View source for Lan Na

{{Short description|Indianized state centered in present-day northern Thailand (13th–18th centuries)}}
{{About|the Thai kingdom||Lanna (disambiguation)}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2011}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{native name|nod|ᩋᩣᨱᩣᨧᩢᨠ᩠ᨠ᩼ᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ}}<br>{{native name|th|อาณาจักรล้านนา}}
| conventional_long_name = Lan Na Kingdom
| common_name            = Lan Na
| era                    = [[Post-classical era]], [[early modern era]]
| currency               = [[Shell money|Cowrie shells]]{{sfn|Wicks|1992|pp=168–170}}
| status                 = [[Tributary state|Tributary]] of [[Toungoo dynasty|Burma]] (1558–1775)
| event_start            = Foundation of [[Chiang Mai]]
| date_start             = 1296
| event_end              = [[Siamese conquest of Lan Na (1774–1775)|Conquered by Thonburi]]
| date_end               = 15 January 1775
| life_span              = 1296–1775
| event1                 = Annexation of [[Phayao Kingdom|Phayao]]
| date_event1            = 1338
| event2                 = [[Ayutthaya–Lan Na War (1441–1474)|Ayutthaya-Lan Na&nbsp;War]]
| date_event2            = 1441–1474
| event3                 = Burmese rule
| date_event3            = 1558–1775
| p1                     = Ngoenyang
| p2                     = Phayao Kingdom{{!}}Phayao
| p3                     = Principality of Chaliang{{!}}Chaliang
| s1                     = Kingdom of Chiang Mai
| flag_s1                = 
| image_s1               = [[File:Seal of Chiang Mai (1802–1899).png|20px]]
| flag_s2                = Flag of Thailand (Ayutthaya period).svg
| s2                     = Thonburi Kingdom
| image_s3               = [[File:SealofLampangDynasty.jpg|20px]]
| s3                     = Lampang province{{!}}Principality of Lampang
| s4                     = Nan province{{!}}Principality of Nan
| s5                     = Lamphun province{{!}}Principality of Lamphun
| s6                     = Phrae province{{!}}Principality of Phrae
| image_coat             = Seal of Lanna Kingdom.png
| image_map              = Southeast Asian history - Around 1540.png
| image_map_caption      = Lan Na and its neighbours, {{c.|1400}}
| capital                = [[Chiang Mai]]
| official_languages     = {{ubli|[[Northern Thai language|Northern Thai]] (1296–1579)|[[Burmese language|Burmese]]<br>(1579–1775)}}
| languages              = Northern Thai, [[Shan language|Shan]], [[Thai language|Central Thai]]
| languages_type         = Spoken languages
| languages_sub          = yes
| religion               = [[Theravada Buddhism]]
| government_type        = [[Mandala (political model)|Mandala kingdom]]
| leader1                = [[Mangrai]]
| year_leader1           = 1296–1311 (first)
| leader2                = [[Tilokaraj|Tilokkarat]]
| year_leader2           = 1441–1487
| leader3                = [[Mekuti]]
| year_leader3           = 1551–1564
| leader4                = [[Nawrahta Minsaw]]
| year_leader4           = 1579–1607/08
| leader5                = [[Po Mayu-nguan]]
| year_leader5           = 1768–1775 (last)
| title_leader           = [[List of rulers of Lan Na|Monarch]]
| today                  = {{ubl|{{THA}}|{{MYA}}|{{LAO}}|{{CHN}}}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Lanna}}
The '''Lan Na kingdom''' or the '''Kingdom of Lanna''' ({{langx|nod|ᩋᩣᨱᩣᨧᩢᨠ᩠ᨠ᩼ᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ}}, {{IPA|nod|ʔāː.nāː.tɕǎk láːn nāː|pron}}, "Kingdom of a Million Rice Fields"; {{langx|th|อาณาจักรล้านนา}}, {{RTGS|''Anachak Lan Na''}}, {{IPA|th|ʔāː.nāː.tɕàk láːn nāː|pron}}), also known as '''Lannathai''', was an [[Greater India#Indianization|Indianized state]] centered in present-day [[Northern Thailand]] from the 13th to the 18th centuries.

