View source for Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa

{{Short description|Ojibwa Native American tribe}}
{{coord|45|59|05|N|89|52|38|W|scale:250000|display=title}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
| native_name      = Waaswaaganing 
| native_name_lang = oji
| flag             = 
| flag_caption     = Flag of the Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
| total            = 3415
| total_year       = 2010
| total_ref        = <ref name="TOW">{{cite book |title=Tribes of Wisconsin |date=July 2022 |publisher=Wisconsin Department of Administration Division of Intergovernmental Relations |location=Madison |page=56 |url=https://doa.wi.gov/DIR/Tribes_of_Wisconsin.pdf |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref>
| popplace         = {{Flag|United States}} ({{Flag|Wisconsin}})
| langs            = [[English language|English]], [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]
| related          = other [[Ojibwe]] people
}}
[[File:1825R Lac du Flambeau Reservation Locator Map.svg|thumb|Location of Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation]]

The '''Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa''' (called '''''Waaswaaganing''''' in [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]) is a federally recognized [[Ojibwa]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribe. It had 3,415 enrolled members as of 2010.<ref name="TOW" /> The '''Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation''' lies mostly in the [[Lac du Flambeau (town), Wisconsin|Town of Lac du Flambeau]] in south-western [[Vilas County, Wisconsin|Vilas County]], and in the [[Sherman, Iron County, Wisconsin|Town of Sherman]] in south-eastern [[Iron County, Wisconsin|Iron County]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Wisconsin]]. It has a land area of {{convert|107.1|sqmi|km2|1}}<ref>{{cite web |title=2020 Gazetteer Files |url=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.2020.html |website=census.gov |publisher=US Census Bureau |access-date=13 July 2022}}</ref> and a [[2020 United States Census|2020 census]] resident population of 3,518.<ref name="2020-census-1825" /> Its major settlement is the unincorporated [[Lac du Flambeau (CDP), Wisconsin|Lac du Flambeau]], which had a population of 1,845.<ref>{{cite web |title=2020 Decennial Census: Lac du Flambeau CDP, WI |url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/all?g=1600000US5540675&y=2020&d=DEC%20Redistricting%20Data%20%28PL%2094-171%29 |website=data.census.gov |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref> 

Located at ''Waaswaagani-zaaga'igan'' (French: ''Lac du Flambeau''; English: ''Torch Lake''), the [[Indian reservation|reservation]] of the Lac du Flambeau Band was established under the [[Treaty of La Pointe|Treaty of 1854]]. The band had occupied this area since 1745, when it defeated the [[Sioux]] in the last battle between the peoples, driving them to the west. The Ojibwe had gradually migrated over centuries from the Atlantic coast.

With renewed self-government under a written constitution in the 20th century, the Lac du Flambeau Band have established enterprises to build on their natural resources.

==Tribal settlement==
[[File:Indian camp on Flambeau reservation, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.jpg|300px|thumb|Indian camp on Flambeau reservation]]
The ancestors of the Lac du Flambeau Band and other bands moved west from the Michigan area in the 17th century into the interior of Wisconsin west and south of Lake Superior. They were called the ''Waaswaaganininiwag'' (the "Torch Lake Men"). French fur traders named the band and lake for the Ojibwe practice of catching fish at night on the lake by torchlight.<ref name="GLITC">[http://www.glitc.org/web-content/pages/ldfblsc.html "Lac Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa"]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council, 2005, accessed 1 September 2012</ref>

According to the Lac du Flambeau Band, they settled permanently in the area in 1745, led by their Chief Keeshkemun. He helped them defeat the [[Sioux]] (Dakota) that year, who had long occupied this area. The last battle between them and these Chippewa took place on [[Strawberry Island (Lac du Flambeau)|Strawberry Island]] in the lake.<ref name="Davis">[http://www.lakelandtimes.com/print.asp?ArticleID=6600&SectionID=9&SubSectionID=9 Ana Davis, "Decade of deadlock on sacred Strawberry Island"], ''Lakeland Times'', 31 August 2007, accessed 1 September 2012</ref>

