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{{Short description|Form of direct democracy in Switzerland}}
[[File:Landsgemeinde Glarus, 2009.jpg|thumb|right|300px|alt=Landsgemeinde Glarus 2009|''Landsgemeinde'' in [[Glarus]], 2009]]
{{Politics of Switzerland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2015}}
The '''''Landsgemeinde''''' ("cantonal assembly"; {{IPA|de|ˈlantsɡəˌmaɪndə|lang}}, plural '''''Landsgemeinden''''') is a public, non-secret ballot voting system operating by [[majority rule]]. Still in use – in a few places – at the [[Subdivisions of Switzerland|subnational]] political level in Switzerland, it was formerly practiced in eight [[cantons of Switzerland|cantons]]. For practical reasons {{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}, the ''Landsgemeinde'' has been abolished at the cantonal level in all but two cantons where it still holds the highest political authority: [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] and [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]]. The ''Landsgemeinde'' is also convened in some [[Districts of Switzerland|districts]] of [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]], [[Grisons]] and [[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]] to vote on local questions.

The German term ''Landsgemeinde'' itself is attested from at least the 16th century, in the 1561 dictionary of [[Josua Maaler|Pictorius]].
It is a compound from ''[[:wikt:Land|Land]]'' "land, canton; rural canton" and ''[[:wikt:Gemeinde|Gemeinde]]'' "community, commune".

Eligible citizens of the [[Cantons of Switzerland|canton]] or [[Districts of Switzerland|district]] meet on a certain day in the open air to decide on specific issues. Voting is accomplished by raising one's hand in favor of a motion. Historically, the only proof of citizenship necessary for men to enter the voting area was to show their ceremonial sword or Swiss military sidearm (bayonet); this gave proof that they were a freeman allowed to [[bear arms]] and to vote. While voting cards have been introduced, in [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell]] presenting a sidearm is still a valid alternative to the voting card for men.

The ''Landsgemeinde'' has been the sovereign institution of the Swiss rural cantons since the late Middle Ages, while in the city-cantons such as [[Lucerne]], [[Schaffhausen]], or [[Bern]], a general assembly of all citizens was never established.

Similar assemblies in dependent territories were known under terms such as ''Talgemeinde'' (for ''[[Talschaft]]en'', used in [[Ursern]], [[Oberhasli|Hasli]], [[Obersimmental]]), ''[[Thing (assembly)|Teding]]'' ([[Engelberg]]), ''Parlamento'' ([[Leventina]]), and ''Zendgemeinden'' (for the ''Zenden'' or districts of [[Valais]]), but also as ''Landsgemeinde'' in [[Toggenburg]] and in parts of [[Grisons]].<ref>{{HDS|10239|author=Stadler, Hans|date=18 January 2021}}</ref>

==Definition==

===Structure===

At the ''Landsgemeinde'', citizens of a district or canton assemble annually in a public space under open sky to vote on a series of [[ballot question]]s. Depending on the canton, they raise their hand or voter identification card to either accept or reject the motion, which constitutes a ''non-secret ballot''. 
Decision is taken by [[majority rule]], and in case of incertitude, the [[Landammann]] estimates on which side the majority falls with the help of his colleagues from the communal council.

The duration of the ''Landsgemeinde'' varies significantly between the two cantons that still convene it. In [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]], because of the high level of deliberation and possibility for citizens to propose an amendment of an existing law article or the introduction of a new one, the ''Landsgemeinde'' lasts between 2 and 4.5 hours on average. In [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] on the other hand, deliberation is limited, thus the ''Landsgemeinden'' usually end after 1 to 2.5 hours.<ref name="tagblatt.ch">Ueber die Macht des kleinen Buergers. Tagblatt, 28 April 2013. http://www.tagblatt.ch/ostschweiz-am-sonntag/ostschweiz/art304158,3385183</ref>