The cultural development of the [[Northern Thai people]] had begun long before as successive kingdoms preceded Lan Na. As a continuation of the kingdom of [[Ngoenyang]], Lan Na emerged strong enough in the 15th century to rival the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]], with whom wars were fought. However, the Lan Na Kingdom was weakened and became a [[vassal state]] of the [[Toungoo dynasty]] in 1558. Lan Na was ruled by successive vassal kings, though some enjoyed autonomy. The Burmese rule gradually withdrew but then resumed as the new [[Konbaung dynasty]] expanded its influence. In 1775, Lan Na chiefs left the Burmese control to join Siam, leading to the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1775–76)]].

Following the retreat of the Burmese force, Burmese control over Lan Na came to the end. Siam, under King [[Taksin]] of the [[Thonburi Kingdom]], gained control of Lan Na in 1776. From then on, Lan Na became a [[vassal state]] of Siam under the succeeding [[Chakri dynasty]].

Throughout the latter half of the 1800s, the Siamese state dismantled Lan Na independence, absorbing it into the emerging Siamese nation-state.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roy|first=Edward Van|title=Siamese Melting Pot: Ethnic Minorities in the Making of Bangkok|date=2017-06-29|publisher=ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute|isbn=978-981-4762-83-0|language=en}}</ref> Beginning in 1874, the Siamese state reorganized Lan Na Kingdom as [[Monthon]] Phayap, brought under the direct control of Siam.<ref>{{Cite book|last=London|first=Bruce|title=Metropolis and Nation In Thailand: The Political Economy of Uneven Development|date=2019-03-13|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-72788-7|language=en}}</ref> The Lan Na Kingdom effectively became centrally administered from through the Siamese ''thesaphiban'' governance system instituted in 1899.<ref>{{Citation |last=Peleggi |first=Maurizio|date=2016-01-11 |pages=1–11 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781118455074 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe195 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |chapter=Thai Kingdom}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Thailand's political history : from the 13th century to recent times |last=Terwiel |first=B. J. |date=2011 |publisher=River Books |isbn=978-9749863961 |oclc=761367976}}</ref> By 1909, Lan Na Kingdom no longer existed formally as an independent state, as Siam finalized the demarcation of its borders with the British and French.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strate |first=Shane |title=The lost territories : Thailand's history of national humiliation |isbn=9780824869717 |oclc=986596797 |year=2016 |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press}}</ref>

==Names==
The Lan Na kingdom is known by a number of exonyms in neighboring languages. In [[Burmese chronicles]] and sources, it is called '''Zinme Pyi''' ({{langx|my|ဇင်းမယ်ပြည်}}, {{IPA|my|zɪ́ɰ̃mɛ̀ pjì|pron}}), ''Zinme'' being a [[Burmese language]] transcription of [[Chiang Mai]]; or '''Yun Pyi''' ({{lang|my|ယွန်းပြည်}}, {{IPA|my|jʊ́ɰ̃ pjì|}}), ''Yun'' being the Burmese term for the [[Northern Thai people]]. In the [[Laotian language]], it is known as '''Anachak Lan Na''' ({{langx|lo|ອານາຈັກລ້ານນາ}}).

The [[Pali]] chronicles refer to the kingdom as '''Yonaraṭṭha''' (Kingdom of the Yun) or '''Bingaraṭṭha''' (Kingdom of the Mae Ping). In the Chinese ''History of the Yuan'', it is called '''Babai Xifu''' (Pa-pai-si-fu) ({{Lang-zh|c=八百媳妇|p=Bābǎi Xífù}}), first attested in 1292.<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George |author-link=George Coedès |editor=Walter F. Vella |translator=Susan Brown Cowing |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>

==History==

===Early establishment===
{{further|Shan States}}
[[Mangrai]], the 25th king of [[Ngoenyang]] (modern [[Chiang Saen]]) of the Lavachakkaraj dynasty, whose mother was a princess of a kingdom in [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture|Sipsongpanna]] ("the twelve nations"), centralized the [[mueang]]s of Ngoenyang into a unified kingdom or [[Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)|mandala]] and allied with the neighboring [[Phayao Kingdom]]. In 1262, Mangrai moved the capital from Ngoenyang to the newly founded [[Chiang Rai (city)|Chiang Rai]] — naming the city after himself. Mangrai then expanded to the south and subjugated the [[Mon people|Mon]] kingdom of [[Hariphunchai]] (centered on modern [[Lamphun]]) in 1281. Mangrai moved the capital several times. Leaving Lamphun due to heavy flooding, he drifted until settling at and building [[Wiang Kum Kam]] in 1286/7, staying there until 1292 at which time he relocated to what would become Chiang Mai. He founded [[Chiang Mai]] in 1296, expanding it to become the capital of Lan Na. Claimed territories of Mangrai's Lan Na include the modern northern Thai provinces (with exception of [[Phrae Province|Phrae]], which was under the vassalhood of [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]], and [[Phayao Kingdom|Phayao]] and [[Nan Province|Nan]]), [[Kengtung]], [[Mong Nai]], and [[Chiang Hung]] (now [[Jinghong]] in [[Yunnan]]). He also reduced to [[vassal state|vassaldom]] and received [[tribute]] from areas of modern Northern Vietnam, principally in the [[Black River (Asia)|Black]] and [[Red River (Asia)|Red river]] valleys, and most of Northern Laos, plus the [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture|Sipsongpanna]] of [[Yunnan]] where his mother originated.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