The larger competition for resources between the Dakota and the [[Lake Superior Chippewa]] had begun in 1737 and continued for nearly 100 years before the Chippewa pushed out the [[Sioux#Eastern Dakota|Dakota]] and the [[Meskwaki]] tribes from the Wisconsin interior.<ref>[http://www.marshfield.k12.wi.us/socsci/discovery/bokern/chapter8.htm James K. Bokern, "Chapter 2: The History of the Lac du Flambeau District Bands"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121225124145/http://www.marshfield.k12.wi.us/socsci/discovery/bokern/chapter8.htm |date=2012-12-25 }}, ''History and the Primary Canoe Routes of the Six Bands of Chippewa from the Lac Du Flambeau District'', Unpublished Masters Thesis, 1987, prepared under supervision at University of Wisconsin-Stevens, accessed 1 September 2012</ref> 

The ''Waaswaaganininiwag'' constituted the eastern group of the ''Biitan-akiing-enabijig'' (Border Sitters), a sub-Nation of the ''Gichigamiwininiwag'' (the Lake Superior Men, also known as [[Lake Superior Chippewa]]). Others members of the eastern ''Biitan-akiing-enabijig'' included bands located on Pelican Lake, Lac Vieux Desert, Turtle Portage, Trout Lake and Wisconsin River.

For centuries, the lake ''Waaswaagani-zaaga'igan'' served as the trade and transportation hub for Native Americans and later colonial traders, as it connected the waterways between [[Lake Superior]] (via the [[Montreal River (Wisconsin–Michigan)|Montreal River]]) and the [[Wisconsin River|Wisconsin]] and [[Flambeau River|Flambeau]] rivers. Traders used the lake and rivers to pass back and forth through their far-flung network. They also had to use the Flambeau Trail to portage from Lake Superior to the Lac du Flambeau District. The trail was 45 miles long, with 120 "pauses" created along the path to give portagers a break, an indication of the rough country.<ref>[http://www.marshfield.k12.wi.us/socsci/discovery/bokern/chapter8.htm Bokern, "Chapter 8: Chippewa Travel"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121225124145/http://www.marshfield.k12.wi.us/socsci/discovery/bokern/chapter8.htm |date=2012-12-25 }}, ''History of the Six Bands of Chippewa'', accessed 1 September 2012</ref>

As part of the [[Lake Superior Chippewa]] and signatories to the 1854 [[Treaty of La Pointe]], the bands at Pelican Lake, Turtle Portage, Trout Lake and Wisconsin River were consolidated into the Lac du Flambeau Band (''Waaswaaganing'' in Ojibwe). As signatories to the [[Treaty of St. Peters]] of 1837, and the Treaties of La Pointe of 1842 and 1854, members of the Lac du Flambeau Band enjoy the traditional hunting, fishing and gathering practices guaranteed in these treaties.

Like other tribes, the band had much of it land allotted to individual households under the [[Dawes Act]] of the early 20th century, intended to encourage assimilation to European-American style property holding and farming. This led to the loss of tribal ownership of some of the land within the reservation.<ref name="Davis" />

In 2025, a Catholic retreat center located on the shore of [[Trout Lake (Wisconsin)|Trout Lake]] was returned to the [[Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa]], in one of the first transfers of land from Catholic sisters to a tribal government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kutz |first=Jessica |date=2025-11-07 |title=For the first time, Catholic sisters return land to a Tribal nation |url=https://19thnews.org/2025/11/catholic-sisters-land-reparation-tribal-nation/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=The 19th |language=en-us}}</ref>

==Strawberry Island==
{{main article|Strawberry Island (Lac du Flambeau)}}
In the 20th century under the [[Dawes Act]], Strawberry Island was assigned to a tribal member as part of the allotment of tribal lands to individual households, a federal attempt to force [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. When he died, a non-Native family bought the island in 1910, using it for years for summer camping vacations. It has remained undeveloped since the 18th century.{{r|Davis}} 

The Lac du Flambeau Band consider Strawberry Island sacred, and call it "the place of the [[Little people (mythology)|little people]]" or spirits according to tribal tradition. They consider it the heart of their reservation. As the island was used by [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|indigenous]] cultures for more than 2,000 years, the tribe wants to keep it undeveloped for its historical, cultural and spiritual significance.<ref name="Davis"/> The band believes that warriors were buried there as the island was the last battle site between these Ojibwe and the Lakota Sioux in 1745. In 1966, an [[archaeological]] survey by a professor at [[Beloit College]] revealed that the island has human remains, and layers of artifacts dating to 200 BC.<ref name="Davis"/>

