live as our fathers did.

We will dance when our laws command us to dance, and we will feast when our hearts desire to feast. Do we ask the white man, "Do as the Indian does"? It is a strict law that bids us dance. It is a strict law that bids us distribute our property among our friends and neighbors. It is a good law. Let the white man observe his law; we shall observe ours. And now, if you come to forbid us dance, be gone. If not, you will be welcome to us.}}
Eventually the Act was amended, expanded to prohibit guests from participating in the potlatch ceremony. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw were too numerous to police, and the government could not enforce the law. [[Duncan Campbell Scott]] convinced Parliament to change the offence from criminal to summary, which meant "the agents, as justice of the peace, could try a case, convict, and sentence".<ref>Aldona Jonaitis, ''Chiefly Feasts: the Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch'', Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1991, p.159.</ref>

Sustaining the customs and culture of their ancestors, in the 21st century the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw openly hold potlatches to commit to the revival of their ancestors' ways. The frequency of potlatches has increased as occur frequently and increasingly more over the years as families reclaim their birthright.

===Housing and shelter===
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw built their houses from cedar planks, which are highly water resistant. They were very large, anywhere from {{convert|50|to|100|ft|abbr=on}} long. The houses could hold about 50 people, usually families from the same clan. At the entrance, there was usually a totem pole carved with different animals, mythological figures and family crests.

===Clothing and regalia===
In summer, men wore no clothing except jewelry. In the winter, they usually rubbed fat on themselves to keep warm. In battle the men wore red cedar armor and helmets, and breech clouts made from cedar. During ceremonies they wore circles of cedar bark on their ankles as well as cedar [[Loincloth|breech clouts]]. The women wore skirts of softened cedar, and a cedar or wool blanket on top during the winter.

===Transportation===
[[File:Kwakwakaʼwakw_clams.jpg|thumb|A Kwakwakaʼwakw canoe]]
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw transportation was similar to that of other coastal people. Being an ocean and coastal people, they travelled mainly by canoe. Cedar [[dugout canoe]]s, each made from one log, would be carved for use by individuals, families and communities. Sizes varied from ocean-going canoes, for long sea-worthy travel in trade missions, to smaller local canoes for inter-village travel. Some boats had buffalo fur inside to keep protection from the cold winters.

== Notable Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

* [[Alfred Scow]] (1927–2013), first Aboriginal person to graduate from a BC law school, the first Aboriginal lawyer called to the BC bar and the first Aboriginal legally trained judge appointed to the BC Provincial Court
* [[Sonny Assu]] (b. 1975), interdisciplinary artist
* [[Joe Peters Jr.]], artist, woodcarver
* [[Beau Dick]], artist, woodcarver
* [[Gord Hill]], artist, author and Indigenous rights activist
* [[Calvin Hunt (artist)|Calvin Hunt]] (b. 1956), artist
* [[Henry Hunt (artist)|Henry Hunt]] (1923–1985), artist
* [[Richard Hunt (artist)|Richard Hunt]] (b. 1951), artist
* [[Tony Hunt Sr.]] (1942–2017), artist
* [[Charles Joseph (carver)|Charles Joseph]], carver from [[Maʼamtaglia-Tlowitsis]] tribe<ref>{{cite web |work=[[The Walrus]] |url=https://thewalrus.ca/the-story-behind-jordan-petersons-indigenous-identity/ |title=The Story Behind Jordan Peterson's Indigenous Identity|date=March 22, 2018 |access-date=August 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/downtown-totem-pole-honours-residential-school-survivors |work=Montreal Gazette |date=May 5, 2017 |access-date=August 5, 2018 |title=Totem pole in Montreal honours residential school survivors|first=Christopher |last=Curtis}}</ref>
* [[Mungo Martin]], woodcarver
* [[David Neel]], artist, writer
* [[Ellen Neel]], woodcarver
* [[Marianne Nicolson]] (b. 1969), artist, academic
* [[Spencer O'Brien]] (b. 1988), snowboarder
*  Joe Peters Jr. artist, woodcarver (b.1960–1994) 
* [[Quesalid]], [[medicine man]], writer
* [[Willie Seaweed]], woodcarver
* [[James Sewid]], writer
* [[Jody Wilson-Raybould]], politician
{{Div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Kwakiutl (statue)|''Kwakiutl'' (statue)]]
* ''[[In the Land of the Head Hunters]]''
* [[Sisiutl]]
* ''[[Dances of the Kwakiutl]]''
* ''[[I Heard the Owl Call My Name]]''

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* ''Chiefly Feasts: The Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch'' Aldona Jonaitis (Editor) U. Washington Press 1991'' (also a publication of the [[American Museum of Natural History]])
* ''Bancroft-Hunt, Norman. People of the Totem: The Indians of the Pacific Northwest'' University of Oklahoma Press, 1988
* ''Boas, Contributions to the Ethnology of the Kwakiutl, Columbia University Contributions to Anthropology'', vol. 3, New York: Columbia University Press, 1925.
* ''Fisher, Robin. Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia'', 1774–1890, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1977.
* ''Goldman, Irving. The Mouth of Heaven: an Introduction to Kwakiutl Religious Thought'', New York: Joh Wiley and Sons, 1975.
* ''[[Audrey Hawthorn|Hawthorn, Audrey]]. Kwakiutl Art.'' University of Washington Press. 1988. {{ISBN|0-88894-612-0}}.
* ''Jonaitis, Aldona. Chiefly Feasts: the Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch'', Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991.
* ''Masco, Joseph. "It is a Strict Law that Bids Us Dance"'': Cosmologies, Colonialism, Death, and Ritual Authority in the Kwakwakaʼwakw Potlatch, 1849 to 1922, San Diego: University of California.
* ''Reid, Martine and Daisy Sewid-Smith. Paddling to Where I Stand'', Vancouver: UBC Press, 2004.
* ''Spradley, James. Guests Never Leave Hungry, New Haven'': Yale University Press, 1969.
* ''Umista Cultural Society''. Creation myth of Kwakwakaʼwakw (December 1, 2007).
* ''Walens, Stanley "Review of the Mouth of Heaven by Irving Goldman,"'' American Anthropologist, 1981.
* ''Wilson, Duff. The Indian History of British Columbia'', 38–40; Sessional Papers, 1873–1880.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kwakwaka'wakw}}
* [http://www.umista.ca/ Uʼmista Cultural Society – Alert Bay]

{{Kwakwaka'wakw}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kwakwaka'wakw| ]]
[[Category:First Nations in British Columbia]]