===Subject of the votes===

Symptomatic of the [[Federalism|federalist]] system of Switzerland,<ref>The Federal Council, portal of the Swiss government. (2012)
''Swiss Federalism'' {{cite web |url=https://www.admin.ch/gov/en/start/federal-council/political-system-of-switzerland/swiss-federalism.html |title=How Swiss federalism works |accessdate=2016-06-24 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714130916/https://www.admin.ch/gov/en/start/federal-council/political-system-of-switzerland/swiss-federalism.html |archivedate=14 July 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> the ''Landsgemeinde'' differs in the scope of its usage from canton to canton. The legislative power is concerned both in [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] and [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]], where the ''Landsgemeinde'' can be used to implement laws or modify the cantonal constitution. In [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]], the ''Landsgemeinde'' can also cover governmental issues,<ref>[http://www.ai.ch/de/politik/sitzung Landsgemeinde in Appenzell Inner Rhodes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195949/http://www.ai.ch/de/politik/sitzung/ |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> while in [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]] tax laws are regulated by ''Landsgemeinde'' decision and alternative legislative counterproposals ('constructive referendums') can be formulated by the citizens and voted on this occasion.<ref>[http://www.landsgemeinde.gl.ch Glarus Landsgemeinde]</ref> In neither of the two cantons is the ''Landsgemeinde'' used to elect the parliament.<ref name=Schaub309>Schaub (2012), p. 309.</ref>

==History==

===Origin===

[[File:Welti Landsgemeinde3 1912.jpg|thumb|300px|''Die Landsgemeinde'', fresco in the [[Federal Palace of Switzerland]]  by [[Albert Welti]] and Wilhelm Balmer]]
The ''Landsgemeinde'' assembly is a tradition with continuity back to the later Middle Ages, first recorded in the context of the [[formation of the Old Swiss Confederacy]]. The tradition ultimately continues the [[Thing (assembly)|Germanic ''thing'']], although not uninterruptedly, as the [[Alamanni]] had lost their independence to the [[Frankish Empire]] in the 8th century but re-emerging in territories with [[imperial immediacy]] since the 13th century.

The first ''Landsgemeinde'' proper is attested for [[Canton of Uri|Uri]] in 1231; however, these early assemblies grew seamlessly out of the older institution of [[blood court]]s (assemblies with the purpose of dispensing judgement on criminal offenses, see [[high justice]]).
The [[Middle Latin]] texts when recording a ''Landsgemeinde'' usually express this by making ''universitas'' "the universality", or ''communitas hominum'' "the community of men" of a certain canton the subject of a sentence (see, for example, the [[Federal Charter of 1291]]), in order to emphasize that the decision was made by the community ([[direct democracy]]) rather than by a political elite.

In the [[Old Swiss Confederacy]], the existence of a ''Landsgemeinde'' was the defining feature of the rural cantons (''Länderorte'', as opposed to the city-cantons).
These Cantons were: [[Canton of Uri|Uri]], [[Schwyz]], [[Unterwalden]] (the [[forest-cantons]]), [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]] and [[Appenzell]] and [[Zug]].
Zug took an intermediate position, as it was a city-canton which due to the existence of a ''Landsgemeinde'' was also counted under the rural cantons.

With the formation of [[Switzerland as a federal state]], the formerly sovereign cantonal assemblies became subject to federal law, and the ''Landsgemeinden'' came to be seen as anachronisms.

===Evolution and current situation===
{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width=300
| image1 = Landsgemeinde Trogen 1814.jpg
| image2 = ETH-BIB Com LC1265-001-006.jpg
| footer = The 1814 and 1978 ''Landsgemeinden'' in [[Trogen, Switzerland|Trogen]], [[Appenzell Ausserrhoden]]
}}
[[File:Landsgemeinde Altdorf 1927.webm|thumb|left|Silent movie of the Landsgemeinde in [[Altdorf, Uri|Altdorf]], Uri in 1927]]

The usage of the ''Landsgemeinde'' was progressively abandoned at the cantonal level through the 19th and 20th century. [[Zug]] and [[Schwyz]] jettisoned it in 1848, followed by [[Canton of Uri|Uri]] in 1928.

[[Nidwalden]] in 1996, [[Appenzell Ausserrhoden]] in 1997 and [[Obwalden]] in 1998 abolished their cantonal ''Landsgemeinde'' by [[secret ballot]] votes.