Listed in 1978 on the [[National Register of Historic Places]], it is described as "one of the most important [[archeological]] sites in northern Wisconsin" by Robert Birmingham, as state archeologist in 1995.<ref name="Davis"/> From the 1990s onward, the tribe tried to buy the island. As lakefront property is valuable, the family and tribe were unable to agree on a price for the {{convert|26|acre||adj=mid| island}}, which has {{convert|4700| feet}} of lakefront. The [[Trust for Public Land]] has assisted the tribe.<ref name="Davis"/>

The owners did not concede that the island may never be developed, although one development proposal was stopped in 1996 by a building permit challenge. The tribe owns all the land surrounding the island and controlled access to it. An appeals court in 2003 affirmed the denial of the building permit, with the judge ruling that, as the island was within the boundaries of the tribe's reservation, the band should determine its future. The case continued, as the tribe and owners sought mediation but were still unable to agree on a price.<ref name="Davis"/>

In 2008, Bonnie Mills-Rush, manager of the LLC that owns the island, assigned a lease and control to Bill Poupart, a member of the Lac du Flambeau Band. While at time the tribe did not own the land, Poupart was given authority to determine its use and agreed on its sacred nature.<ref name="Etten">[http://www.lakelandtimes.com/main.asp?SectionID=9&SubSectionID=9&ArticleID=7961 Douglas Etten, "Local descendant stakes claim to Strawberry Island"], ''Lakeland Times'', 13 June 2008, accessed 1 September 2012</ref>

On December 23, 2013, the tribe purchased the island from the Mills family for $250,000. The tribe held a "Strawberry Island Closing and Drum Ceremony" at the William Wildcat Sr. Community Center on December 30, 2013, in celebration of the acquisition. The deed was signed at the ceremony, bringing to an end years of uncertainty and contention surrounding the island.<ref>"[http://ldftribe.com/files/news/Inwewin-Feb-2014_198.pdf Strawberry Island Comes Home]". ''Our Voice'', vol. 1, no. 6, February 1, 2014.</ref>

==Government==
In the 20th century, the tribe re-established its own government under a written constitution. It elects a council and president. The council establishes membership rules for the tribe, and provides government services to the reservation. It has developed a number of businesses: LDF Industries (pallet manufacturing), Ojibwa Mall, campground, fish hatchery, gas station, and cigarettes and tobacco shop. Together with the resort described below, it is working to develop enterprises that preserve and build on the natural resources of the reservation.<ref name="GLITC"/>

The tribe established the Lake of the Torches Economic Development Corporation to develop and operate the Lake of the Torches resort and casino, intended to generate revenue and also provide employment to members of the tribe. When the casino did not yield expected profits, the tribe encountered repayment difficulties with the creditors it had engaged to help finance the casino. A dispute with the casino's creditors ensued, as they tried to take control of its assets by receivership, under the terms of the bond indenture.<ref name="Eidelman">{{cite journal |last1= Eidelman |first1=Michael |last2=Dunleavy |first2=Terence|last3=Hor-Chen |first3=Stephanie |url=http://www.natlawreview.com/article/troubled-domestic-sovereign-debt-what-every-commercial-professional-should-know |title=Troubled Domestic Sovereign Debt: What Every Commercial Professional Should Know |access-date=2011-09-11 |date=2010-04-28 |journal=The National Law Review}}</ref> When the case went to court, "the district court denied the motion to appoint a receiver and dismissed the lawsuit on the grounds that the trust indenture was a "management contract" under the [[Indian Gaming Regulatory Act|IGRA]] [Indian Gaming Regulatory Act] which lacked the required approval of the NIGC Chairman."<ref name="Eidelman"/> The creditors appealed the decision.