===Disunity and prosperity===
[[File:Phra That Doi Suthep 01.jpg|left|thumb|Central Chedi at [[Wat Doi Suthep]], [[Chiang Mai]]]]

Around 1311, Mangrai died and was succeeded by his second son Grama, or [[Chaiyasongkhram]] (Khun Hham). He soon retired to Chiangrai and appointed his son [[Saenphu]] as the [[Uparaja]] ([[Viceroy]]) of Chiangmai. Mangrai's youngest son, ruler of [[Mong Nai]] returned to claim the throne, occupying [[Haripunjaya]]. Saenphu and his brother Nam Thuem fled to their father in Chiangrai. Nam Tuam succeeded in driving out their uncle, restoring Saenphu onto the throne in 1322 or 1324. Saenphu founded the city of [[Chiang Saen]] in 1325 or 1328, before he died in 1334. His son [[Khamfu]] replaced him but reigned only few years, before he was succeeded by his son [[Phayu]], who restored the capital to Chiang Mai again. There he fortified the city and built [[Wat Phra Singh]].<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|226–227}}

[[Theravada]] Buddhism prospered in Lan Na during the reign of religious Kue Na who established the [[Stupa|dhatu]] of [[Doi Suthep]] in 1386. Kue Na promoted the [[Lanka]]wongse sect and invited monks from Sukhothai to replace the existing Mon Theravada that Lan Na inherited from Haripunchai.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

Lan Na enjoyed peace under [[Saenmuengma]] (which means ten thousand cities arrive — to pay tribute). The only disturbing event was the failed rebellion by his uncle Prince Maha Prommatat. Maha Prommatat requested aid from Ayutthaya. [[Borommaracha I]] of Ayutthaya sent his troops to invade Lan Na but was repelled. This was the first armed conflict between the two kingdoms. Lan Na faced invasions from the newly established [[Ming Dynasty]] in the reign of [[Samfangkaen]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

===Expansions under Tilokaraj===
[[File:Location Lanna (under King Tilok).png|left|thumb|Map of Lan Na during the reign of King Tilokaraj ({{abbreviation|r.|reigned}} 1441–1487)]]
{{main|Ayutthaya-Lan Na War}}

The Lan Na kingdom was strongest under [[Tilokaraj]] (1441–1487). Tilokaraj seized the throne from his father Sam Fang Kaen in 1441. Tilokaraj's brother, Thau Choi, rebelled to reclaim the throne for his father and sought Ayutthayan support. [[Borommaracha II]] sent his troops to Lan Na in 1442 but was repelled and the rebellion was suppressed. Tilokaraj conquered the neighboring Kingdom of Payao in 1456.

To the south, the emerging Kingdom of Ayutthaya was also growing powerful. Relations between the two kingdoms had worsened since the Ayutthayan support of Thau Choi's rebellion. In 1451, [[Yutthitthira]], a Sukhothai royal who had conflicts with [[Trailokanat]] of Ayutthaya, gave himself to Tilokaraj. Yuttitthira urged Trilokanat to invade [[Pitsanulok]] which he had claims on, igniting the [[Ayutthaya-Lan Na War]] over the Upper Chao Phraya valley (i.e. the Kingdom of Sukhothai). In 1460, the governor of Chaliang surrendered to Tilokaraj. Trailokanat then used a new strategy and concentrated on the wars with Lan Na by moving the capital to Pitsanulok. Lan Na suffered setbacks and Tilokaraj eventually sued for peace in 1475.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

Tilokaraj was also a strong patron of Theravada Buddhism. In 1477, the [[Buddhist Council]] to recompile the [[Tripitaka]] was held near Chiang Mai. Tilokaraj also built and rehabilitated many notable temples. Tilokaraj then expanded west to the Shan States of [[Laihka State|Laihka]], [[Hsipaw State|Hsipaw]], [[Mongnai State|Mong Nai]], and [[Yawnghwe]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