Currently, [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]], which rejected in 1991 by ''Landsgemeinde'' the abolition of this institution, and [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]] are the only remaining cantons to use this form of direct democracy. Beside the 1991 vote of [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]], the usage of the ''Landsgemeinde'' has since then never been questioned in these two cantons, which suggests that citizens are attached to their institution. Moreover, turnout rates remained constant in the last 50 years both in [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] and in [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]]. In the latter canton a participation record of 50% was even recorded in 2001.<ref name=Schaub309/>

Glarus recently introduced measures to encourage participation at the ''Landsgemeinde''. In 2007, participation was extended to citizens aged 16 and older, which constitutes an exception in Switzerland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.landsgemeinde.gl.ch/node/87 |title=Übersicht {{!}} Glarner Landsgemeinde |website=www.landsgemeinde.gl.ch |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110621071839/http://www.landsgemeinde.gl.ch/node/87 |archive-date=2011-06-21}} </ref> Likewise, each year on the day of the ''Landsgemeinde'', participants can use all public transportation in the canton for free.

In [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] and [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]], the modernization of the institution, for example through the potential introduction of electronic vote-counting systems is debated, but no political party is opposed to the maintenance of the ''Landsgemeinden''.<ref name="tagblatt.ch"/>

Besides the cantonal assemblies, the Swiss Confederation is supporting various projects inspired by the ''Landsgemeinden'' and built on the same ideas. For instance, the 4th ''Cyber-Landsgemeinde'' was organised on April 6, 2016 in [[Bern]], with the aim to use [[deliberative democracy|democratic deliberation]] to foster reflections and find solutions related to the topic of cyber-security.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vtg.admin.ch/internet/vtg/de/home/dokumentation/news/newsdetail.61251.nsb.html |title=Vierte «Cyber-Landsgemeinde» des Sicherheitsverbundes Schweiz |accessdate=2016-04-10 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420132415/http://www.vtg.admin.ch/internet/vtg/de/home/dokumentation/news/newsdetail.61251.nsb.html |archivedate=20 April 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Likewise, the urban municipality of [[Kloten]] implemented in 2012 a version of the ''Landsgemeinde'' to deliberate on the allocation of funds to local projects, which enabled for example the construction of a new Kindergarten.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.landsgemeinde-kloten.ch/archiv/landsgemeinde-2012|title=2012 - Landsgemeinde Kloten}}</ref>

==Related political paradigms and criticisms==

===Direct democracy===

The ''Landsgemeinde'' forms one of the pillars of the direct democratic core of the Swiss political structure. Even if its use has sharply decreased in the past century, it is still considered as a characteristic institution of the Swiss democracy and is generally considered as a [[Participatory Democracy|participative]] and [[Inclusive Democracy|inclusive]] democratic practice. However, while participation is according to the ''cantonal constitutions'' not only encouraged but also required as part of the [[Citizenship|civic duty]] of the concerned individuals, it is unclear if the ''Landsgemeinde'' offers better inclusivity and fosters a higher level of participation than the more traditional secret-ballot voting methods.<ref>Schaub (2012), pp. 322-323.</ref> Paul Lucardie (2014) notes for example that:

"Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies in Appenzell and Glarus, as well as most town meetings in Vermont and possibly also in ancient Athens, has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry."<ref>Lucardie, Paul.(2014) ''Democratic Extremism in Theory and Practice: All Power to the People'', p. 56</ref>

Moreover, the inclusion of women was until recently one of the main concerns for the inclusivity of the ''Landsgemeinde''. Up to 1991, women were not allowed in the ''Landsgemeinde'' in the [[canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden]], which was the last canton of Switzerland to grant women the right to vote, making it an exceptionally late introduction of [[women's suffrage]] for a European country.<ref>Geschichte-schweiz.ch (2004) ''Switzerland's Long Way to Women's Right to Vote'' http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html</ref>

Concerning the not accurate voting count, there is a tradition at the Landsgemeinde Glarus, that the Landammann will declare any unclear result as a vote against the governement's proposal.<ref>[https://www.lebendige-traditionen.ch/dam/tradition/de/dokumente/tradition/gl/glarner_landsgemeinde.pdf.download.pdf/glarner_landsgemeinde.pdf Glarner Landsgemeinde] explained on lebendige-traditionen.ch</ref>