In ''Wells Fargo Bank, N.A. v. Lake of the Torches Economic Development Corporation'' (2011), the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit]] agreed that the bond indenture constituted a management contract and was invalid. It contained provisions that permitted lenders to influence the management of a tribal casino, for instance, preventing the tribe from changing operating officials without bondholder approval, and others that encroached on tribal authority, without having gained required approval of the indenture/contract by the [[National Indian Gaming Commission]]. The provisions together gave a "great deal of authority in an entity other than the tribe to control the Casino's operations," which was not in keeping with the law on Indian gaming.<ref name="Wry"/> The Seventh Circuit decision requested additional guidance from the [[United States Congress]] and /or the [[National Indian Gaming Commission]] regarding the "rules of the road" for tribal casino financing.<ref name="Wry">{{cite journal |last1= Wry| first1=Jonathan|last2=Mayr| first2=Kurt|last3=Lawton |first3=David |url=http://www.natlawreview.com/article/lake-torches-appellate-decision-management-contracts-are-still-burning-issue-tribal-gaming-f
|title=Lake of Torches Appellate Decision: "Management Contracts" Are Still a Burning Issue in Tribal Gaming Financings|access-date=2011-09-11 |date=2011-09-10 |journal=The National Law Review}}</ref>

== Lending business ==
In 2012, the Lac du Flambeau Band entered the lending business, and has subsequently set up at least 24 lending companies and websites under the corporate umbrella of LDF Holdings.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=O’Matz |first=Megan |last2=Jacobs |first2=Joel |date=2024-08-13 |title=A Wisconsin Tribe Built a Lending Empire Charging 600% Annual Rates to Borrowers |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/wisconsin-lac-du-flambeau-tribe-predatory-lending-lawsuit-sovereign-immunity |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907022942/https://www.propublica.org/article/wisconsin-lac-du-flambeau-tribe-predatory-lending-lawsuit-sovereign-immunity |archive-date=2024-09-07 |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=[[ProPublica]] |language=en}}</ref> As of 2024 LDF Holdings employed 170 people on or near the reservation, of whom 70% were enrolled tribal members, and profits from the tribe's lending business are distributed to the tribe's general fund.<ref name=":0" /> An annual gathering of lending staff, vendors, and prospective partners known as the Tribal Lending Summit is held each year on reservation land.<ref name=":0" />

A 2024 analysis by ''[[ProPublica]]'' found that approximately 4,800 [[Bankruptcy in the United States|bankruptcy]] cases per year, one percent of all bankruptcy cases in the United States, involved a company owned by the Lac du Flambeau Band, the highest frequency of any Native American tribe involved in the [[Payday loans in the United States|payday loan]] industry.<ref name=":0" /> Companies owned by the Lac du Flambeau Band have also accumulated more than 2,200 consumer complaints routed to the [[Federal Trade Commission]] since 2019, more than any other tribe.<ref name=":0" />

Since 2019, the Lac du Flambeau band has been subject to at least 40 civil lawsuits involving its lending practices, with most suits being quickly settled.<ref name=":0" /> In 2020, a federal [[Class action|class-action]] lawsuit was filed in [[Virginia]] against members of the Lac du Flambeau Band governing council, high-level employees of the Lac du Flambeau Band's lending companies, as well as nontribal business partners, with the plaintiffs alleging that the defendants conspired to violate state lending laws, following a 2021 federal appeals court ruling that found that [[Tribal Lending Enterprise|tribal lending]] constitutes off-reservation conduct to which state law applies.<ref name=":0" /> In 2024, a settlement was reached in the suit, calling for the cancellation of $1.4 billion in outstanding loans affecting approximately 980,000 people who were customers of the tribe's lending companies, with tribal officials and their associates agreeing to pay an additional $37.4 million in cash to the plaintiffs and their lawyers.<ref name=":0" />

==Reservation demographics==
As of the [[2020 United States census|census of 2020]],<ref name="2020-census-1825">{{cite web|title=2020 Decennial Census: Lac du Flambeau Reservation, WI |url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=2500000US1825&y=2020&d=DEC%20Redistricting%20Data%20%28PL%2094-171%29 |website=data.census.gov |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref> the population of the Lac du Flambeau Reservation was 3,518. The [[population density]] was {{convert|32.9|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 3,202 housing units at an average density of {{convert|29.9|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. 