===Decline===
After Tilokaraj, Lan Na was then subjected to old-style princely struggles that prevented the kingdom from defending itself against powerful growing neighbors. The Shans then broke themselves free of Lan Na control that Tilokaraj had established. The last strong ruler was King [[Kaew of Lan Na|Kaew]] who was the great-grandson of Tilokaraj. In 1507, Kaew invaded Ayutthaya but was repelled — only to be invaded in turn in 1513 by [[Ramathibodi II]] and [[Lampang]] was [[Looting|sacked]]. In 1523, a dynastic struggle occurred in [[Kengtung State]]. One faction sought Lan Na support while another faction went for [[Hsipaw]]. Kaew then sent Lan Na armies to re-exert control there but was readily defeated by Hsipaw armies. The loss was so tremendous that Lan Na never regained such dominance.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

In 1538, King [[Ket of Lan Na|Ket]], son of Kaew, was overthrown by his own son Thao [[Saikham]]. However, Saikham was murdered by the nobility after reigning for five years,<ref>'''ตำนานพระธาตุหริภุญชัย''', หน้า 31</ref> Ket was restored in 1543 but suffered mental illness and was assassinated in 1545. Ket's wife, [[Chiraprapha]], then succeeded her husband as the [[queen regnant]]. As Lan Na was plundered by the dynastic struggles, both Ayutthaya and the Burmese saw this as an opportunity to overwhelm Lan Na. [[Chairachathirat|Chairacha]] of Ayutthaya invaded Lan Na in 1545, but Chiraprapha negotiated for peace. Chairacha returned next year, sacking Lampang and Lamphun, and threatened Chiangmai itself. So, Chiraprapha was forced to put her kingdom under Ayutthaya as a tributary state.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

Facing pressures from the invaders, Chiraprapha decided to abdicate in 1546 and the nobility gave the throne to her grandson, Prince [[Setthathirath|Xaysettha]] of [[Lan Xang]]. Chaiyasettha moved to Lan Na and thus Lan Na was ruled by a Laotian king. In 1547, Prince Xaysettha returned to Lan Xang to claim the throne and ascended as [[Setthathirath]]. Setthathirath also brought the [[Emerald Buddha]] from Chiangmai to Luang Prabang (the one that would be later taken to [[Bangkok]] by [[Rama I|Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke]]). The nobles then chose [[Mekuti]], the Shan [[saopha]] of [[Mong Nai]] whose family was related to Mangrai, to be the new king of Lan Na. It was said that, as a Shan king, Mekuti violated several Lan Na norms and beliefs.{{sfn|Forbes|Henley|2012a|loc=King Mae Ku (Mekuti): From Lan Na Monarch to Burmese Nat }}

===Burmese rule===
The kingdom then came to conflict over Shan states with the expansionist Burmese king [[Bayinnaung]]. Bayinnaung's forces invaded Lan Na from the north, and Mekuti surrendered on 2 April 1558.{{sfn|Wyatt|2003|p=80}} Encouraged by Setthathirath, Mekuti revolted during the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1563–64)]]. But the king was captured by Burmese forces in November 1564, and sent to the-then Burmese capital of [[Pegu]]. Bayinnaung then made [[Wisutthithewi]], a Lan Na royal, the queen regnant of Lan Na. After her death, Bayinnaung appointed one of his sons [[Nawrahta Minsaw]] (Noratra Minsosi), viceroy of Lan Na in January 1579.<ref name=hy-3-48>Hmannan, Vol. 3, p. 48</ref>{{sfn|Forbes|Henley|2012a|loc=Queen Hsinbyushinme}} Burma allowed a substantial degree of autonomy for Lan Na but strictly controlled the [[corvée]] and taxation.