===Ochlocracy===
There have been suggestions placing the ''Landsgemeinde'' system in the vicinity of "[[ochlocracy]]" or "[[tyranny of the majority]]".{{clarify|date=June 2017}}{{who|date=June 2017}} Blum and Köhler (2006) suggested there might only be a "limited level of preliminary debate" possible leading to a failure to consider minority opinions.<ref>Blum, R., Köhler, B. (2006). ''Partizipation und Deliberation in der Versammlungsdemokratie. Schweizer Landsgemeinden mit Kommunikationsdefiziten?'' In K. Imhof, R. Blum, H.Bonfadelli, & O. Jarren (ed.), Demokratie in der Mediengesellschaft (pp. 285–303).</ref>

The open ballot system ostensibly fails to assure [[secret ballot|the secrecy of the vote]]. Switzerland has explicitly introduced an exception to article 25 of its International Pact on Civil and Political Rights in order to protect the ''Landsgemeinde'', avoiding complying with the letter of article 21.3 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] protecting the secrecy of the vote.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/19660262/index.html|title = Fedlex}}</ref> Switzerland has never ratified the first convention protocol of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] for a similar reason.<ref>Hangartner, Yvo, Kley, Andreas. (2000) ''Die demokratischen Rechte in Bund und Kantonen der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft''. Schulthess Verlag.</ref>

Under such conditions, [[social control]] and other [[crowd manipulation]] processes might then prevent citizens from voting according to their own preferences and mislead rational decisions. On the other hand, according to the ancient Greek tradition of [[parrhesia]], literally "saying everything", a public assembly could teach individuals to express their opinions with frankness and collective responsibility.<ref>Saxonhouse, Arlene W. (2000) ''The Practice of Parrhêsia.'' Free Speech and Democracy in Ancient Athens. 85-90.</ref>

Studies of outcomes of the ''Landsgemeinde'' in various administrative divisions (Schaub 2012, Gerber & Mueller 2014{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}) seem to suggest that proper preliminary deliberation can help reach better decisions defined by the "unforced force of the better argument" (Habermas, 1992).<ref>Habermas, Jürgen. (1992) ''Deliberative Politics: A Procedural Concept of Democracy''. 306</ref>{{clarify|date=June 2017}}<!--explain who is citing Habermas? One of the studies mentioned? -->

==See also==
* [[Voting in Switzerland]]
* [[Direct democracy]]
* [[Inclusive Democracy]]
* [[Participatory democracy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Marabello, Thomas Quinn (February 2023). "The Origins of Democracy in Switzerland," ''Swiss American Historical Society Review'', Vol. 59: No. 1. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol59/iss1/4
* T. Favre-Bulle. (2015) The Urban Diffusion of Local Direct Democracy between Switzerland and the United States.
* H. Ryffel. (1903) Die schweizerische Landsgemeinde nach geltendem Rechte.
* W.-A. Liebeskind. (1971) L. et suffrage féminin, pp.&nbsp;371–375.
* S. Duroy. (1987) «Les "Landsgemeinden suisses"», in Les procédés de la démocratie semi-directe dans l'administration locale en Suisse, pp. 1-94.
*Schaub, Hans-Peter. (2012) ''Maximising Direct Democracy – by Popular Assemblies or by Ballot Votes?'' Swiss Political Science Association.
* H.R. Stauffacher. (1989) Herrschaft und Landsgemeinde.
* P. Blickle. (1990) «Friede und Verfassung, Voraussetzungen und Folgen der Eidgenossenschaft von 1291», in Innerschweiz und frühe Eidgenossenschaft 1, pp.&nbsp;15–202.
* U. Kälin. (1991) Die Urner Magistratenfamilien.
* L. Carlen. (1996) «Die Landsgemeinde», in Die Ursprünge der schweizerischen direkten Demokratie, ed. A. Auer, pp.&nbsp;15–25 (with Bibl.).
* F. Brändle. (2005) Demokratie und Charisma.
* B. Adler. (2006) Die Entstehung der direkten Demokratie.
* B. Wickli. (2006) Politische Kultur und die "reine Demokratie".

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[[Category:Politics of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Historical legislatures]]
[[Category:Direct democracy]]
[[Category:Popular assemblies]]