The Lac du Flambeau Reservation has a significant non-native population due in part to the allotment and sale of reservation lands in the early twentieth century.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Entz |first1=Gary |title=History Of Allotment At Lac Du Flambeau |url=https://www.wxpr.org/news/2020-08-26/history-of-allotment-at-lac-du-flambeau |access-date=13 July 2022 |work=WXPR |date=26 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The racial makeup of the reservation in 2020 was 58.6% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 37.3% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.2% [[Black (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.3% from [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|other races]], and 3.5% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 2.7% [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.<ref name="2020-census-1825" />

According  to the [[American Community Survey]] estimates for 2016-2020, the median income for a household in the reservation was $41,095, and the median income for a family was $51,538. Male full-time workers had a median income of $42,155 versus $27,563 for female workers. The [[per capita income]] for the reservation was $26,048. About 16.9% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.5% of those under age 18 and 8.4% of those age 65 or over.<ref name="2020-EconChar-1825">{{cite web|title=Selected Economic Characteristics, 2020 American Community Survey: Lac du Flambeau Reservation, WI |url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=2500000US1825&y=2020&d=ACS%205-Year%20Estimates%20Data%20Profiles&tid=ACSDP5Y2020.DP03 |website=data.census.gov |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=4 November 2022}}</ref> Of the population age 25 and over, 89.8% were high school graduates or higher and 24.5% had a bachelor's degree or higher.<ref name="2020-SocChar-1825">{{cite web|title=Selected Social Characteristics, 2020 American Community Survey: Lac du Flambeau Reservation, WI |url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=2500000US1825&y=2020&d=ACS%205-Year%20Estimates%20Data%20Profiles&tid=ACSDP5Y2020.DP02 |website=data.census.gov |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=4 November 2022}}</ref>

== Notable members ==
* [[Ah-moose]] (d. 1866), chief 
* [[Thomas St. Germaine]] (1885–1947), American football player

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

*[https://www.census.gov Lac du Flambeau Reservation, Wisconsin] United States Census Bureau
*[http://www.natlawreview.com/article/troubled-domestic-sovereign-debt-what-every-commercial-professional-should-know Stephanie Hor-Chen, "Troubled Domestic Sovereign Debt: What Every Commercial Professional Should Know"], ''National Law Review''
*[http://www.natlawreview.com/article/lake-torches-appellate-decision-management-contracts-are-still-burning-issue-tribal-gaming-f Jonathan Wry, "Lake of Torches Appellate Decision: 'Management Contracts' Are Still a Burning Issue in Tribal Gaming Financings"], ''National Law Review''

==Further reading==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=SnS0dX8eK70C&pg=PA36 Loew, Patty, 2001. ''Indian Nations of Wisconsin: Histories of Endurance and Renewal''], Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society Press

==External links==
*[http://www.ldfTribe.com/ Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa], Official website
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040806112749/http://www.lacduflambeauchamber.com/index.html Lac du Flambeau Chamber of Commerce], town website
*[http://ldftribe.com/pages/29/Tribal-News/Inwewin-Newspaper.html Tribal newspaper]
*[http://www.glifwc.org/ Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission], representing eleven Ojibwe tribes with reserved hunting and fishing rights
*[https://archive.today/20121225124145/http://www.marshfield.k12.wi.us/socsci/discovery/bokern/chapter8.htm James K. Bokern, ''History and the Primary Canoe Routes of the Six Bands of Chippewa from the Lac Du Flambeau District''], Unpublished Masters Thesis, 1987, prepared under supervision at [[University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point]]
*[https://vimeo.com/145946701 Wiigwaasi-Jiimaan: These Canoes Carry Culture]—Short documentary featuring the building of an Anishinaabe-Ojibwe birchbark canoe in Wisconsin.
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/11/us/wisconsin-tribe-lac-du-flambeau-road-blockades.html With a Land Dispute Deadlocked, a Wisconsin Tribe Blockades Streets] - ''New York Times'' article about a property dispute between the [[Lac du Flambeau, Wisconsin|Town of Lac du Flambeau]] and the Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
* [https://www.propublica.org/article/wisconsin-lac-du-flambeau-tribe-predatory-lending-lawsuit-sovereign-immunity A Wisconsin Tribe Built a Lending Empire Charging 600% Annual Rates to Borrowers] at [[ProPublica]]

{{Lake Superior Chippewa}}
{{Native American Tribes in Wisconsin}}
{{Anishinaabe}}
{{Iron County, Wisconsin}}
{{Price County, Wisconsin}}
{{Vilas County, Wisconsin}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lac Du Flambeau Band Of Lake Superior Chippewa}}
[[Category:Ojibwe in the United States]]
[[Category:Ojibwe governments]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Native American history of Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Populated places in Iron County, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Populated places in Vilas County, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Populated places in Price County, Wisconsin]]