After Bayinnaung, his massive empire quickly unraveled. Siam [[Burmese–Siamese War (1584–93)|successfully revolted (1584–93)]], after which all the vassals of Pegu went their own way by 1596–1597. Lan Na's Nawrahta Minsaw declared independence in 1596. In 1602, Nawrahta Minsaw became a vassal of King [[Naresuan]] of Siam.{{clarification needed|reason=In "A History of Ayutthaya", Baker and Phongpaichit gives 1599 as the year when Lan Na swore fealty to Ayutthaya|date=January 2022}} However, Siam's control was short-lived. The actual suzerainty effectively ended with Naresuan's death in 1605. By 1614, Siam's control over Lan Na was at most nominal. When the Burmese returned, the ruler of Lan Na, [[Thado Kyaw]] (Phra Choi), sought and received help from Lan Xang, not his nominal overlord Siam, which did not send any help.<ref name=hy-3-175-181>Hmannan, Vol. 3, pp. 175–181</ref> After 1614, vassal kings of Burmese descent ruled Lan Na for over one hundred years. Siam did try to take over Lan Na in [[Burmese–Siamese War (1662–1664)|1662–1664]] but failed.

By the 1720s, the Toungoo dynasty was on its last legs. In 1727, Chiang Mai revolted because of high taxation. The resistance forces drove back the Burmese army in 1727–1728 and 1731–1732, after which Chiang Mai and Ping valley became independent.<ref name=hy-3-363>Hmannan, Vol. 3, p. 363</ref> Chiang Mai became a vassal again in 1757 to the new [[Konbaung dynasty|Burmese dynasty]]. It revolted again in 1761 with Siamese encouragement but the rebellion was suppressed by January 1763. In the 1765, the Burmese used Lan Na as a launching pad to invade the Laotian states, and Siam itself.

===End of Burmese rule===
{{further|Siamese conquest of Lan Na (1775)}}
In the early 1770s, Burma was at the peak of its military power since Bayinnaung, having defeated [[Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67)|Siam (1765–67)]] and [[Sino-Burmese War (1765–69)|China (1765–69)]], the Burmese army commanders and governors became "drunk with victory". This arrogant repressive behavior by the local Burmese government caused a rebellion in Lan Na.<ref name=mha-183-185>Htin Aung, pp. 183–185</ref> The new Burmese governor at Chiang Mai, Thado Mindin, was disrespectful to local chiefs and the people, and became extremely unpopular. One of the local chiefs, [[Kawila]] of Lampang revolted with Siamese help, and [[Siamese conquest of Lan Na (1775)|captured the city on 15 January 1775]], ending the 200-year Burmese rule.{{sfn|Ratchasomphan|Wyatt|1994|p=85}} Kawila was installed as the prince of Lampang and Phraya Chaban as the prince of Chiang Mai, both as vassals of Siam.

Burma tried to regain Lan Na in [[Burmese–Siamese War (1775–76)|1775–76]], [[Burmese-Siamese War (1785–86)|1785–86]], [[Burmese-Siamese War (1797)|1797]] but failed each time. In the 1790s, Kawila consolidated his hold of Lan Na, taking over [[Chiang Saen District|Chiang Saen]]. He then tried to take over Burma's Shan state of [[Kengtung]] and [[Sipsongpanna]] (1803–1808) but failed.

Nonetheless, the [[Kingdom of Chiang Mai]], as a vassal state of Siam, had come into existence. Under Siamese suzerainty, Lan Na kingdom was divided into five smaller principalities, namely the [[Kingdom of Chiangmai|Chiang Mai]], [[Nan, Thailand|Nan]], [[Lampang]], [[Lamphun]], and [[Phrae]]. Lan Na ceased to be an entity on its own after it was incorporated into modern Kingdom of Siam.

Chiang Mai, under Burma's rule, lasted more than 200 years, but there were some periods that switched to Ayutthaya rule. The reign of King [[Narai]] the Great, and there were some independent periods, but was dominated and ruled by the Lao King called [[Ong Kham]] from the Kingdom of [[Luang Prabang]] for more than 30 years.

== Lan Na language ==
{{further|Northern Thai language|Tai Tham alphabet}}
'''Kham Mueang''' or ''Phasa Mueang'' ({{langx|th|ภาษาเมือง}}) is the modern spoken form of the old Lan Na language. ''Kham Mueang'' means "language of the principalities" (''Kham'', language or word; ''[[Mueang#Etymology|mueang]]'', town, principality, kingdom) as opposed to the languages of many [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribe peoples]] in the surrounding mountainous areas. The language may be written in the old Lan Na script, which somewhat resembles that of the Thai, but differs significantly in spelling rules. Due to the influence of the latter, it also differs significantly from the modern pronunciation of Kham Mueang.{{sfn|Burutphakdee|2004|p=7}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Andrew |chapter=The Peoples of Chiang Mai |editor1=Penth, Hans |editor2=Forbes, Andrew |title=A Brief History of Lan Na |publisher=Chiang Mai City Arts and Cultural Centre |location=Chiang Mai |year=2004 |pages=221–256}}</ref>

==Historical writings on Lan Na==
* The Chiang Mai chronicles — Probably started in the late 15th century and enlarged with every copying of the palm leaves manuscript. Current version is from 1828, English translation available as {{ISBN|974-7100-62-2}}.
*[[Jinakalamali|Jinakālamāli]] — composed by Ratanapañña (16th century) an account of the early rise of Buddhism in Thailand and details on many historical events.
* Zinme Yazawin — Burmese chronicle of Zinme (Chiang Mai).{{sfn|Forbes|Henley|2012c|loc=The Zinme Yazawin}}

==See also==
*[[List of rulers of Lan Na]]
*[[Family tree of Lanna dynasties|Family tree of Lan Na monarchs]]
*[[Kingdom of Chiang Mai]]
*[[Lanna language|Lan Na language]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite thesis |first=Natnapang |last=Burutphakdee |others=Asst. Prof. Dr. Kirk R. Person, adviser |title=Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang |trans-title=Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script |url=http://ic.payap.ac.th/graduate/linguistics/theses/Natnapang_Thesis.pdf |access-date=2013-06-08 |type=M.A. Thesis |series=4th National Symposium on Graduate Research, Chiang Mai, Thailand, August 10–11, 2004 |date=October 2004 |publisher=[[Payap University]] |location=Chiang Mai |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505040726/http://ic.payap.ac.th/graduate/linguistics/theses/Natnapang_Thesis.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-05 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David |title=Khon Muang: People and Principalities of North Thailand |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Teak House |year=1997 |isbn=1-876437-03-0 |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David |title=Ancient Chiang Mai |volume=1 |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Cognoscenti Books |year=2012a |asin=B006HRMYD6 |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David |title=Ancient Chiang Mai |volume=3 |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Cognoscenti Books |year=2012b |asin=B006IN1RNW |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David |title=Ancient Chiang Mai |volume=4 |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Cognoscenti Books |year=2012c |asin=B006J541LE |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book |author-link1=Michael Freeman (photographer) |first1=Michael |last1=Freeman <!--seems right to me- DadaNeem, 3 January 2017--> |first2=Donald |last2=Stadtner |first3=Claude |last3=Jacques |title=Lan Na, Thailand's Northern Kingdom |isbn=974-8225-27-5 |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book |first=George |last=Cœdès |author-link=George Cœdès |title=The Indianized States of South-East Asia |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=iDyJBFTdiwoC}} |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* {{cite book |first=Garry |last=Harbottle-Johnson |title=Wieng Kum Kam, Atlantis of Lan Na |year=2002 |publisher=Heroes & History Library |isbn=974-85439-8-6}}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Hans |editor1-last=Penth |editor2-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Forbes |year=2004 |title=A Brief History of Lan Na |publisher=Chiang Mai City Arts and Cultural Centre |location=Chiang Mai |isbn=974-7551-32-2 |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book | last1=Ratchasomphan | first1=Sænluang |first2=David K. |last2=Wyatt |title=The Nan Chronicle |editor=David K. Wyatt |publisher=Cornell University SEAP Publications |location=Ithaca |year=1994 |edition=illustrated |isbn=978-0-87727-715-6 |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book |title=[[Hmannan Yazawin]] |volume=1–3 |orig-year=1829 |location=Yangon |language=my |year=2003 |publisher=[[Ministry of Information, Myanmar]] |author=Royal Historical Commission of Burma}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wicks |first=Robert S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs1q9VEoEkoC |title=Money, Markets, and Trade in Early Southeast Asia: The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems to AD 1400 |date=1992 |publisher=SEAP Publications |isbn=978-0-87727-710-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |first1=David K. |last1=Wyatt |author-link1=David K. Wyatt |first2=Aroonrut |last2=Wichienkeeo |title=The Chiang Mai Chronicle |publisher=Silkworm Books |edition=2nd |isbn=974-7100-62-2 |year=1998 |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite book | last=Wyatt | first=David K. | title=Thailand: A Short History | edition=2nd | year=2003 | publisher=Yale University Press | isbn= 978-0-300-08475-7}}

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[[Category:16th century in Thailand]]
[[Category:17th century in Thailand]]
[[Category:18th century in Siam]]
[[Category:1292 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1775 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1292]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1775]]
[[Category:13th-century establishments in Thailand]]
[[Category:1770s disestablishments in Thailand]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia]]